CSC 200 Lecture Notes 2

Department of Computer Science –University of Abuja Lecture series
notes
CSC200- INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Lecture 1
History of Computers
Description:
Now that computer is ubiquitous, being present in every aspect of our daily life, its basic
meaning has not changed, except for the fact that different applications may ascribe
different meanings to it. In this lecture, definition of computer, simple computer model,
brief description of computer components, types of computers will be presented.
Objectives:
Students will learn:
1. definition of a computer
2. simple computer model
3. various components of a computer (basic computer architecture)
4. meaning of computer processing unit (CPU), memory, secondary storage
5. types of computers: analog, digital and hybrid.
6. classification of computers (based on size and performance)
What is a computer?
The word “computer” was used long before the modern definition to mean “a person that
computes.” This definition of computer was upheld until the 20th century when
computer was associated with “a programmable electronic device that can store,
retrieve, and process data” as defined in the Webster’s Dictionary. Therefore, a computer
has come to be synonymous with a device that “computes.” With the ability to perform
a multitude of tasks, a computer is regarded as a general (or multi) purpose machine.
Computing here includes mathematical computing as well as logical-based tasks.
As the modern definition suggests, a computer must be capable of retrieving,

processing, and storing data or information.
To perform a task, we must identify data/information associated with task and provide
clear guidelines, i.e., proper set of instructions for the task to be solved on the computer.
This set of steps or instructions written in simple understandable language is called an
algorithm. More specifically, an algorithm is a sequence of instructions needed to
perform a task.
For example, let say a real estate agent Edegbe wants to compute, using a calculator,
the monthly average price of houses sold in Abuja to enable her provide pricing advice
for a potential seller or buyer. Suppose in the month of January, 1000 houses were sold.
It would be impossible for Edegbe to enter all 1000 house prices at once to the
1
notes
calculator. Although, cumbersome, she may want to start by entering the first house
price, add the second house price after pressing the addition (+) button, then the third
house price and so on. When all 1000 house prices have been entered, she would divide
by 1000 using the division (÷) button. The steps of serially adding the house prices and
dividing the total by number of houses sold constitute a process (or an algorithm).
The computer accepts data and instructions, executes the instructions on the data to
produce results or perform actions as an output. The set of data and instructions
provided by the user is called input and the result obtained after the computer has
processed the input is output. Typically, the process can be repeated using the same
instructions but different data. This is only possible if these instructions are converted
into machine readable format called program and stored in a computer (this is also
called stored-program concept). As indicated in the figure below, the computer must
remember the data in order to execute program.
(Figure adopted from http://gujarat-education.gov.in/)
Simple Computer Model
A simple model of a typical computer is shown in the figure below. The input unit
provides a mechanism for a computer to accept data and instructions from the users.
Typical input devices are mouse and keyboard. The input data and instructions are
stored in the memory of the computer before that they are processed in the processing
unit (also called processor). Results are presented to the user via a mechanism called
output unit. Typical output devices are monitor and printer. The input unit, processor and
output unit constitute the basic components of a computer.
Input unit provides a means of entering data and instructions to the computer. Other
input devices in addition to keyboard and mouse mentioned earlier, are joysticks,
touchscreens, pen devices, character recognition, voice recognition, barcode readers,
universal serial bus (USB) drives, hard disks (HDs) and compact disks (CDs). These
devices take data and instructions in a variety of forms and send to computer memory.
For example, the keyboard accepts alphanumeric characters and passes them to stored
program that processes them into machine understandable codes (such as ASCII codes,
ASCII is acronym for American Standard Code for Information Interchange). A mouse
controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical environment called
graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse converts hand movements (backward and
forward, left and right) into electronic signals that are used to move the pointer. With
these movements graphical objects are selected and sent to stored program that
processes them into machine understandable formats.
2
notes
(Figure adopted from http://gujarat-education.gov.in)
Computer memory unit stores data and instructions obtained from the input unit as well
as processed results for future use. Computer memory retains data and instructions for
a short duration or for a long time. A computer memory that is capable of retaining
information for a very short duration, either while work is still in progress or power
supply is ensured is called volatile memory. This forms the primary storage of a
computer, hence it is called primary memory or simply memory. It is also called main
memory or temporary memory. The content in the main memory changes depending on
the instructions being processed by the computer and the latest content remain in the
memory until the power supply is switched off. When the computer is switched off or
reset, the content in the memory is lost. To preserve content for a long time, a secondary
or auxiliary storage is used. Unlike the primary memory, the secondary storage memory
is non-volatile, slow, less expensive, and has the capacity to store large data. Examples
for secondary storage devices are hard disks, USB flash drives, compact discs (CDs),
and digital volatile/video discs (DVDs). Aside from the primary memory, faster memory
module, also called cache memory is used as a bridge between primary memory and the
processing unit.
The processing unit, also called computer processing unit (CPU) is regarded as the brain
of the computer. The CPU accepts data and instructions from the primary memory,
executes instructions and produces results which are either preserved in the primary
memory or stored in the secondary storage memory for future use. The unit that
executes instructions that involve arithmetic and logical calculations is called the
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and all other instructions involving the control
operations of computer components are executed by the Control Unit (CU). The ALU and
CU together form the CPU.
Output unit is a mechanism for displaying results of the processed data from the
processing unit. The most commonly used output device is the monitor. A monitor as a
display screen used for visual representation of results. Other output devices are
speakers and headphones for sound-oriented results and printers for hard copy
presentation of results. Results can also be stored in a secondary storage memory
device for future use.
Characteristics of a Computer
The characteristics of a computer as described here are based on efficiency, meaning

the ability of the computer to perform a given task in an efficient manner. These
3
notes
characteristics are automation, accuracy, speed, storage capacity, versatility, diligence,

multitasking, and communications.
Automation: A computer has the ability to perform given tasks automatically after the
initial setup without any human intervention.
Speed: speed is one of the main characteristics of a computer. Computer provide very
high speed accompanied by an equally high level for reliability. Thus, computers never
make mistakes of their own accord. A computer can perform billions of calculations in a
second.
Accuracy: Computers can perform operations and process data faster with accuracy.
Results can be wrong only if incorrect data is fed to the computer or a bug may be the
cause of an error. (Garbage In Garbage Out – GIGO).
Storage: Storage capacity is another characteristic of a computer. A computer can store

large amount of data. This data can be used at any time and also from any location.
Versatility: Computer is a versatile machine. They are used in various fields and for
variety of activities and tasks. They are used in Schools & Colleges, at hospitals, at
government organizations and at home for entertainment & work purposes.
Communications: Computers have the ability to communicate using some sort of

connection (either Wired or Wireless connection). Two computers can be connected to
share data and information and collaboratively complete assigned tasks.
Multitasking: Computers can perform several tasks simultaneously in time.
Diligence: The computer is a machine that does not suffer from the human traits of
tiredness. Nor does it lose concentration even after working continuously for a long time.
Based on the characteristics described above, the following are the advantages of a
computer.
1. Computers makes it possible to receive, supply and process large volumes of

data at very high speed.
2. Computer reduces the cost of all data related operations including, input, output,
storage, processing, and transmission.
3. Computer ensures consistent and error free processing of data.
4. Digitization of all kinds of information including sounds and images, combined
with massive information processing capabilities of the computer has resulted in
development of application to produce physical products of very high quality at
great speed and very economically.
5. Computers have enabled development of many real time applications requiring
speedy continuous monitoring.
Disadvantages of computers include:
4
notes
1. Computer is highly dependent on the quality of input data fed to it.

2. The task of programming a computer for a computer application is very costly
and time consuming.
3. Computer systems are rather rigid. Once a computers system is designed and
programmed, making even minor corrections or improvements can be quite
costly and time consuming.
4. Computers require use of sophisticated equipment and support facilities.
Components of a Computer
So far, we have described a simple computer model consisting of input, processing and
output units, primary and secondary memory. We indicated that data and instructions
are entered via the input unit to the memory for processing by the CPU and the results
are displayed or entered into the output unit. This description is simply an abstraction,
which is a conceptual framework for all computers. To actualize or bring this abstract
model to reality, a computer must need software (logical aspect) and hardware (physical
aspect). Software and hardware form the two components of a computer.
Software: This is the intangible part of a computer. It consists of programs and

operating information (data and documentation) used to direct the operation of a
computer, without which the computer would have no use. Software is often divided into
two categories. Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that
enable the computer to function. Applications software includes programs that do real
work for users.
Hardware: This is the tangible or physical part of a computer. The devices that make up
the various units in the simple computer model form the hardware. The hardware of a
computer is comprehensive term used to describe physical parts of a computer,
including, the processor, motherboard or system board, keyboard, mouse, monitor and
other peripheral devices.
Firmware: This is a software that are integrated into the hardware. Firmware is a type of
software that provides control, monitoring and data manipulation of engineered
products and systems. Typical examples of devices containing firmware are embedded
systems (such as traffic lights, consumer appliances, and digital watches), computers,
computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras. The firmware contained in
these devices provides the low-level control program for the device.
Types of Computers
There are three different types of computers according to the principles of operation,
namely, analog, digital and hybrid computers.
Analog Computers
Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of values. The
results given by the analog computers will only be approximate since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously. It generally deals with physical variables such as
voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc.
5
notes
Digital Computers
A digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers. It uses binary number
system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. Each one is called a bit.
The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels for an
input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. Digital
Computers can give more accurate and faster results.
Digital computer is well suited for solving complex problems in engineering and
technology. Hence digital computers have an increasing use in the field of design,
research and data processing.
Digital computers can be further classified as,
 General Purpose Computers

 Special Purpose Computers
Special purpose computer is one that is built for a specific application. General purpose
computers are used for any type of applications. They can store different programs and
do the jobs as per the instructions specified on those programs. Most of the computers
that we see today, are general purpose computers.
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer combines the desirable features of analog and digital computers. It is
mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and machines.
Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming
the data into suitable form for either type of computation.
For example, in hospital’s ICU, analog devices might measure the patient temperature,
blood pressure and other vital signs. These measurements which are in analog might
then be converted into numbers and supplied to digital components in the system.
These components are used to monitor the patient’s vital sign and send signals if any
abnormal readings are detected. Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks.
Classification of digital computers based size and performance
There are four different types of computers when we classify them based on their
performance and capacity, namely, supercomputers, mainframe computers,
minicomputers and microcomputers, see figure below.
6
notes
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are known for high processing capacity and are generally the most
expensive. These computers can process billions of instructions per second. Normally,
they will be used for applications which require intensive numerical computations such
as stock analysis, weather forecasting etc. Other uses of supercomputers are scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Mainframe Computers
These are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, bulk
data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource
planning and transaction processing.Mainframe computers can also process data at
very high speeds, i.e., hundreds of million instructions per second and they are also quite
expensive. Normally, they are used in banking, airlines and railways and many other
scientific applications.
Minicomputers
Minicomputers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage

capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Some of the features
of mainframes will not be available in mini computers. Hence, their performance also
will be less than that of mainframes.
Micro Computers
The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper
microcomputers. They are further classified into
 Desktop Computers
 Laptop Computers
 Handheld Computers(PDAs)
7
notes
Desktop Computers
Today the Desktop computers are the most popular computer systems. These desktop
computers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. They are usually easier
to use and more affordable. They are normally intended for individual users for their
word processing and other small application requirements.
Laptop Computers
Laptop computers are portable computers. They are lightweight computers with a thin
screen. They are also called as notebook computers because of their small size. They
can operate on batteries and hence are very popular with travelers. The screen folds
down onto the keyboard when not in use.
Handheld Computers
Handheld computers or Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are pen-based and also
battery-powered. They are small and can be carried anywhere. They use a pen like stylus
and accept handwritten input directly on the screen. They are not as powerful as
desktops or laptops but they are used for scheduling appointments, storing addresses
and playing games. They have touch screens which we use with a finger or a stylus.
References
1. Classification of computers:
http://www.computerbasicsguide.com/basics/types.html
2. Figures and Simple Computer Model: http://www.gujarat-education.gov.in/
3. Types of Computers: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware
4. Types of Computers: http://www.computerbasicsguide.com/basics/types.html
5. Advantages of Computers: http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-
advantage-computer-126225
Practice Questions
1. What is the modern definition of a computer?

2. Define the following
a. an algorithm
b. an input
c. an output
d. a process
3. Use a diagram to describe the relationship among input, output and process.
4. Draw a simple computer model and describe the various components of a
computer.
5. What are differences between main memory and secondary storage memory?
6. List some examples of input and output devices
7. List some examples of secondary storage memory devices
8. Describe the CPU, ALU and CU.
9. Explain the various types of computers.
10. State and describe 4 characteristics of a computer
8
notes
11. State and describe all four classes of digital computers

12. Describe 3 advantages of a computer
13. What are the differences between desktop and laptop computers
14. Give 4 applications of a computer and describe each of them.
9
notes
Lecture 2
Data and Information
Description:
Data, information and knowledge are very integral to computers. An understanding of

data and information is imperative to understanding computers and therefore, in this
lecture, data, information and knowledge will be presented.
Objectives:
Students will learn

1. definition of data and information
2. distinguish between data and information and knowledge
3. types of data: texts, audio and video
4. Data representation: decimal, binary and hexadecimal
5. Conversion between various data representations
Definition of Data, Information and Knowledge
Data and information have different meaning to different people and disciplines. Attempt
will be made to distinguish data and information in the context of computing. What is
the meaning of data as it relates to computer? Is it possible to differentiate data from
information in the computing community? Data drives computers and information in the
result one obtains from the computers after the data has been processed. Now, it is
tempting to say that data and information are synonymous. That would as well be true.
Perhaps, definitions ascribed to data, information and knowledge in the existing
literature will elucidate their differences
(http://searchdatamanagement.techtarget.com/). However, it must be stressed that
these differences are subtle and clearly subjective.
Data is an unprocessed facts and figures, which at a glance do not have any meaningful
interpretation or analysis. For example, the grade Adamu received from CSC 200 is B.
Another example will be the price (N500 million) of a particular real estate property in
Maitama neighborhood in Abuja or the age (68 years) of Yusuf Maitama.
Information represent data that have been processed, interpreted in order that it has
meaning for the consumer. For example, the grade that Adamu receive in CSC 200
represents “very good.” Similarly, one might say that the real estate property in
Maitama neighborhood is “average” and the age of Yusuf Maitama makes him a “senior
citizen.”
Knowledge combines information, experience and insight that may be beneficial to the
individual or organization. Using the examples above, the fact that Adamu scored a “B”
in CSC 200 means that he is likely to successfully complete CSC 300 with a grade of “C”
or higher; the price of the real estate property makes it likely to be resalable and the age
of Yusuf Maitama makes him a candidate for senior citizen benefits available in Nigeria
(give examples of such benefits).
10
notes
Data becomes information when it is applied to some purpose in order to add value for
the consumer. Consider a real estate agent assigned to sale a real estate property in
Maitama neighborhood with no clear information about the price. She would have to
consider the prices of homes in the neighborhood to determine property sale price,
perhaps using the average home price in Maitama area. She may also consider recently
sold homes in the area.
How does information become knowledge? The distinction between information and
knowledge is not clear, sometimes, dicey. It may help to think of knowledge as being:
1. formal, explicit or generally available in order to develop policies and operative
guidelines
2. instinctive, subconscious, tacit or hidden within organization by certain
individuals in the organization
As indicated earlier, computers are driven by data, meaning that data play a very
significant role in computing.
Data come in different forms. The most common forms are numbers, texts, pictures,
audio and video. Numbers are usually in decimal, texts are in characters, pictures, audio,
and videos are in bits (jpeg, jpg, mv, flv, wav, mpeg, etc).While these forms are only for
human consumption, the computer understands only numbers, in particular discrete
numbers, such as binary (base 2) or hexadecimal (base 16). Octal (base 8) numbers are
also used. More importantly, data in numbers (in particular decimals), texts, audios and
videos are represented in computers as discrete (finite).
A discrete data is one that can be categorized into classification, meaning that a
discrete data is countable, i.e., finite. A data that is not discrete is regarded as
continuous, meaning that it can be displayed on a number line with all points on the line
having different values.
A decimal number contains digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,and 9.
A decimal number can either be an integer or a floating point number. Another term for
floating point number is a real number.
An integer number is a whole number without fractional part (i.e. decimal or radix point).
Examples: 104, 3568, -348, 234, -667
A floating-point number is a number with a floating point (or decimal point). A floating-
point number is an integer with decimal point (radix point) or a real number with
fractional part, i.e., digits to the right of the decimal point.
Examples: 89.1, 67.001, 251.0, 5.456e-3, 0.0005, 4.75675e7
The examples 5.456e-3, 4.75675e7 are in scientific notation. The general form is
11
notes
mantissa * base ^exponent. Where e is used to represent base 10. The symbol ^ stands
for exponentiation. The mantissa has the form d1.d2d3d4d5.... d1 is greater than 0 and
less than base and d2, d3, d4, etc., are greater than or equal to 0 and less than base.
For the examples, the letter e represents base 10. However, it is possible to have other
bases, such as binary, octal and hexadecimal.
1.0101*2^101 is binary number in scientific notation. Note that exponent is also binary.
A binary number is one whose digits are either 0 or 1. An octal number has digits that
are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,and 7. Hexadecimal number has digits that are 0 to 15. There is a
dilemma here, how to represent digits 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15. These digits are
represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F. In computing, the prefix 0x is used to represent a
hexadecimal number.
0x10A is 1*16^2 + 0*16^1 + 10*16^0 = 266 (base 10)
0xFF is15*16^1 + 15*16^0 = 255 (base 10)
10010 (base 2) = 1*2^4 + 0*2^3 + 0*2^2 + 1*2^1 + 0*2^0 = 18 (base 10)
237 (base 8) = 2*8^2 + 3*8^1 + 7*8^0 = 159 (base 10)
From these 4 examples, the conversion from any base n to decimal is straightforward
with the most significant digit to the leftmost of the number and the least significant to
the rightmost of the number. These numbers have the largest and smallest exponents,
respectively.
Examples:
The most significant digit in 0.000678 is 0 and the least significant digit is 8 (exponents
at -1 and -6, respectively).
The most significant digit in 9748.05 is 9 and the least is 5 (exponents are 3 and -2
respectively).
One can write them in scientific notation, thus,
0.000678 = 6.78e-4
9748.05 = 9.74805e3
Conversion of binary, octal or hexadecimal number to decimal
We will use synthetic multiplication to convert to decimal
Consider the binary, octal or hexadecimal number in the general form
dk…d3d2d1d0 (base b)
Where it is assumed that the number has k+1 digits: d1, d2, d3… dk. As discussed above,
12
notes
the equivalent of this in base 10 is
d0*b^0 + d1*b^1 + d2*b^2 + d3*b^3 + … + dk*b^k = N
This can be computed using the sequence formula:
ck = dk
ck-1 = dk-1+ ck*b
ck-2 = dk-2 + ck-1*b
…
…
…
c2 = d2 + c3*b
c1 = d1 + c2*b
c0 = d0 + c1*b = N
Examples
1. Convert 100101 (base 2) to decimal.

d5 d4 d3 d2 d1 d0
1 0 0 1 0 1
c5 = d5 = 1
c4 = d4 +c5*2 = 0 + 1*2 = 2
c3 = d3 + c3*2 = 0+ 2*2 = 4
c2 = d2 + c3*2 = 1 + 4*2 = 9
c1 = d1 + c2*2 = 0+9*2 = 18
c0 = d0 + c1*2 = 1+ 18*2 = 37 (base 10)
Alternatively
1+ 0+ 0+ 1+ 0+ 1+
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 4 9 18 37 (base
10)
Where the arrow signifies multiplication. Multiply the two numbers and add the
number above to obtain the number below it. Without loss of generality, we will
omit the arrows in subsequent examples.
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 7 15 30 60 120 241 482
(base
10)

1 2 7
8 8
1 10 87 (base 10)
13
notes
One can convert rational numbers (numbers involving fractions) the same way except
that we use 1/b for multiplication instead of b and carry the operations from right to left
instead of from left to right for digits to the right of the radix point (dot). Note that digits
to the right and left of the radix point (dot) are done separately.
Examples
1. Convert 0.10101 (base 2) to decimal.

0 . 1 0 1 0 1
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
0 . 0.65625 0.3125 0.625 0.25 0.5
In this case the arrows denote addition, e.g., 0.25 is added to 1 before multiplying
by 1/2 to obtain 0.625.
Answer: 0.65625 (base 10)

1 1 0 . 0 1 1
2 2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1 3 6 . 0.375 0.75 0.5
Answer = 6.375 (base 10)

1 0 1 0 1 . 0 0 1
2 2 2 2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1 2 5 10 21 0.125 0.25 0.5
1 5 1 . 4
8 8 1/8
1 13 105 . 0.5
Converting from decimal to base b (binary, octal or hexadecimal) involves synthetic

division.
To convert N(base 10) to (dk…d3d2d1d0) in base b, where d0, d1, d2… dk are digits of
the number in base b.
Note that
14
notes
N/b (N divided by b) = whole part (multiple of base b) + remainder/b and so we write:
N/b = c0 + d0/b
Next, we repeat the division using c0, thus,
c0/b = c1 + d1/b
We continue this process repeatedly until
ck-1/b = ck + dk/b and ck=0.
Example
Convert 37 (in decimal) to binary (base 2).
37/2 = 18 + 1/2, d0 = 1, c0= 18 (remainder =1)

18/2 = 9 + 0/2, d1 = 0, c1 = 9 (remainder =0)
9/2 = 4 + 1/2, d2 = 1, c2 = 4
4/2 = 2 + 0/2, d3 = 0, c3 = 2
2/2 = 1 + 0/2, d4 = 0, c4 = 1
½ = 0 + 1/2, d5 = 1, c5 = 0, stop.
Answer: 37(base 10) = 100101 (base 2)
In table format:
Base Divisor Remainder

2 37 1
18 0
9 1
4 0
2 0
1 1
0
The arrow indicates that you write the digits in the order from bottom to top, hence,
37(base 10) = 100101 (base 2).
More Examples
1. Convert 65 (in decimal) to binary and hexadecimal.
Base Divisor Remainder Base Divisor Remainder

2 65 1 16 65 1
32 0 4 4
16 0 0
8 0
4 0
15
notes
2 0
1 1
0
65 (base 10) = 1000001 (base 2) 65 (base 10) = 41 (base 16)
2. Convert 255 (in decimal) to octal and hexadecimal.
Base Divisor Remainder Base Divisor Remainder

8 255 7 16 255 15 (F)
31 7 15 15 (F)
3 3 0
0
255 (decimal) = 377 (octal) 255(decimal) = FF (hexadecimal)
3. The color of pixel in an image is represented on the computer using the Red,
Green and Blue (RGB)combination (called tuple) in bits. A bit is the short form of
binary digit (so it is either 0 or 1) and it is the smallest unit of data in computing
and digital communications. An 8-bit color will have values ranging from 0-255
(equivalent of 0-11111111 in binary) for each of R, G and B.For example, (255,
255, 255) will give a white pixel and (0, 0, 0) combination will give black pixel.
What would be the binary and hexadecimal representations of the following
colors represented in decimal as (92, 125, 233) and (255, 0, 127)?
Answer:
Decimal: (92,125, 233)
Binary: (01011100, 01111101, 11101011)
Hexadecimal: (5C, 7D, EB)
Decimal: (255, 0, 127)

Binary: (11111111, 0, 01111111)
Hexadecimal: (FF, 0, 7F)
Practice Problems
1. Define data and information. What distinguishes data from information and
knowledge?
2. Give an example to explain the difference between data and information.
3. In a gubernatorial election, it was found that candidate A received majority of the
votes from 20 local electoral districts in the State (specifically A received more
than 50% of the votes in 16 electoral districts). In order to win, a candidate must
have majority total votes (at least 50% of the total votes) and 3-quarter majority
votes from the electoral districts. Using this description, what would constitute
data, information and knowledge?
4. What is the difference between discrete and continuous data?
5. True or false, 23.45e-4 is a number in scientific notation?
16
notes
6. What are the least and most significant digits in the following numbers: 9.34e4,
1.0001, 0.02361, and 023.45
7. True or false, the number 1181 is binary?
8. The hexadecimal representation can be obtained from the binary representation
by grouping the digits in fours starting from the right and padding it with zeros at
the beginning to enable the number of digits to be evenly divisible by 4. For
examples, 11 can be written as 0011, 101001 can be written as [0010] [1001].
Converting the four digits within each group to decimal gives the hexadecimal
presentation. Therefore,
a. 11 (base 2) = 0011 (base 2) = 3 (base 16)
b. 101001 (base 2) = [0010][1001] (base 2) = 29 (base 16)
c. 10111011101(base 2) = [1011][1011][1101] (base 16) = BBD (base 16)
d. 11111111(base 2) = [1111][1111] (base 2) = FF (base 16)
e. (Question). Convert the following binary numbers to hexadecimal
numbers: 111010001, 10001110111, 11101111, 110111
9. What are the corresponding hexadecimal values for the following color pixel
values?
a. RGB: (214, 192, 255)
b. RGB: (128, 240, 127)
c. RGB: (198, 28, 211)
10. Convert the following decimals to binary, octal and hexadecimal.
a. 1024
b. 105
c. 256
d. 198
11. Convert the following to decimal.
a. 1100011 (base 2)
b. 1217 (base 8)
c. 1F3D (base 16)
d. FFFF (base 16)
e. 111101101 (base 2)
f. 10111 (base 2)
17
notes
Lecture 3
Computer Hardware Component
Description
A computer system is generally subdivided into its hardware and software components.
Without the hardware a computer will not function because the software would have
nothing to run on, hence the hardware serves as the delivery system for software
solutions. This lecture discusses the hardware components of a computer system.
Objectives

1. what constitutes a computer system
2. about input and output devices
3. about the Central Processing Unit
4. different types of memory
5. and about different CPU models and manufacturers
Computer hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitute a computer

system. It is the physical parts or components of a computer that are tangible, i.e. the
components that can be seen and touched.
Examples of hardware components are as follows:

 Input devices
 Output devices
 Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 Secondary storage (also called secondary memory, will be discussed under the
MEMORY subheading)
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation.
Most personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use
a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones,
joysticks, scanners, light pen, track ball, Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR), Optical
Character Reader(OCR), Bar Code Reader, and Optical Mark Reader(OMR), etc.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices display information in a human readable form. Such devices include
speakers, monitors, plotters, printers, etc.
Monitors
18
notes
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat- Panel Display
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then
pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
19
notes
These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.

 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The CPU is considered as the brain of the computer and it performs all types of data
processing operations. It also stores data, intermediate results and
instructions(program) and controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components:
 Memory Unit(it is also called primary memory and will be discussed under the
MEMORY subheading below)
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
CONTROL UNIT
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations.
20
notes
Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other
units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely:
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.
CPU models and manufacturers
The power and performance of a computer depends on mainly the CPU or the Central
Processing Unit of the computer. As the brains of the computer, the CPU is the most
important MVP (most valuable player) of the system.
Computer manufacturers have found that performance is boosted if a computer has

more than one CPU. This arrangement is called Dual-core or Multi-core Processing and
harnesses the power of two processors. In this configuration, one integrated circuit
contains two processors, their caches as well as the cache controllers. These two
"cores" have resources to perform tasks in parallel, almost doubling the efficiency and
performance of the computer as a whole. Dual processor systems on the other hand
have two separate physical processors in the system.
In addition to the multitasking of processors, some advances in technology such as

hyper-threading (processing multiple system intensive applications at the same time),
extended memory 64 technology and dual core ( two cores in one processor ) are also
enhancing system responsiveness. Some resellers are using a method called
"overclocking" to increase the performance of the CPU by enabling it to run at higher
speeds than those recommended by the manufacturers.
21
notes
INTEL CPU'S
Currently, Intel and AMD are the major CPU manufacturers who seem to have the market
covered. Most computers such as APPLE Macs, Gateway computers, HP computers and
Dell use processors made by the same computer manufacturers, such as Intel, AMD, etc.
Some examples of CPUs are giving below:
Multi-Core Intel Xeon Processors
The core speed of Xeon family of processors range from 1.6GHz to 3.2 GHz. These
processors are suited for specific communication applications such as
telecommunications servers, search engines, network management or storage. It
provides high memory bandwidth, memory capacity and I/O bandwidth. Examples of
Computer manufacturers that use this processor in their systems - Dell, Apple, etc.
Intel Core 2 Extreme Quad-core Processors

This first four core desktop processor is designed for multimedia applications such as
audio/video editing and rendering, 3D modeling and other intensive, high CPU
demanding tasks. With multi-core processing, the system response is improved by
delegating certain tasks to specific cores. Quad core configuration also has an unlocked
clock for easier overclocking. Examples of Computer manufacturers that use this
processor in their systems - Dell, Gateway.
Intel Core 2 Duo Processors
The new Intel chipsets that feature 1333MHz bus speeds are enabling the creation of
higher performance processors at competitive prices. There are four processors: Core 2
Duo processor E6400, Core 2 Duo processor E4300, Core 2 Duo processor T7400 and
the Core 2 Duo processor L7400. This family of processors delivers more instructions
per cycle, improves system performance by efficiently using the memory bandwidth and
is more environmentally friendly because of its low energy consumption. Examples of
Computer manufacturers that use this processor in their systems - Apple computers,
Gateway.
Intel Pentium Processors - Pentium M , Pentium 4
This family of Pentium Processors uses a micro architecture for high-performance

computing using low-power. These processors are designed for medium to large
enterprise communications applications, transaction terminals, etc. The cheapest Intel
CPUs now available in the market are the Intel Pentium models.
Intel Pentium Processors
Intel Celeron Processors
22
notes
The Celeron M family is designed for the next generation mobile applications.
Combining Intel's trademark high performance stats with low power consumption, these
processors are perfect for thermally sensitive embedded and communications
applications. This family of processors will probably be used for small to medium
businesses and for enterprise communications, Point on Sale appliances and ATMs.
AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual Core processors
Popular computer for medium to high performance computing. Boosts performance by

using dual-core technology. The Athlon 64 X2 is the best AMD value for its price.
Examples of companies that use this processor in their systems - Acer, HP , Gateway.
Other processors by AMD include:
AMD Athlon X2, AMD Sempron, AMD Turion, AMD Opteron, AMD Athlon 64 FX
COMPUTER MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number
of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from
zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this
memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and
programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where
CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
23
notes
Main Memory Unit
This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or main memory or primary storage.
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as
registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.
Random Access Memory

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it
can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. One can only read but cannot write on it. This type
of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM:
24
notes
MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are
inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time,
rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but
slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU
can access it. Examples include: hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.

 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
25
notes
Hard drive interfaces

Hard drives come with one of several different connectors built in. The five types are
ATA/IDE and SATA for consumer-level drives, and SCSI, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), and
Fibre Channel for enterprise-class drives.
ATA/IDE Cable
For many years, Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) connections were the favored
internal drive connection in PCs. Apple adopted ATA with the Blue and White G3 models.
ATA drives must be configured as either a master or a slave when connecting. This is
usually accomplished by the use of a hardware jumper or, more recently, through the use
of a cable that can tell the drive to act as either a master or slave.
ATA also goes by the name ATAPI, IDE, EIDE and PATA, which stands for Parallel ATA.
ATA is still in use in many computers today, but most drive manufacturers are switching
over to SATA (Serial ATA).
SATA
As of 2007, most new computers (Macs and PCs, laptops and desktops) use the newer
SATA interface. It has a number of advantages, including longer cables, faster
throughput, multidrive support through port multiplier technology, and easier
configuration. SATA drives can also be used with eSATA hardware to enable fast,
inexpensive configuration as an external drive. Most people investing in new hard drive
enclosures for photo storage should be using SATA drives.
SCSi/SAS and Fibre Channel

SCSI, SAS, and Fibre Channel drives are rare in desktop computers, and are typically
found in expensive enterprise-level storage systems. You can also find SAS drives (along
with the necessary SAS controller cards) in video editing systems where maximum
throughput is needed.
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/computer-hardware
2. www.tutorialspoint.com/computer-fundamentals/computer_ram.html
3. www.geekswhoknow.com/articles/cpu.php
4. http://www.dpbestflow.org/data-storage-hardware/hard-drive-101#interfaces
26
notes
LECTURE 4
SOFTWARE STSTEMS
DESCRIPTION
The proliferation of software systems have left most non-computer professionals at a
bewildered situation especially with the various operating systems such as Windows
and Linux, mobile operating systems such as Android and ios, software applications in
terms of open and closed source and finally, the firmware. Where do all these connect
was always the question.
OBJECTIVES
1. Different types of computer operating systems
2. Understand the different types of mobile operating systems
3. Differentiate between open source software and proprietary application software
4. Understand firmware.
COMPUTER OPERATING SYSTEMS
System software (systems software) is computer software designed to operate and

control the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application
software. System software can be separated into two different categories, operating
systems and utility software.The operating system (prominent examples being
Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and Linux), allows the parts of a computer to work together
by performing tasks like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering
output onto a display device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system
software and application software.
A kernel is the core part of the operating system that defines an API for applications
programs (including some system software) and an interface to device drivers.
Device drivers such as computer BIOS and device firmware provide basic functionality to
operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer.
A user interface “allows users to interact with a computer.” Since the 1980s the
graphical user interface (GUI) has been perhaps the most common user interface
technology. The command-line interface is still a commonly used alternative.
Utility software helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer, such
as virus protection.
APPLICATION SOFRWARE
In contrast to system software, software that allows users to do things like create text
27
notes
documents, play games, listen to music, or web browsers to surf the web are called
application software.
OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system
is an essential component of the system software in a computer system. Application
programs usually require an operating system to function.
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may
also include other software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing,
and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating
system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer
hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and
frequently makes system calls to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating
systems are found on many devices that contain a computer—from cellular phones and
video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BlackBerry, BSD,

Chrome OS, iOS, Linux, Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone, and z/OS.
Scale
Linux Windows
User Rating (1129):

(2455)
Cost Linux can be freely distributed, $119 - $199.99, $69 for students, $99
downloaded freely, distributed to upgrade to pro
through magazines, Books etc.
There are priced versions for Linux
also, but they are normally cheaper
than Windows.
Manufacturer Linux kernel is developed by the Microsoft

community. Linus Torvalds
oversees things.
Development and Linux is developed by Open Source Developed and distributed by

Distribution development i.e. through sharing Microsoft.
and collaboration of code and
features through forums etc and it
is distributed by various vendors.
User Everyone. From home users to Everyone

developers and computer
28
notes
enthusiasts alike.
Usage Linux can be installed on a wide On PC's desktops, laptops, servers

variety of computer hardware, and some phones.
ranging from mobile phones, tablet
computers and video game
consoles, to mainframes and
supercomputers.
File system support Ext2, Ext3, Ext4, Jfs, ReiserFS, Xfs, FAT, FAT32, NTFS, exFAT
Btrfs, FAT, FAT32, NTFS
Text mode interface BASH (Bourne Again SHell) is the Windows uses a command shell and
Linux default shell. It can support each version of Windows has a single
multiple command interpreters. command interpreter with dos-like
commands, recently there is the
addition of the optional PowerShell
that uses more Unix-like commands.
Company / Linus Torvalds and the Linux Microsoft

developer community.
Available Multilingual Multilingual

language(s)
Introduction (from Linux is a Unix-like and POSIX- Microsoft Windows is a series of

Wikipedia) compliant computer operating graphical interface operating
system assembled under the model systems developed, marketed, and
of free and open source software sold by Microsoft. Microsoft
development and distribution. The introduced an operating environment
defining component of Linux is the named Windows on November 20,
Linux kernel, an operating system 1985 as a graphical operating system
kernel first released shell for MS-DOS.
License GNU General Public License Proprietary
Default user Gnome or KDE Graphical (Windows Aero)

interface
Source model Free Software Closed / Shared source
Supported All PowerPC: versions 1.0 - NT 4.0; DEC Alpha:

platforms versions 1.0 - NT 4.0; MIPS R4000: versions
1.0 - NT 4.0; IA-32: versions 1.0 - 8; IA-64:
version XP; x86-64: versions XP - 8; ARM:
version RT;
Update method Many Windows Update
29
notes
Preceded by Basic Terminal (CLI) MS-DOS

Source: http://www.diffen.com/difference/Linux_vs_Windows
30
notes
THREATS AND PROBLEMS WITH THE WINDOWS AND LINUX
Windows (Proprietary)
Every Windows user has faced security and stability issues. Since Windows is the
most widely used OS, hackers, spammers target Windows frequently. Consumer
versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-
user PC without a network connection and did not have security features built in.
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service

approximately once a month although critical updates are made available at shorter
intervals when necessary.
Many times users of Windows OS face the “BLUE SCREEN OF DEATH”, caused by
the failure of the system to respond, and eventually the user has to manually restart
the PC . This is very frustrating for the user since they may lose valuable data.
Linux (Open Source)
On the other hand, Linux is very stable and more secure. As Linux is community
driven, developed through people collaboration and monitored constantly by the
developers from every corner of the earth, any new problem raised can be solved
within few hours and the necessary patch can be ready at the same time. Also Linux
is based on the UNIX architecture which is a multi user OS, so it is much more stable
than single user OS Windows.
Cost Comparison
Windows is much more costly in organizational implementation purpose. As

Windows Home is a single user OS, so for each PC, the organization needs to
purchase a site license copy of Windows, which can be costly. Although, in
developing countries and ones with oppressive governments, non-profits can
receive a free site license from Microsoft. Where as for the implementation of Linux
based solutions the organization only needs to obtain one copy. And as it can be
freely distributed, the same copy can be used in all the 50 employees’ workstation.
However, setup and support services may need to be purchased on an as-needed
basis.
MOBILE OPERATING SYSTEM

A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating system that is
specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones, smart
phones, PDAs, tablet computers and other handheld devices.
31
notes
Examples of Mobile devices

Initially, mobile phones are just meant for voice calls and sending occasional texts.
Modern smart phones are closer to handheld computers since they now enable us to
send emails, play games, watch the news and make video calls to loved ones.
Mobile Operating systems, also known as mobile OS, are the software that run our
desktop computers and laptops and manage their resources and memory when they're
being used for multi-tasking.
Nowadays, smart phones have used operating systems too and it is this development
that has brought advanced functions to mobiles that were previously only available on
our computers.
It is also due to the fact that there exists the platform for developers to create
applications or 'apps' (software programs developed for smart phones that can carry out
specific functions). Thanks to modern day software development techniques and tools.
Numerous apps are now available and more are constantly being developed - each with
their own purpose.
For instance, you may download a weather app that tells you the current temperature or
chances of rain in your city, a news app or widget that sends the latest headlines straight
to your device's home screen, or a game to simply pass the time.
The Underlying Smartphone operating systems

Some mobile operating systems are open source software, which means there are no
restrictions on what you can download on it, or who can develop its software (there are
often a 'community' of developers).
Open-source operating systems are entirely customizable, whilst others are restricted in
the types of software permitted to run on the device.
32
notes
iOS
The Apple iOS multi-touch, multi-tasking operating system is what runs the Apple's
iPhone, iPad, and iPod. A special version of the software is what powers the Apple
Watch too.
iOS responds to the user's touch - allowing you to tap on the screen to open a program,
pinch your fingers together to minimise or enlarge an image, or swipe your finger across
the screen to change pages.
The Apple iOS is not allowed to be used in third party systems, so you will only be able to
use it on products made by Apple. It comes with the Safari web browser for internet use,
an iPod application for playing music and Apple's Mail for managing your emails.
You can download millions of applications currently available on the App Store directly
to any device running iOS, be it an iPhone or an iPad. These encompass everything from
recipe books to guitar tutorials to games.
Android
Android OS is owned by Google and powered by the Linux kernel, which can be found on
a wide range of devices.
Android is an open source operating system which allows developers to access

unlocked hardware and develop new programs as they wish.
33
notes
This means unlimited access to any anyone who wants to develop apps for the phone
and places very little restriction on its licensing, so users benefit from masses of free
content.
Android is currently the dominant smartphone platform due to its tremendous traction
with a wide spectrum of users.
Some of the best features of Android include the ability to customise multiple home
screens with useful widgets and apps that give you quicker, easier access to the content
and functions you most care about.
It also has an excellent capacity for multitasking - with the ability to close programs by
simply swiping them away.
Last but not least, the Android Market, which is the Android equivalent of the Apple App
Store is home to millions of apps, many of which are completely free.
Windows Phone
Microsoft released a hugely revamped version of its Windows platform for mobiles in
late 2010, after its software fell behind iOS and Android.
Redesigned and rebuilt from the ground up with a greater emphasis on the user
experience, the result was an operating system called Windows Phone.
Window Phone is recognisable from its tile-based interface - dubbed Metro - which
features removable and interchangeable squares sections on the home screen, each
with its own purpose and function.
It also has aggregators called 'hubs', that group together all photos from all applications,
or all music into one library, meaning your Facebook photos can be found with your
camera photos and your documents from different sources grouped together in one,
easy to access location.
Windows Phone comes with a mobile-optimised version of the Internet Explorer for
accessing the web, and Exchange, which supports secure corporate e-mail accounts
with push support.
Firmware
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a hardware
device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the device communicates with the
34
notes
other computer hardware.

Firmware is typically stored in the flash ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is "read-
only memory," flash ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type
of flash memory.
Firmware can be thought of as "semi-permanent" since it remains the same unless it is

updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the firmware of certain devices,
such as hard drives and video cards in order for them to work with a new operating
system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers often make firmware updates available that
allow the drives to read faster media. Sometimes manufacturers release firmware
updates that simply make their devices work more efficiently. Firmware updates are
usually found by going to the "Support" or "Downloads" area of a manufacturer's website.
Keeping your firmware up-to-date is often not necessary, but it is still a good if you can.
Just make sure that once you start a firmware updater, you let the update finish,
because most devices will not function if their firmware is not recognized.
A remote control is a very simple example of an engineered product that contains

firmware. The firmware monitors the buttons, controls the LEDs, and processes the
button presses in order to send data in a format the receiving device (a TV set, for
example) can understand and process
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a type of software that provides
control, monitoring and data manipulation of engineered products and systems. Typical
examples of devices containing firmware are embedded systems (such as traffic lights,
consumer appliances, and digital watches), computers, computer peripherals, mobile
phones, and digital cameras. The firmware contained in these devices provides the low-
level control program for the device. Presently, most firmware can be updated.
Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, or flash memory.
Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or never be done during its economic
lifetime; some firmware memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be
changed after manufacture. Common reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs
or adding features to the device. This may require ROM integrated circuits to be
physically replaced, or flash memory to be reprogrammed through a special procedure.
Firmware such as the ROM BIOS of a personal computer may contain only elementary
35
notes
basic functions of a device and may only provide services to higher-level software.
Firmware such as the program of an embedded system may be the only program that
will run on the system and provide all of its functions.
http://www.uswitch.com/mobiles/guides/mobile-operating-systems/
36
notes
Department of Computer Science

Faculty of Science
University of Abuja
CSC 200: Introduction to Computers
Lecture 5
Title: History of Computers
Description:
Milestones in computer history are numerous, especially since the advent of
digital computers around the mid-twentieth century. History of computing has
become a semester-long university course and therefore, it’s coverage in this
lecture will be far from exhaustive. This lecture will introduce students to the
basic history and evolution of computers covering the pre-mechanical,
mechanical and digital era.
Objectives:
Students will learn

1. different era of the history of computing
2. generations of computing hardware and software
3. prominent inventors of computing hardware and software
4. computing hardware invented in pre-mechanical, mechanical and digital
era
History of Computers
The literature is replete with many different written versions of the history of
computing starting from the ancient era. However, a deeper examination
revealed some commonalities and in this lecture, the focus will be on those
common view points. The history will cover pre-mechanical era (ancient era),
mechanical era, electro-mechanical era and modern era.
Ancient Era
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using
one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was
probably a form of tally stick. Another was the use of counting rods.
The earliest known device used for arithmetic tasks was Abacus, which has
beads strung into wires attached to a frame. What we now call the Roman
abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms
of reckoning boards or tables have been invented.
Mechanical Era
37
notes
In 1642 Blaise Pascal (a famous French mathematician) invented an adding

machine based on mechanical gears in which numbers were represented by the
cogs on the wheels.
In 1690, Leibnitz developed a machine that could perform additions, subtractions,
divisions and square roots. These instructions were hardcoded and could not be
altered once written.
In 1822, an Englishman, Charles Babbage invented a machine called “Difference

Engine,” that would perform calculations without human intervention. In 1833, he
developed the “Anatytic Engine” along with his associate Augusta Ada Byron
(later Countess of Lovelace) who assisted with the programming. His design
contained the basic units of a modern computer: input, output and processing
units, memory and storage devices. Hence he is regarded as the “father of the
modern day computers.”
Electro-Mechanical Era.
An American, Herman Hollerith, developed (around 1890) the first electrically

driven device. It utilized punched cards and metal rods which passed through the
holes to close an electrical circuit and thus cause a counter to advance. This
machine was able to complete the calculation of the 1890 U.S. census in 6
weeks compared with 7 1/2 years for the 1880 census which was manually
counted.
In 1936 Howard Aiken of Harvard University convinced Thomas Watson of IBM to

invest $1 million in the development of an electromechanical version of
Babbage's analytical engine. The Harvard Mark 1 was completed in 1944 and
was 8 feet high and 55 feet long.
At about the same time (the late 1930's) John Atanasoff of Iowa State University
and his assistant Clifford Berry built the first digital computer that worked
electronically, the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). This machine was basically a
small calculator.
In 1943, as part of the British war effort, a series of vacuum tube based
computers (named Colossus) were developed to crack German secret codes.
The Colossus Mark 2 series consisted of 2400 vacuum tubes.
John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania developed

these ideas further by proposing a huge machine consisting of 18,000 vacuum
tubes. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was born in 1946.
It was a huge machine with a huge power requirement and two major
disadvantages. Maintenance was extremely difficult as the tubes broke down
regularly and had to be replaced, and also there was a big problem with
overheating. The most important limitation, however, was that every time a new
38
notes
task needed to be performed the machine must be rewired.
In the late 1940's John von Neumann (at the time a special consultant to the
ENIAC team) developed the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer) which pioneered the "stored program concept". This allowed
programs to be read into the computer and so gave birth to the age of general-
purpose computers.
Modern Era
In the modern era, computers are classified into a number of generations. The
classification can be based on the hardware technology used in building the
computer or based on applications/software used. Note that, the literature did
not present consistent generational periods and therefore those indicated here
may be different from several generational periods in the literature.
First-Generation Computers (1943-1958)

The first generation of computers started with ENIAC described above. This was
followed by IBM UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) designed and built by
Mauchly and Eckert in 1951.
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes, which were very large,
requiring lot of energy and slow in input and output processing. They also
suffered from heat and maintenance problems. The vacuum tubes have to be
replaced often because of their short life span. See figures below for the ENIAC
machine and vacuum tubes.
39
notes
ENIAC and Vacuum Tubes
Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)
In the mid-1950's Bell Labs developed the transistor. Transistors were capable of
performing many of the same tasks as vacuum tubes but were only a fraction of
the size. The first transistor-based computer was produced in 1959. Transistors
were not only smaller, enabling computer size to be reduced, but they were faster,
more reliable and consumed less electricity. See figure below for sample
transistors.
40
notes
Transistors
The computers were able to perform operations comparatively faster. The

storage capacity was also improved. IBM 650, 700, 305 RAMAC, 1401, and 1620
desktop computers were manufactured and distributed during this period. It was
also during this period, assembly and symbolic programming languages and high
level computer programming languages, such as FORTRAN (FORmula
TRANslation) and COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) and BASIC
( Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), were launched. Computer
programs written in these English-like high-level programming languages are
translated to machine code using interpreters, compilers or translators.
Third-Generation Computers (1965-1970)

This period marked the development of computers based on Integrated Circuits
(ICs) instead of transistors. An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit
(also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on
one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material, normally silicon. A silicon
chip consumes less than one-eighth of an inch square on which many electronic
components like diodes, transistors, and capacitors can be fixed. See figure
below for an illustration of an integrated circuit on a chip. Third generation
computers are smaller, faster and more flexible in terms of input and output than
second generation computers. Third generation computers satisfy the need of a
41
notes
small business and became popular as minicomputers. IBM 360, PDP 8 and PDP
11 computers are examples for third generation computers.
Another feature of this period

is that computer software
became much more powerful
and flexible and for the first
time more than one program
could share the computer's
resources at the same time
(multi-tasking). The majority
of programming languages
used today are often referred
to as 3GL's (3rd generation
languages) even though
some of them originated
during the 2nd generation.
Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1989)

The third generation computers have integrated circuits consisting of anywhere
from 1 to 500 transistors and were considered small-scale integration (1 to 10
transistors) to medium-scale integration (10 to 500 transistors). In 1970 large-
scale integration was achieved where the equivalent of thousands of integrated
circuits were crammed onto a single silicon chip. This development again
increased computer performance (especially reliability and speed) whilst
reducing computer size and cost. Around this time the first complete general-
purpose microprocessor became available on a single chip (giving birth to
microcomputers, also called personal computers). In 1975 Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) took the process one step further. The development started
with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues
beyond several billion transistors as of 2009. Examples of fourth generation
computers are IBM PC and Apple II. The fourth generation computers also
include supercomputers such as CRAY series computers. Supercomputers are
the best in terms in processing capacity and cost. These computers can process
billions of instructions per second. They are used for applications which require
intensive numerical computations such as stock analysis, weather forecasting
and other similar complex applications. The spread of computer network was
also observed during this period.
During this period Fourth Generation Languages (4GL's) have come into
existence. Such languages are a step further removed from the computer
hardware in that they use language much like natural language. Many database
languages can be described as 4GL's. They are generally much easier to learn
42
notes
than are 3GL's. Microsoft developed MS-DOS operating system for IBM PCs. In
1980, Alan Shugart presents the Winchester hard drive, revolutionizing storage
for PCs. In 1982, Hayes introduced the 300 bits per second smart modem. In
1989, Tim Berners-Lee invented an Internet-based hypermedia enterprise for
information sharing giving birth to World Wide Web (WWW). In the same year,
Intel 486 becomes the world’s first 1,000,000 transistor microprocessor. It crams
1.2 million transistors on a .4 in by .6 in sliver of silicon and executes 15 million
instructions per second, four times as fast as its predecessor the 80386 chip,
which has 275,000 transistors.
Intel 8086 Microprocessor Chip, Intel 80386, Intel 80486, Intel 80486 (exposed
die)
Fifth Generation Computers (1990-Present)
Fifth generation computers are further made smarter in terms of processing

speed, user friendliness and connectivity to network. These computers are
portable and sophisticated. Powerful desktops, notebooks, variety of storage
mechanism such as optical disks and advanced software technology such as
distributed operating system and artificial intelligence are characteristic of this
period. IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs and PARAM 10000 are examples of fifth
43
notes
generation computers.
In 1992, Microsoft releases Windows 3.1 and within two months sold over 3
million copies. The Pentium processor, a successor of Intel 486 was produced in
1993. Pentium processor contains 3.1 million transistors and could perform 112
million instructions per second. Microsoft released Microsoft Office this same
year. Other inventions (not exhaustive) are tabulated below.
1994 – Jim Clark and Marc Andreessen found Netscape and launched Netscape
Navigator 1.0, a browser for the World Wide Web.
1996 – U.S. Robotics introduced the PalmPilot, a low-cost, user-friendly personal

digital assistant (PDA).
1997 – Pentium II processor with 7.5 million transistors was introduced by Intel.
This processor incorporates MMX technology, processes video, audio and
graphics data more efficiently and supports applications such as movie editing,
gaming and more. In the same year Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 4.0.
1998 – Apple Computer releases iMac, the next version of Macintosh computer.
iMac did not feature floppy disk drive. Windows 98 was introduced this year,
which was an extension to Windows 95 with improved Internet access, system
performance and support for new generation of hardware and software. Google,
a search engine was founded.
2001 – Intel unveils Pentium 4 chip with clock speeds starting at 1.4 GHz and
with 42 transistors. Windows XP for desktops and servers was introduced.
2002 – Intel revamped Pentium 4 chip with 0.13 micron processor and Hyper-
Threading (HT) Technology and operating at a speed of 3.06GHz. DVD writes
were introduced to replace CD writers (CD-RW).
2004 - Flat panel LCD monitors were introduced, replacing the bulky CRT
monitors as the popular choice. USB flash drive was also made popular this year
as a cost-effective eay to transport data amd information. Apple Computer
introduced the sleek iMac G5. Smart phone overtakes the PDA as the perosnal
mobile device of choice. A smart phone offers the user a cell phone, full personal
information management, a Web browser, e-mail functionality, instant messaging
and ability to listen to music, watch and record video, play games and take
pictures. In 2005, Microsoft releases Xbox 360, a game console with capability to
play music, display photos, and network with computers and other Xbox games.
2006 – Intel introduced Core 2 Duo processor family with 291 million transistors
and uses 40 percent less power than Pentium processor. IBM produced the
fastest supercomputer called Blue Gene/L, which can perform 28 trillion
44
notes
calculations in the time it takes to blink an eye or about 0ne-tenth of a second.

Sony launches Playstation 3 to include Blu-ray disc players, high definition
capabilities and always-on online connectivity.
2007 – Intel introduces Core 2 Quad, a four-core processor made of dual

processor servers and desktop computers. Apple launches iPhone.
References
1. Figures, charts and computer generations – http://www.gujarat-
education.gov.in/
2. Computer Generations and Inter Processors -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486
3. A short history of computers and computing by Robert Mannell -
http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/synthesis/history_computers/
4. G. Shelly and M. Vermaat, 2008, Discovering Computers 2009, Course
Technology , Cengage Learning.
Practice Problems
1. Write a short note on the history of computers. Explain why Charles
Babbage is known as the father of the modern day computers
2. What are the characteristics of first generation computers? Discuss their
major drawbacks.
3. What are the characteristics of second generation computers? Discuss
their major drawbacks.
4. What distinguishes fourth generation computers from third generation
computers?
5. What are the full meanings of these acronyms: ENIAC, UNIVAC, EDVAC,
PDA, FORTRAN, COBOL and BASIC?
6. Who were the major inventors in the electro-mechanical era? Write short
notes about their inventions.
7. What distinguishes Pentium 4 from Pentium II chip?
8. What distinguishes smart phones from PDAs? List all the capabilities of a
smart phone.
9. Describe the invention of Herman Hollerith.
10. Describe the invention of Atanasoff and Berry.
11. Describe the invention of Mauchly and Eckert.
12. What is the speed capability of Blue Gene/L developed by IBM in 2006?
45
notes
Lecture 6
Computer Applications
Description
Since the invention of computer they have evolved in terms of increased computing
power and decreased size. Owing to the widespread use of computers in every sphere,
Life in today’s world would be unimaginable without computers. They have made human
lives better and happier. In this lecture, the application of computer in different fields
such as: Engineering, architecture, education, filmmaking etc. will be discussed.
Objectives
 Students will learn the different areas of computer application, like education, business etc.
 Students will learn how computers are used in these areas of application
Computer Applications
During the past few decades, computers and electronic technologies have been
incorporated into almost every aspect of society. They now play a role in how we learn,
how we take care of our money, and how we are entertained. Today, there is probably no
better indication of how advanced a society is than how computerized it is. In our society,
computers are now a fundamental component of our jobs, our schools, our stores, our
means of transportation, and our health care. Our complex systems of banking and
investment could not operate without computers. Essentially, all of our medical and
scientific facilities now depend entirely upon incredibly complex computer-based
systems.
Almost all of our businesses now use the computer to maintain information about
customers and products. Our schools use computers to teach and to maintain student
records. Computers are now commonly used in medicine for diagnosis and treatment. In
fact, every day it gets harder to find any type of business, educational institution, or
government office that does not use computers in some way.
A variety of new types of specialized hardware and software tools have made the
computer valuable for everything from the most repetitive tasks, such as scanning items
in a supermarket, to incredibly detailed and complex tasks, such as designing spacecraft.
Because computers can store accurate information, they are used to help people make
better decisions. Because computers can continue to operate day or night, 24 hours a
day, they are now used to provide a level of services to humans that were unknown
before their invention.
AREAS OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

The following list demonstrates various areas of applications of computer in today's
world.
Business
Business was one of the first areas to incorporate the computer. Because of its powerful
capability to store and retrieve vast amounts of information, computers are now a vital
component of almost every type of business. They are used to record sales, maintain
information about inventories, maintain payroll records, and generate paychecks.
46
notes
Business workers now use computers to keep track of meetings, write letters and
memos, create charts and presentation graphics, create newsletters, and examine
trends.
All of us have by now experienced how the point-of-sale (POS) product scanning
systems in stores have speeded up the check-out process and made it more accurate by
eliminating the need for checkers to punch in the price for each individual item. These
point-of-sale systems not only make it more convenient for shoppers, but they also
provide an accurate inventory of product availability for the store's management.
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
which made it an integrated part in all business organisations. Other uses of computer in
business are:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employees database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking and finance

Computers have become an indispensable tool in the handling of money and finances.
Computerized ATM machines and credit card machines are now familiar throughout the
United States and in many other countries in the world. Although they have only been in
existence for a short while, many of us now take them for granted and expect our bank
to provide these computerized services whenever and wherever we need them. Many do
not realize that these machines are part of the huge electronic network that has been
put in place in the banking and financial services industries. The ATM machines and the
credit card machines provide our interface with the bank's computers.
Banks provide the following facilities:
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
 Internet banking/ online fund transfer
Computers are also used extensively in the world of stocks and investments. Around the
world, investors, investment brokers, financial advisors, and the stock exchanges
themselves rely on huge databases of information about world financial markets.
Through a worldwide network of computers, this information can be quickly updated as
financial events occur. This computerized financial network has created a global market
for currencies and financial instruments. Today, a change in a stock on the in the stock
market will be known instantly by everyone who has access to the computer network.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
 procedure to continue with policies
 starting date of the policies
47
notes
 next due installment of a policy

 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus
Education
Today, computers can be found in every school. From kindergarten to graduate school,
the computer is being used for learning, for record keeping, and for research. A variety
of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs are now being used to facilitate the
learning of nearly every educational topic. Multimedia-based learning systems can
deliver information to students in the form of sound and video in addition to text and
pictures. Using these new tools, students can gain control over their own learning as the
computer delivers the instruction at the student's desired pace, monitors their progress,
and provides instantaneous feedback. And, because computers can now take over some
of the instruction that used to take place in the classroom, teachers are free to work with
students who need more concentrated attention.
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer assisted learning (CAL) is a term which refers to the use of computers
in assisting learning. For example, a teacher may use a graph plotting software
to demonstrate the behaviour of different functions in a mathematics lesson.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are as following:
 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling
more products.
 Online Shopping - online shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care and Medicine

Computers are now so widely used in medicine they are changing the very structure of
our society's health care system. They are used extensively for basic tasks such as
keeping track of patient appointments and they are used widely for diagnostic and
treatment procedures. Diagnosis of illness can be aided through the use of databases
that contain information on diseases and symptoms and laboratory tests on blood and
tissue chemistry have become dependant on computer analysis. In addition, such
computer-based technologies as computer tomography (CAT) scans and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), which allow the physician to see the organs of the body in
three dimensions, can provide direct evidence of disease.
48
notes
In addition, computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines.
It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and
CT Scans etc., are also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of
illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates,
harmful drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery :Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
 Management of information-computers are used greatly in managing patients,
doctors, wards and medicine records, as well as deal with making
appointments, scheduling surgeries and other likes.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose. There are Computer-aided

engineering (CAE) programs simulate effects of conditions such as wind,
temperature, weight, and stress on product designs and materials. Examples
include the use of computers to test stresses on bridges or on airplane wings
before the products are built
Another major area is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation
and modification of images. Other fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of
Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military
also employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has
been used are:
 Missile Control :A system that serves to maintain attitude stability and to correct
deflections
 Military Communication : conveying message, an idea during operation
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons/smartmunition, smart bomb) : is a guided munitions intended to
49
notes
precisely hit a specific target, and to minimize collateral damage.
Manufacturing Industries
Computers have made their way towards jobs that were unpleasant or too dangerous for
humans to do, such as working hundreds of feet below the earth or opening a package
that might contain an explosive device. In other industries, computers are used to
control the production of resources very precisely. All robots and machinery are now
controlled by various computers, making the production process faster and cheaper. All
the stages of manufacturing, from designing to production, can be done with the use of
computer technology with greater diversity.
Computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) programs involves the use of computers to

control production equipment. CAM Software can control such equipment as drilling,
lathe, and mailing machines as well as robots. CAM is the total integration of the
manufacturing process using computers. Through the use of highly specialized
computer programs, individual production processes are linked so that the production
flow is balanced and optimized. These systems can control product flow, at an even rate,
throughout a production site.
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is

received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for.
Some main areas in this category are:
 E-mail : computer is used for sending and receiving messages electronically over
a computer
network.
 Chatting: chat may refer to any kind of communication over the Internet that
offers a
real-time transmission of text messages from sender to receiver
 Usenet: an early non-centralized computer network for the discussion of
particular topics and the sharing of files via newsgroups.
 Telnet: Through Telnet, an administrator or another user can access someone
else's computer remotely
 Video-conferencing: A videoconference is a live connection between people in
separate locations for the purpose of communication, usually involving audio
and often text as well as video. At its simplest, videoconferencing provides
transmission of static images and text between two locations
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
 Budgets : computers are used for budget preparations
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting : Weather forecasting involves a combination of computer
models, observations, and a knowledge of trends and patterns. By using these
50
notes
methods, reasonable accurateforecasts can be made up to seven days in

advance.
 to manage parks and historical sites,
 the store information of the citizens of a nation
 to produce social security checks and
 for tax collection
Computers in Recreation/ Entertainment

Computers can be found throughout the entertainment industry. They are behind much
of the glitz and excitement that we encounter every time we turn on the television.
Computers are used to create the special effects used in television advertisements, the
colorful displays on the score boards at sports arenas, and the cards that are displayed
on the screen if we play a game of video poker. Computer games are becoming more
and more lifelike as the computer's capability to portray graphics is constantly improved.
In the motion picture industry, the time required to create animation has been greatly
reduced through the use of computers and special graphics software. The movie
industry also uses computers routinely for a variety of special effects and specialized
computer programs have even made it possible to "colorize" old black-and-white films.
Musicians are also taking advantage of advances in technology by using computerized

electronic synthesizers to store, modify, and access a wide variety of sounds. Special
word processing software has been created for scoring music and other applications
give musicians a way to actually cut and paste stored sounds to create compositions.
Computers are also playing very important role for the entertainment of human beings.
Nowadays, computer can be used: to watch television programs on the Internet. People
can also watch movies, listen music, play games on the computer. Many computer
games and other entertainment materials of different kinds are available on the Internet.
Law Enforcement
Recent innovation in computerized law enforcement include:

 fingerprint files: for crime detection
 Mode of operation of serial killers,
 Computer modeling of DNA, which can be used to match traces from an alleged
criminal's body, such as blood at a crime scene. In addition,
 Computers also contain a complete databases of all the names, pictures and
information of such people who choose to break the law.
 Computer Forensics: is a branch of digital forensic science pertaining to legal
evidence found in computers and digital storage media
Agriculture
Farmers use small computers to help with

 billing,
 Crop information on improve seedlings, and cost per acre, feed combinations,
and market price checks.
51
notes
 Cattle ranchers can also use computers for information about livestock breeding
and performance.
 Keeping of sales record
Home
People having a computer in the home justifies the fact that it is not only useful and
efficient, but it is also revered as a learning system. Personal computers are being used
for innumerous tasks nowadays, for example, to keep records, write letters and memos,
produce presentations, draw pictures, publish newsletters and most importantly -
connect with other in the rest of plant earth.
People can also use computer at home for:

 making home budgets.
 Providing security checks such as the use of Closed-circuit television (CCTV),
also known as video surveillance, which is the use of video cameras to transmit
a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors.
Workplace
With the proliferation of computers throughout our society, there has been a resultant
discussion about what their role should be. Although almost everyone recognizes the
presence of computers in today's workplaces, not everyone welcomes them. Some
employees fear that they may be replaced by computers. And although it may be true
that in some areas such as manufacturing where robots have taken over the job of
human workers, overall, the employment of computers has not resulted in a net loss of
jobs. What computers have often caused is a need for people to be retrained so that
they can fill the jobs that have been created by computers and new related technologies.
In some cases the retraining is minimal, as when typists learn to apply their typing skills
to word processing but, in other cases, significant retraining is necessary.
In some jobs, for example, where assembly-line workers have been displaced by robots,
employees have to be totally retrained. New technology-based manufacturing systems
often require an entirely new set of worker skills and people who have habituated to
doing their work in a particular way often find it difficult to make the changes necessary
to fit in. Many of us are afraid of change, until we learn more about what it means. Fear
of technology is known as technophobia, and there are a fair number of people suffering
from it these days. However, many people feel that as new generations grow up with
computers and learn to use them in a variety of environments they will feel more
comfortable with the technology and will not suffer the discomfort of this transitional
period.
Scientific Research
This is very important for mankind and with the development of computers; scientific
research has propelled towards the better a great deal. Because of high-speed
characteristics of computer systems, researchers can:
 Simulate environments
 Emulate physical characteristics
52
notes
 allow scientists to proof their theories in a cost-effective manner.

Also many test lab animals are spared since computers have taken over their roles
in extensive research.
EXERCISES
1. How are computers used in the following field:
i. Manufacturing ii Banking and Finance iii. Education
2. List four uses of computers in Entertainment and Recreation
3. Explain three ways in which computers are used in Medicine
4. Give the meanings of the following:
i. CAE ii. CAM iii.CAD iv.MRI iv.CAL v. CCTV
5. List four operations in which Robotics are used
6. List and explain 8 application areas of computer in the 21st century
7. What do you understand by the following:

i. computer forensics ii. Artificial intelligence iii.Technophobia
iv.Video-conferencing
8. In what areas are the following applied:
i. Computer Forensics ii. Smart Weapons iii.Telnet
References
Tharun P Karun 2013 Applications of Computers in Various Fields
http://www.tharunpkarun.com/press/edu/applications-of-computers-in-various-fields/
SubodhPoudyalJuly 13, 2011The Study Guru: AREAS OF APPLICATION OF

COMPUTERS
thestudyguru.blogspot.com/.../areas-of-application-of-computers.html
www.tutoriasl point.com learn Computer Fundamentals
Uses of computers in Different Fields , Areas, Sectors, Industries ...

www.informationq.com/uses-of-computers-in-different-fields-areas-sectors-industries-
education/
HYPERLINK
"http://www.google.com.ng/url?q=http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/sear
ch%3Fhl%3Den-
NG%26biw%26bih%26q%3Dcache:BI4yt5uo5hkJ:http://www.informationq.com/u
ses-of-computers-in-different-fields-areas-sectors-industries-
education/%252Bdifferent%2Bareas%2Bof%2Bcomputer%2Bapplication%26gbv%
3D2%26%26ct%3Dclnk&sa=U&ved=0ahUKEwivmsmMiI7KAhVBmhQKHXUHDQM
QIAgdMAE&usg=AFQjCNE0jMAFJpXUcKBgqKr1B9G8fWxyyw"
 30 May 2014
Uses of computers in various fields | Essay on uses of computers

www.byte-notes.com/uses-computers-various-fields2013
53
notes
LECTURE 7
Introduction to Mobile Computing
1. Introduction
Mobile computing is the next evolution in the development of computing

systems. Computing had over the past few decades moved from being Single
user systems to Batch processing systems, Time-sharing systems, and
Networked systems. And now we have Mobile computing.
Mobile Computing is the use of portable computing devices (such as laptops,

tablets, smartphones) in conjunction communication technologies that allow
transmission of data, voice and video usually over a wireless network. The
supporting network also allows a mobile device to access the Internet. The
smartphone is now the most pervasive form of mobile computing device as the
modern smartphone has evolved from its bulky predecessors that were only
used for voice calls and text messaging into a device that packs a lot of
computing power, has high volume primary and secondary storage units and
has the capability to run many kinds of sophisticated software.
We the use of mobile computing devices we are now able to send and receive
mails, read news and other materials on the Internet, chat on social networks,
transfer money and make purchases online, all as we move about in the course
of our day. These are highly sophisticated computing tasks, which we now
routinely perform on our phones and tablet computers.
In the last few years the use of mobile devices has increased as a result of
falling prices, increase in their computing power and memory, ease of use,
convenience and a wide range of features.
2. Aspects of Mobile Computing
The idea of mobile computing involves three aspects:
 Mobile communication
54
notes
 Mobile hardware
 Mobile software
Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in place
to ensure that seamless and reliable communication goes on. These would
include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to
facilitate and support the stated services. The data format is also defined at this
stage. This ensures that there is no collision with other existing systems which
offer the same service.
Different type of wireless networks support mobile computing applications and

platforms:
• Wireless Personal Area Networks (Bluetooth, Sensors, etc.)
• Wireless LANs (802.11 family)
• Fixed Wireless (e.g. CDMA)
• Cellular networks
– 1G to 5G
• Satellite systems
Since the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying infrastructure is

basically radio wave-oriented. That is, the signals are carried over the air to
intended devices that are capable of receiving and sending similar kinds of
signals.
Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that receive or
access the service of mobility. They would range from portable laptops,
smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants.
55
notes
These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and
receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex,
whereby they are capable of sending and receiving signals at the same time.
They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications. The devices use an existing and
established wireless network to operate on.
Because of the wide variability in the capabilities of the devices, a user will have
to purchase the hardware that closely matches his/her requirements. Some of
the characteristics that determine what a user can do with are mobile device are:
 Screen size – screen sizes on mobile devices are often small, but there
are smartphones with up to 5” and 7” screen sizes. Tablets often have up
to 10” screen size. Some phones don’t have hard keyboards, thus they
have more space for display. The screen size will also largely affect the
size and probably weight of the device.
 Battery life is another key factor in device selection. Some devices can
only last a few hours of use, while others can last a whole day. In any case,
the devices need frequent recharges with heavy use. External portable
power banks are available for on-the-go charging to prolong battery life.
 Operating system and available apps. The most common operating

systems for mobile devices are Android, iOS, Windows and RIM
Blackberry. The operating systems give the devices different capabilities
56
notes
and also determine the applications (called apps for short) that can run
on the device.
 Processor and memory – the processor type and amounts of internal and
external memory available on the mobile device can also be decisive as to
what tasks it can ordinarily be used for.
Mobile software
The Mobile Operating System (or, the Mobile Software) is the actual program
that runs on the mobile hardware. It deals with the characteristics and
requirements of mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device. In
other terms, it is the operating system of the appliance. It's the essential
component that operates the mobile device.
It is similar in principle to an operating system such as Windows, Mac OS, or

Linux that controls a desktop computer or laptop. However, they are currently
somewhat simpler, and deal more with the wireless versions of broadband and
local connectivity, mobile multimedia formats, and different input methods.
The most popular of these software are Android (from Google), iOS (from Apple
Corp.), Blackberry OS (from RIM), Windows (from Microsoft). The following
graphic shows the relative market share for the major mobile operating systems.
57
notes
The need for better, portable, affordable, and robust technology has made these
vendors to constantly be innovative. Market figure and statistics show an ever
growing need to purchase and use such devices for either professional or
personal use. It is in this light that services to suit long-term implementation are
developed or innovated. It has also pushed other industry vendors to adopt
services that will provide better services. For example, cellular service providers
are forced to improve and be innovative to capture more subscribers. This can
be in terms of superior services such as high speed internet and data access,
voice and video service etc. Hence the adoption of different generations of
networks like of 2G, 2.5G, 3G, 4G network services.
3. Applications of Mobile Computing

The ability to work on the move has turned mobile devices into a universal tool
with applications in almost all areas that used to be the preserve of traditional
computing. The more demanding applications that are run on mobile devices
have access to much needed storage and computing power on some server that
work as the host or cloud system for device.
Application areas include:

58
notes
- Mobile learning, in which users can access learning materials and interact
with their instructors and peers from their devices;
- Mobile health: providing health information and allowing users to access
such services as appointment booking and notification, consultations and
submission of health data by filling forms on their devices;
- Mobile e-commerce: accessing e-commerce sites on their devices;
- Use of social media on mobile devices.
These and many other areas are currently covered by mobile computing.
Developers of mobile applications, called apps for short, usually made them
available to the using public on app stores, either for free or on a subscription
basis. Some of the most widely used app stores are Google play store, Apple
store, Windows store and Blackberry world.
4. Advantages of Mobile Computing

Location Flexibility
This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection
established. A user can work without being in a fixed position. Their mobility
ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the same time and
perform their stated jobs.
Saves Time
The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the
office and back, has been slashed. One can now access all the important
documents and files over a secure channel or portal and work as if they were on
their computer. It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies. It has also
reduced unnecessary incurred expenses.
Enhanced Productivity
Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find
comfortable. This in turn enhances their productivity level.
59
notes
Ease of Research
Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the
field and search for facts and feed them back into the system. It has also made
it easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed data from
wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to and from the office to
the field.
Entertainment
Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile
computing. It's easy to access a wide variety of movies, educational and
informative material. With the improvement and availability of high speed data
connections at considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they
want as they browse the internet for streamed data. One is able to watch news,
movies, and documentaries among other entertainment offers over the internet.
This was not possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing world.
Streamlining of Business Processes

Business processes are now easily available through secured connections.
Looking into security issues, adequate measures have been put in place to
ensure authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services.
Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of
information between business partners can also take place.
Meetings, seminars and other informative services can be conducted using

video and voice conferencing. Travel time and expenditure is also considerably
reduced.
5. Limitations of Mobile Computing
- Range & Bandwidth: Mobile Internet access is generally slower than direct
cable connections, using technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more
recently HSDPA and HSUPA 3G and 4G networks and also
upcoming 5G network. These networks are usually available within range of
commercial cell phone towers. High speed wireless LANs are inexpensive but
60
notes
have very limited range.
- Security standards: When working mobile, one is dependent on public

networks, requiring careful use of VPN. Security is a major concern while
concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily
attack the VPN through a huge number of networks interconnected through
the line.
- Power consumption: When a power outlet or portable generator is not

available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power. Combined
with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually
expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life.
- Transmission interferences: Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest
signal point can all interfere with signal reception. Reception in tunnels, some
buildings, and rural areas is often poor.
- Potential health hazards: People who use mobile devices while driving are
often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved
in traffic accidents. (While this may seem obvious, there is considerable
discussion about whether banning mobile device use while driving reduces
accidents or not.) Cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices.
Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised.
- Human interface with device: Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which
may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or
handwriting recognition require training.
6. Types of Mobile Devices
Mobile computing is not only limited to mobile phones, but there are various
gadgets available in the market that are built on a platform to support mobile
computing. They are usually classified in the following categories −
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

The main purpose of this device is to act as an electronic organizer or day
planner that is portable, easy to use and capable of sharing information with
61
notes
your computer systems.
PDA is an extension of the PC, not a replacement. These systems are capable of
sharing information with a computer system through a process or service
known as synchronization. Both devices will access each other to check for
changes or updates in the individual devices. The use of infrared and Bluetooth
connections enables these devices to always be synchronized.
With PDA devices, a user can browse the internet, listen to audio clips, watch
video clips, edit and modify office documents, and many more services. The
device has a stylus and a touch sensitive screen for input and output purposes.
Smartphones
This kind of phone combines the features of a PDA with that of a mobile phone
or camera phone. It has a superior edge over other kinds of mobile phones.
Smartphones have the capability to run multiple programs concurrently. These

phones include high-resolution touch screens, web browsers that can access
and properly display standard web pages rather than just mobile-optimized sites,
and high-speed data access via Wi-Fi and high speed cellular broadband.
The most common mobile Operating Systems (OS) used by modern

smartphones include Google's Android, Apple's iOS, Nokia's Symbian, RIM's
BlackBerry OS, Samsung's Bada, Microsoft's Windows Phone, and embedded
Linux distributions such as Maemo and MeeGo. Such operating systems can be
installed on different phone models, and typically each device can receive
multiple OS software updates over its lifetime.
62
notes
Tablet PC and iPads

This mobile device is larger than a mobile phone or a PDA and integrates into a
touch screen and is operated using touch sensitive motions on the screen. They
are often controlled by a pen or by the touch of a finger. They are usually in slate
form and are light in weight. Examples would include ipads, Galaxy Tabs,
Blackberry Playbooks etc.
They offer the same functionality as portable computers. They support mobile
computing in a far superior way and have enormous processing horsepower.
Users can edit and modify document files, access high speed internet, stream
63
notes
video and audio data, receive and send e-mails, attend/give lectures and
presentations among its very many other functions. They have excellent screen
resolution and clarity.
7. Mobile Communication Technologies
This section lists the current mobile technologies starting from 3G technologies
to newer ones:
3G, 4G, 5G
3G or third generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards
for mobile phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the
International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the
International Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide-area
wireless voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all
in a mobile environment.
Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation
system that provides location and time information in all weather, anywhere on
or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more
GPS satellites. The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil
and commercial users around the world. In addition, GPS is the backbone for
modernizing the global air traffic system, weather, and location services.
Long Term Evolution (LTE)

LTE is a standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile
phones and data terminals. It is based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA
network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed using new modulation
techniques. It is related with the implementation of fourth Generation (4G)
technology.
WiMAX
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second
data rates, with the latest update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. It is
a part of a fourth generation or 4G wireless-communication technology. WiMAX
64
notes
far surpasses the 30-metre wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi Local Area
Network (LAN), offering a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of
about 50 km. WiMAX offers data transfer rates that can be superior to
conventional cable-modem and DSL connections, however, the bandwidth must
be shared among multiple users and thus yields lower speed in practice.
Near Field Communication

Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and
similar devices to establish radio communication with each other by touching
them together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no more than a few
centimeters. Present and anticipated applications include contactless
transactions, data exchange, and simplified setup of more complex
communications such as Wi-Fi. Communication is also possible between an
NFC device and an unpowered NFC chip, called a "tag".
65
notes

Faculty of Science
University of Abuja
CSC200: Introduction to Computers
Lecture 8
Title: Introduction to Computer Security.
Description:
This is systematic view of system security requirements and potential means to
satisfy them. We would identify properties of a secure computer system and
provide a classification of potential threats to them. And also introduce the
mechanisms to defend against attacks that attempt to violate desired properties.
Computer security
The meaning of the term computer security has evolved in recent years. Before
the problem of data security became widely publicized in the media, most
people’s idea of computer security focused on the physical machine.
Traditionally, computer facilities have been physically protected for three reasons:
• To prevent theft of or damage to the hardware
• To prevent theft of or damage to the information
• To prevent disruption of service
Strict procedures for access to the machine room are used by most
organizations, and these procedures are often an organization’s only obvious
computer security measures. Today, however, with pervasive remote terminal
access, communications, and networking, physical measures rarely provide
meaningful protection for either the information or the service; only the hardware
is secure. Nonetheless, most computer facilities continue to protect their
physical machine far better than they do their data, even when the value of the
data is several times greater than the value of the hardware.
Like any computer system, a secure system can be studied under three headings:
66
notes
Specification: What is it supposed to do?

Implementation: How does it do it?
Correctness: Does it really work?
In security they are called policy, mechanism, and assurance, since it’s
customary to give new names to familiar concepts. Thus we have the
correspondence:
Specification Policy
Implementation Mechanism
Correctness Assurance
Assurance is especially important for security because the system must
withstand malicious attacks, not just ordinary use. Deployed systems with many
happy users often have thousands of bugs. This happens because the system
enters very few of its possible states during ordinary use. Attackers, of course,
try to drive the system into states that they can exploit, and since there are so
many bugs, this is usually quite easy.
People have been working on computer system security for at least 30 years.
During this time there have been many intellectual successes. Notable among
them are the subject/object access matrix model, access control lists, multilevel
security using information flow, and the star-property, public key cryptography,
and cryptographic protocols. In spite of these successes, it seems fair to say that
in an absolute sense, the security of the hundreds of millions of deployed
computer systems is terrible: a determined and competent attacker could
destroy most of the information on almost any of these systems, or steal it from
any system that is connected to a network. Even worse, the attacker could do
this to millions of systems at once.
On the other hand, not much harm is actually being done by attacks on these
insecure systems. Once or twice a year an email virus such as “I love you” infects
a million or two machines, and newspapers print extravagant estimates of the
damage it does, but these are minor annoyances.
There is no accurate data about the cost of failures in computer security. On the
one hand, most of them are never made public for fear of embarrassment. On the
67
notes
other, when a public incident does occur, the security experts and vendors of
antivirus software that talk to the media have every incentive to greatly
exaggerate its costs. But money talks. Many vendors of security have learned to
their regret that although people complain about inadequate security, they won’t
spend much money, sacrifice many features, or put up with much inconvenience
in order to improve it. This strongly suggests that bad security is not really
costing them much. Of course, computer security is not just about computer
systems. Like any security, it is only as strong as its weakest link, and the links
include the people and the physical security of the system. Very often the easiest
way to break into a system is to bribe an insider. This short paper, however, is
limited to computer systems.
What do we want from secure computer systems? Here is a reasonable goal:
Computers are as secure as real world systems, and people believe it.
Most real world systems are not very secure by the absolute standard suggested
above. It’s easy to break into someone’s house. In fact, in many places people
don’t even bother to lock their houses, although in Manhattan they may use two
or three locks on the front door. It’s fairly easy to steal something from a store.
You need very little technology to forge a credit card, and it’s quite safe to use a
forged card at least a few times.
Why do people live with such poor security in real world systems? The reason is
that security is not about perfect defenses against determined attackers. Instead,
it’s about value, locks, and punishment.
The bad guy balances the value of what he gains against the risk of punishment,
which is the cost of punishment times the probability of getting punished. The
main thing that makes real world systems sufficiently secure is that bad guys
who do break in are caught and punished often enough to make a life of crime
unattractive. The purpose of locks is not to provide absolute security, but to
prevent casual intrusion by raising the threshold for a break-in.
Well, what’s wrong with perfect defenses? The answer is simple: they cost too
68
notes
much. There is a good way to protect personal belongings against determined

attackers: put them in a safe deposit box. After 100 years of experience, banks
have learned how to use steel and concrete, time locks, alarms, and multiple keys
to make these boxes quite secure. But they are both expensive and inconvenient.
As a result, people use them only for things that are seldom needed and either
expensive or hard to replace.
Practical security balances the cost of protection and the risk of loss, which is
the cost of recovering from a loss times its probability. Usually the probability is
fairly small (because the risk of punishment is high enough), and therefore the
risk of loss is also small. When the risk is less than the cost of recovering, it’s
better to accept it as a cost of doing business (or a cost of daily living) than to
pay for better security. People and credit card companies make these decisions
every day.
With computers, on the other hand, security is only a matter of software, which is
cheap to manufacture, never wears out, and can’t be attacked with drills or
explosives. This makes it easy to drift into thinking that computer security can be
perfect, or nearly so. The fact that work on computer security has been
dominated by the needs of national security has made this problem worse. In this
context the stakes are much higher and there are no police or courts available to
punish attackers, so it’s more important not to make mistakes. Furthermore,
computer security has been regarded as an offshoot of communication security,
which is based on cryptography. Since cryptography can be nearly perfect, it’s
natural to think that computer security can be as well.
What’s wrong with this reasoning? It ignores two critical facts:
• Secure systems are complicated, hence imperfect.
• Security gets in the way of other things you want.
Software is complicated, and it’s essentially impossible to make it perfect. Even
worse, security has to be set up by establishing user accounts and passwords,
access control lists on resources, and trust relationships between organizations.
In a world of legacy hardware and software, networked computers, mobile code,
69
notes
and constantly changing relationships between organizations, setup gets

complicated. And it’s easy to think up scenarios in which you want precise
control over who can do what. Features put in to address such scenarios make
setup even more complicated.
Security gets in the way of other things you want. For software developers,
security interferes with features and with time to market. This leads to such
things as a widely used protocol for secure TCP/IP connections that use the
same key for every session as long as the user’s password stays the same, or an
endless stream of buffer overrun errors in privileged programs, each one making
it possible for an attacker to take control of the system.
For users and administrators, security interferes with getting work done
conveniently or in some cases at all. This is more important, since there are lot
more users than developers. Security setup also takes time, and it contributes
nothing to useful output. Furthermore, if the setup is too permissive no one will
notice unless there’s an audit or an attack. This leads to such things as users,
whose password is their first name, or a large company in which more than half
of the installed database servers have a blank administrator password, or public
access to databases of credit card numbers, or e-mail clients that run
attachments containing arbitrary code with the user’s privileges.
Furthermore, the Internet has made computer security much more difficult than it
used to be. In the good old days, a computer system had a few dozen users at
most, all members of the same organization. It ran programs written in-house or
by a few vendors. Information was moved from one computer to another by
carrying tapes or disks.
Real security
The end result should not be surprising. We don’t have “real” security that
guarantees to stop bad things from happening, and the main reason is that
people don’t buy it. They don’t buy it because the danger is small, and because
security is a pain.
• Since the danger is small, people prefer to buy features.
70
notes
A secure system has fewer features because it has to be implemented correctly.

This means that it takes more time to build, so naturally it lacks the latest
features.
• Security is a pain because it stops you from doing things, and you have to do
work to authenticate yourself and to set it up.
A secondary reason we don’t have “real” security is that systems are complicated,
and therefore both the code and the setup have bugs that an attacker can exploit.
This is the reason that gets all the attention, but it is not the heart of the problem.
Will things get better? Certainly if there are some major security catastrophes,
buyers will change their priorities and systems will become more secure. Short of
that, the best we can do is to drastically simplify the parts of systems that have
to do with security:
• Users need to have at most three categories for authorization: me, my group or
company, and the world.
• Administrators need to write policies that control security settings in a uniform
way, since they can’t deal effectively with lots of individual cases.
• Everyone needs a uniform way to do end-to-end authentication and
authorization across the entire Internet.
Since people would rather have features than security, most of these things are
unlikely to happen.
On the other hand, don’t forget that in the real world security depends more on
police than on locks, so detecting attacks, recovering from them, and punishing
the bad guys are more important than prevention.
Security Attacks
Today half a billion people all over the world are on the Internet, including you.
This poses a big new set of problems. we assume that the function of a
computer system is to provide information. In general, there is a flow of data
from a source (e.g., a host, a file, memory) to a destination (e.g., a remote host,
another file, a user) over a communication channel (e.g., a wire, a data bus). The
task of the security system is to restrict access to this information to only those
71
notes
parties (persons or processes) that are authorized to have access, according to

the security policy in use. The normal information flow and several categories of
attacks that target it are shown in Figure below:
 Interruption: An asset of the system gets destroyed or becomes unavailable.

This attack targets the source or the communication channel and prevents
information from reaching its intended target (e.g., cutting the wire or
overloading the link so that the information gets dropped because of
congestion). Attacks in this category attempt to perform a kind of denial of
service (DOS).
72
notes
 Interception: An unauthorized party gets access to the information by

eavesdropping into the communication channel (e.g., by wiretapping).
 Modification: The information is not only intercepted, but modified by an
unauthorized party while in transit from the source to the destination. (e.g. by
modifying the message content).
 Fabrication: An attacker inserts counterfeit objects into the system without
having the sender doing anything. When a previously intercepted object is
inserted, this process is called replaying. When the attacker pretends to be the
legitimate source and inserts her desired information, the attack is called
masquerading (e.g., replaying an authentication message or adding records to
a file).
 Attack from anywhere: Any one on the Internet can take a poke at your system.
 Sharing with anyone: On the other hand, you may want to communicate or
share information with any other Internet user.
 Automated infection: Your system, if compromised, can spread the harm to
many others in a few seconds.
 Hostile code: Code from many different sources runs on your system, usually
without your knowledge if it comes from a Web page. The code might be
hostile, but you can’t just isolate it, because you want it to work for you.
 Hostile environment: A mobile device like a laptop may find itself in a hostile
environment that attacks its physical security.
 Hostile hosts: If you own information (music or movies, for example), it gets
downloaded to your customers’ systems, which may be hostile and try to steal
it.
Security Properties
Security policy is a description of the user’s needs for security. Organizations and
people that use computers can describe their needs for information security
under four major headings:
• Confidentiality or Secrecy: controlling who gets to read information. This
property covers the protection of transmitted data against its release to
73
notes
unauthorized parties. In addition to the protection of the content itself, the

information flow should also be resistant against traffic analysis. Traffic analysis
is used to gather other information than the transmitted values themselves from
the data flow (e.g., the parties involved, timing data, or frequency of messages).
• Integrity: controlling how information changes or resources are used.
• Availability: providing prompt access to information and resources.
 Authentication: Authentication is concerned with making sure that the
information is authentic. A system implementing the authentication property
assures the recipient that the data is from the source that it claims to be. The
system must make sure that no third party can masquerade successfully as
another source.
• Non-repudiation or Accountability: knowing who has had access to information
or resources. And this property describes the mechanism that prevents either
sender or receiver from denying a transmitted message. When a message has
been transferred, the sender can prove that it has been received. Similarly, the
receiver can prove that the message has actually been sent.
They are usually trying to protect some resource against danger from an attacker.
The resource is usually either information or money. The most important dangers
are:
Vandalism or sabotage that
—damages information integrity
—disrupts service availability
Theft
—of money integrity
—of information secrecy
Loss of privacy secrecy
Each user of computers must decide what security means to them. Most policies
include elements from all four categories, but the emphasis varies widely.
Policies for computer systems are usually derived from policies for security of
systems that don’t involve computers. The military is most concerned with
74
notes
secrecy, ordinary businesses with integrity and accountability, telephone

companies with availability. Obviously integrity is also important for national
security: an intruder should not be able to change the sailing orders for a carrier,
and certainly not to cause the firing of a missile or the arming of a nuclear
weapon.
And secrecy is important in commercial applications: financial and personnel
information must not be disclosed to outsiders. Nonetheless, the difference in
emphasis remains.
A security policy has both a positive and negative aspect. It might say, “Company
confidential information should be accessible only to properly authorized
employees”. This means two things: properly authorized employees should have
access to the information, and other people should not have access. When
people talk about security, the emphasis is usually on the negative aspect:
keeping out the bad guy. In practice, however, the positive aspect gets more
attention, since too little access keeps people from getting their work done,
which draws attention immediately, but too much access goes undetected until
there’s a security audit or an obvious attack, which hardly ever happens. This
distinction between talk and practice is pervasive in security.
Security deals mostly with integrity, treating secrecy as a dual problem. It has
little to say about availability, which is a matter of keeping systems from crashing
and allocating resources both fairly and cheaply. Most attacks on availability
work by overloading systems that do too much work in deciding whether to
accept a request.
Security Mechanisms:
Different security mechanisms can be used to enforce the security properties
defined in a given security policy. Depending on the anticipated attacks, different
means have to be applied to satisfy the desired properties. Three main classes of
measures against attacks can be identified, namely attack prevention, attack
avoidance, and attack detection.
75
notes
Attack Prevention:
Attack prevention is a class of security mechanisms that contains ways of
Preventing or defending against certain attacks before they can actually reach
and affect the target. An important element in this category is access control, a
mechanism which can be applied at different levels such as the operating
system, the network, or the application layer.
Access control [Tanenbaum and van Steen, 2002] limits and regulates the access
to critical resources. This is done by identifying or authenticating the party that
requests a resource and checking its permissions against the rights specified for
the demanded object. It is assumed that an attacker is not legitimately permitted
to use the target object and is therefore denied access to the resource. As
access is a prerequisite for an attack, any possible interference is prevented.
The most common form of access control used in multi-user computer systems
are access control lists for resources that are based on the user and group
identity of the process that attempts to use them. The identity of a user is
determined by an initial authentication process that usually requires a name and
a password. The login process retrieves the stored copy of the password
corresponding to the user name and compares it with the presented one. When
both match, the system grants the user the appropriate user and group
credentials. When a resource should be accessed, the system looks up the user
and group in the access control list and grants or denies access as appropriate.
An example of this kind of access control can be found in the UNIX file system,
which provides read, write and execute permissions based on the user and group
membership. In this example, attacks against files that a user is not authorized
to use are prevented by the access control part of the file system code in the
operating system.
Attack Avoidance
Security mechanisms in this category assume that an intruder may access the
desired resource but the information is modified in a way that makes it unusable
for the attacker. The information is preprocessed at the sender before it is
76
notes
transmitted over the communication channel and post-processed at the receiver.

While the information is transported over the communication channel, it resists
attacks by being nearly useless for an intruder. One notable exception are
attacks against the availability of the information, as an attacker could still
interrupt the message. During the processing step at the receiver, modifications
or errors that might have previously occurred can be detected (usually because
the information cannot be correctly reconstructed). When no modification has
taken place, the information at the receiver is identical to the one at the sender
before the preprocessing step.
The most important member in this category is cryptography, which is defined as
the science of keeping messages secure. It allows the sender to transform
information into what may seem like a random data stream to an attacker, but
can be easily decoded by an authorized receiver.
Encryption and Decryption
The original message is called plaintext (sometimes also cleartext). The process
of converting this message through the application of some transformation rules
into a format that hides its substance is called encryption. The corresponding
disguised message is denoted as ciphertext, and the operation of turning it back
into clear text is called decryption. It is important to notice that the conversion
from plain to ciphertext has to be lossless in order to be able to recover the
77
notes
original message at the receiver under all circumstances.
The two major cryptographic approaches are:

- Public-key and
-Secret-key crypto systems.
Secret-Key Cryptography
Secret-key cryptography is the type of cryptography that has been used for the
transmission of secret information for centuries, long before the advent of
computers. These algorithms require that the sender and the receiver agree ona
key before communication is started.
It is common for this variant (which is also called single-key or symmetric
encryption) that a single secret key is shared between the sender and the
receiver. The classic example of a secret-key cipher which is widely deployed today is
the Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Public-Key Cryptography
Public-key cryptography utilizes two different keys, one called the public key, the
other one called the private key. The public key is used to encrypt a message
while the corresponding private key is used to do the opposite. The innovation is
the fact that it is infeasible to retrieve the private key given the public key. This
makes it possible to remove the weakness of secure key transmission from the
sender to the receiver.
Attack Detection
Attack detection assumes that an attacker can obtain access to her desired
targets and is successful in violating a given security policy. Mechanisms in this
class are based on the optimistic assumption that, most of the time, the
information is transferred without interference. When undesired actions occur,
attack detection has the task of reporting that something went wrong and to
react in an appropriate way. In addition, it is often desirable to identify the exact
type of attack. An important facet of attack detection is recovery. Often it is
78
notes
enough to just report that malicious activity has been detected, but some
systems require that the effects of an attack be reverted or that an ongoing and
discovered attack is stopped. On one hand, attack detection has the advantage
that it operates under the worst-case assumption that the attacker gains access
to the communication channel and is able to use or modify the resource. On
theother hand, detection is not effective in providing confidentiality of
information.
79
notes

Faculty of Science
University of Abuja
CSC 200: Introduction to Computers
Lecture 10
Title: Introduction of Microsoft Word
Description:
Microsoft Word is a Word processor used in processing words and images.
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students will:
1. Appreciate Word Processor
2. Understand the features abound in Word Processor
3. Appreciate Microsoft Word Environment
4. Be able to create and edit document
5. Be able to apply basic formatting on text
6. Be able to apply basic formatting on Paragraph, page
7. Be able to save document
8. Be able to open document
Preamble
In lecture one, you learnt that computer comprises Hardware and Software.
Furthermore, it was discussed that the software been the driver of the hardware
is of two types; System software and Application Software and that they are
many examples of Application software among which is Word Processor.
Microsoft Word is an example of an Word Processor.
Word Processors are used for word processing, that is, used for creating and
editing text based documents such as memo, letters, newsletters, minutes,
projects etc ). Eg. It is a concept in computing that involves the Creating, Storing,
Editing, and Formatting of documents. In other word, it is the use of computer in
the typesetting of documents- writing tool you can use to create any type of
document; a letter to a client or business associate, a memo to fellow workers, a
report for a business partner, term paper, projects etc.
Examples of Word processor include MS-Word, WordPerfect etc

Word Processor amongst many other reasons, can help you in :
1. Making professional and eye-catching documents with its enhanced
features.
2. Making several copies of your documents available in its original form.
3. Making addition or correction to your document quickly and neat.
4. Producing multiple documents at the shortest possible time.
80
notes
5. Minimizing errors in your documents.
Microsoft word belongs to a group of Microsoft applications which are needed in

office environment as productivity tools. They are called Microsoft Office suit.
Others include Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, Microsoft PowerPoint,
Microsoft Outlook
It is a very powerful Word Processing package that is formulated to produce high
quality documents. Its many unique features include:
 Automatically pointing out misspelled English words by underlining them,
 Automatically pointing out grammatical English error by underlining them,
 Formatting Documents automatically as you type,
 Keep track of changes made to your document etc.
There are different versions of Microsoft word but the most common now is
Microsoft word 2010, though there are higher versions.
Basics of Microsoft Word

Getting started with Microsoft Word
To start Microsoft Word, Click on Microsoft Word from your program or Desktop
and the screen below is display. This is called Microsoft Word window.
The Microsoft Word window contains the following
i. The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Microsoft Word window is the Microsoft Office
button. When you click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to
create a new file, open an existing file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.
ii The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick
81
notes
Access toolbar provides you with access to commands you frequently use. By
default Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use
Save to save your file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to
reapply an action you have rolled back.
iii The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar displays the title of
the document on which you are currently working. Word names the first new
document you open Document1. As you open additional new documents, Word
names them sequentially. When you save your document, you assign the
document a new name.
iv The Ribbon
You use commands to tell Microsoft Word what to do. In Microsoft Word, you
use the Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the
screen, below the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs;
clicking a tab displays several related command groups. Within each group are
related command buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to access
menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-
right corner of a group. Clicking the dialog box launcher gives you access to
additional commands via a dialog box.
v. The Ruler
The ruler is found below the Ribbon.

You use the ruler to change the format of your document. If your ruler is not
visible, you can make it visible as follow:
1. Click the View tab to choose it.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The ruler
appears below the Ribbon.
vi. The Text Area

Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document
82
notes
in the text area. The blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the text area
is called the cursor. It marks the insertion point. As you type, your text displays at
the cursor location. The horizontal line next to the cursor marks the end of the
document.
vii. The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across
your window simply by dragging the icon located on the scroll bar. The vertical
scroll bar is located along the right side of the screen. The horizontal scroll bar is
located just above the status bar. To move up and down your document, click
and drag the vertical scroll bar up and down. To move back and forth across your
document, click and drag the horizontal scroll bar back and forth. You won't see a
horizontal scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your screen.
viii The Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and provides such
information as the current page and the number of words in your document. You
can change what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar
and selecting the options you want from the Customize Status Bar menu. You
click a menu item to select it. You click it again to deselect it. A check mark next
to an item means it is selected.
Some basic operations with the mouse

To Click
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your left mouse button once.
83
notes
To double click
2. Quickly press your left mouse button twice.
To right-click:
2. Press your right mouse button.
To choose a tab, click the tab.
Creating a Document
Type, Backspace, and Delete
In Microsoft Word, you create documents by pressing the characters that make
the words on the keyboard, that is, pressing appropriate key on the keyboard to
form a word. For example, if you want to create a report, you open Microsoft
Word and then begin typing pressing spacebar to separate the words. You do not
have to do anything when your text reaches the end of a line and you want to
move to a new line Microsoft Word automatically moves your text to a new
line. This is called word wrap. If you want to start a new paragraph, press Enter.
Microsoft word creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new paragraph. To
capitalize, hold down the Shift key while typing the letter you want to capitalize.
If you make a mistake, you can delete what you typed and then type your
correction. Use the Backspace key to delete a character to the left of the cursor.
Each time you press the Backspace key, Microsoft Word deletes the character
that precedes the insertion point. The insertion point is the point at which the
cursor is located. You can also delete text by using the Delete key. Delete key
delete a character to the right of the cursor.
Editing Document
Before you edit a document, you need to select the character, word that you wish
to change or apply format to. When you select a character or word etc. the
portion you select is highlighted by default blue.
Selecting Text
Select with the Mouse
1. Place your cursor before the character or word or paragraph you wish to
select
2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.
3. Drag the mouse until you have highlighted the areas of interest.
Alternatively you can use the Shift and Arrow Keys on the keyboard to select
your area of interest
To select using Shift and Arrow keys:
1. Place your cursor before the word
2. Press and hold down the Shift key, which serves as an "anchor" showing
where text you wish to select begins or ends.
3. Press the right arrow key until the area of interest is highlighted.
84
notes
To deselect selected item(s) click anywhere in the document.
Moving Round the Document

You can move the cursors to any position in the document by using the Arrow
keys. To move left use the left arrow key, to right; press the right arrow key. Do
same to move up or down. To move to the beginning of the document quickly,
press the HOME key.
Alternatively, move your mouse pointer the position you want to move to and
click the left button. The cursor position will change to where you click.
(The cursor is a small vertical line that blinks on the screen. It indicates the
position where the next character you will press will appear on the document.)
Text Formatting
Bold, Italicize, and Underline
When creating a document, you may need to emphasize particular words or
phrases by bolding, underlining, or italicizing. Also, certain grammatical
constructs require that you bold, underline, or italicize.
To apply a format to your text, either choose the format you want before typing
the text or after typing the text, select it and then apply the format you want.
1. To bold your text (makes the text darken and stand out):
Select the text and Click on B on the Font Ribbon or select the text and
press CTRL and B
2. To change your text to italic, select the text and Click on I on the Font
Ribbon or select the text and press CTRL and I
3. To underline your text select the text and Click on U on the Font Ribbon or
select and press CTRL and U
Changing Fonts Type

Font is the writing style. Microsoft Word provides you with different writing style
to make your work beautiful and admirable. Writing style (font) can be chosen
before tying the text or after typing the text. To change the font type before
typing the text, choose a Font in the Font box on the Font Ribbon.
To change writing style after tying the text,:

 select the text whose font type you want to change
 Click on the Font box on the Ribbon and select the font style you want.
Changing font Size (making what you typed big or small)
 select the word or character
85
notes
 click on Font size button

 click on the number you want.
 In case the number you want is not in the options, type in the number.
Changing Character Case (make it all CAPITAL letter, small letter , Sentence
case, Title Case etc)
 Select the text
 Click change case button on the Font Ribbon
 Click on the option you want
Highlighting text
To mark text so that it is highlighted and stands out from the rest of the
document,
 click and then select the text you want to highlight.
 click on the Highlighting button on the paragraph ribbon
To change the colour of a text
 select the text
 click the font color button
 Click on the arrow next to the button and then select the colour you want.
Adding Borders /Shading to Paragraph
 Select the portion of your document you want to enclose in a border.
 Click Borders button on the Paragraph Ribbon
It displays the Borders options so you can quickly add borders to selected
paragraphs, table cells, frames, and graphics.
 Click Outside Border button to insert border around you the selected area
 Click Inside Border button if you want border within the selected area etc.
 Click on all borders to have both outside and inside borders
simultaneously.
 Click on right border for border on the right side of the paragraph, frame,
cell etc or click on the left border for border on the left side.
 Click no border to remove border from the paragraph or cell or frame.
Numbered and Bulleted Lists

1. This is numbered
2. This is numbered
3. This is numbered
4. This is numbered
86
notes
 While this is bulleted

To create numbered and bulleted lists
1. Select the list you want to number or Place the cursor in the location if you
don’t have a list already.
2. Click Numbering button or the Bullets button on the paragraph Ribbon
3. To select different style of numbering or bullets, select the portion of the
document you wish to number, click the arrow next to the button and
select the style you want.
Removing Bullets or Numbering
Select the items from which you want bullets or numbers removed. To remove
bullets, click Bullets Button or click on numbering button to remove the number.
To remove a single bullet or number, click before the bullet or number and press
BACKSPACE key.
Creating Subscript (such as X2)

 Select the character and click on subscript button on the Font Ribbon
 Creating Superscript (such as X2)
 Select the character and click on superscript button on the Font Ribbon
Paragraph Formatting:
Alignment defines how your paragraph should appear in you’re your document.
Should it be centered on the page, should be smooth at the left or right or both.
On the paragraph Ribbon, to align:

Left: Click the Align Left button
Centre: Click the Align Centre button
Right: Click the Align Right button
To make selected text have smooth left and right edges, click the Justify button
Paragraph Indenting
There are two types of indent:
Paragraph indent and Hanging indent.
87
notes
To indent a Paragraph
Select the paragraph you want to indent or set off from the left or right margin.
 Click Increase Indent button to indent a paragraph to the next tab stop,
 Click Decrease Indent button to indent a paragraph to the previous tab
stop.
Line Spacing
Line spacing determines the vertical space between lines of text. Word uses
single line spacing by default. The line spacing you select will affect all lines of
text in the selected paragraph on which your cursor is.
To apply Line Spacing to your paragraph
 Select the portion that should be affected, if the whole document, Press
CTRL and A
together to select the whole document.
 On the paragraph Ribbon Click line spacing button. Select the spacing option
you want. For more options click on line spacing options
 In the paragraph dialogue box display, Click on the arrow on the Line Spacing
box.
 Select the option you want and click OK.
Setting Page Margins

Margins are non printable spaces left at the top, bottom, left and right of a
document.
To set your page margins;
 Click on Page Layout menu
 click the Margins button on the Ribbon display.
A default settings will be display. You can select from the options display or
customize your own setting by clicking on Custom Margins and enter the
measurement for the margin. In the Margins tab the defaults are:
Top: 1"
Bottom: 1"
Left: 1.25"
Right: 1.25"
Mirror Margins allows you to print on both sides of the paper and maintains
uniform left and right margins. The inside margins of facing pages are the same
width and the outside margins are the same width. To create mirror margin
88
notes
select mirrored margin option.
Gutter Margins
To allow extra space for binding of your document, enter the measurement of
extra space you want to add
to the margin in the Gutter box.
MS-Word adds the extra space to the left margin of all pages.
Setting paper Size and Orientation

Paper size on which you print can be A4, A3, letter, legal etc. the dimension of the
paper size is display in width and length. You can enter your own custom width
and length of the paper you intend to print on. You can also set your paper
orientation. Your orientation can be Portrait (default orientation), the document
is printed along the height of the paper, that is vertical wise on the paper, or
landscape—printed along the length of the paper, that is horizontal wise on the
paper.
To set your paper size and orientation:
 Click on Page Layout Menu
 Click on Orientation to set orientation
 Click on size to set paper size
Adding Page Number
Page numbers are numbers that list the pages of your document. It is necessary
to number the pages of your document to be able to follow the flow of the
document.
To add page number:
 Click on insert menu
 Click on Page Numbers
To position the page number on the top of each page, select Top of page, or
select Bottom of page to position the page numbering at the bottom of each
page. To position the page number in the left, middle, or right side of the header
or footer, select the appropriate position from the options displayed.
You can format the page numbering to select different numbering style such as A,
B, C.. , I, II, III, 1, 2, 3… etc or to enter text before page number by clicking on
format page numbers.
Check spelling and grammar

As you type your document, MS Word automatically points out misspelled word
89
notes
with a red waving line under the word. This you can check by right clicking on
such word in which case, options are displayed from which you can select the
correct word or ignore if you feel the word is correctly spelt. Similarly, MS Word
also flags error message on wrong grammar by blue wave line under the
sentence. This you can equally correct or right clicking on the sentence to view
possible suggestions or ignore.
To check through the whole document for possible spelling or grammatical error:
 Open the document (if it not open already) , in which you want to check
the spelling error.
 Click inside the document and press SHIFT and F7 keys together. To
check only a specific piece of text, select the text that you want to check.
Press SHIFT and F7 keys together. Or On the Review tab, click Spelling &
Grammar. If you want to also check grammar, select the Check grammar
check box.
If the MS Word finds spelling mistake, a task pane is displayed, and the first
misspelled word found by the spelling checker is selected and highlighted on the
task pane. You decide how you want to resolve each error that the program finds
either by selecting the word from the Suggestions list, and then click Change. Or
Click the word in the document, and edit the word as needed to fix the word.
After you fix the word, click Resume. If the word is correct click ignore the
misspelled word and move on to the next word. If the word flag by the system to
be misspelled is actually correct and you want all the Microsoft Office programs
to recognize this word and not treat it as a misspelling, you can add it to the
dictionary by clicking on Add to dictionary
AutoCorrect
AutoCorrect automatically correct spelling as you type, without having to confirm
each correction. For example, if you type denfinitely and then type a space or
other punctuation, the AutoCorrect feature automatically replaces the misspelled
word with definitely. You may wish the program to automatically correct such
word for you any time you make the mistake, select the correct option from the
suggestion that are displayed as you check your spelling, and click on
autocorrect.
Looking up Words in the Thesaurus (Checking the meaning of a word)

Select or type the word in the document for which you want to find a synonym, an
90
notes
antonym, or related words. Click on Review tab and click on Thesaurus
Save a File and Close Word

You must save your documents if you wish to recall them later. You can use the
Save option on the Microsoft Office menu, to save a document. You can also
save a document by pressing Ctrl and S together. The first time you save a
document, the Save As dialog box appears. Use the Save As dialog box to locate
the folder in which you want to save your document and to give your document a
name. After you have saved your document at least once, you can save any
changes you make to your document simply by clicking the Save after you click
the Microsoft Office button.
To save a file
1. Click the Microsoft Office button or file menu. A menu appears.
2. Click Save As. The Save As dialog box appears

3. Use the Address bar to locate the folder in which you want to save your
file.
4. Name your file by typing a file name in the File Name box.
5. Click Save.
6. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
Every time you save your document, you overwrite the previous version of your
document. For example, you create a document and save it. Later you delete
several passages from the document and then save your changes. The passages
from the first draft of the document no longer exist. If you want to save both the
original draft of your document and the revised document, you must save the
second draft of the document using a different name. To save the document
using a different name, click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears. Click
Save As. The Save As dialog box appears. Use the File Name box to give your
document a new name.
Exiting Word
When you are done with MS Word, and wish to close it, Click Exit Word, This is
located in the bottom-right corner of the window.
91
notes
Open a saved document

When you do not have time to complete your work or when you finish your work,
you can save and close your file. After saving a file, you can later open it to revise
or finish it.
Open a File
1. Start Microsoft Word
2. Click the Microsoft Office button or File Menu. A menu appears.
3. Click Open. The Open dialog box appears.
4. Locate the folder in which you saved the file.
5. Click the filename.
6. Click Open. The file you created previously opens.
Alternate Method—Opening a File with Keys

1. Press Ctrl+o.
2. Locate the folder in which you saved your file.
3. Click the file name.
4. Click Open. The file you created previously appears.
Exercise
Start Microsoft Word on your computer
1. Type the following:
I can be any size you want me to be.
2. Select "I can be any size you want me to be."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. In the Font group, click the down arrow next to the Font Size box. A menu
of font sizes appears.
5. Move your cursor over the menu of font sizes.
6. Click 36 to select it as your font size
7. Change the font size to 11
8. Select it again
9. On the font face box, select ALGERIAN
10.Select “I can”
11.Click B on the font ribbon
12. On the same ribbon Click I, U
13. Save the document with the name Exercise
14. Open the file Exercise.docx
References
Microsoft Word online help
Computer Appreciation for Beginners & Intermediate Users by Apeh Ayo I
https://www.microsoft.com/learning
92
notes

Faculty of Science
University of Abuja
CSC200: Introduction to Computers
Lecture 10
Title:
Brief discussion of the impact of ICT on the society ( Internet revolution and
social media in Nigeria context)
Description:
Today, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has become an

integral part of the human life. Everywhere we look, we see ICT in the form of
computers, tablets PCs, smartphones, the Internet and other communication
networks being deployed and used to enhance human life and activities. The
Internet and the social media have come to completely revolutionalize the human
life and activities. These technologies are becoming part and parcel of everything
we do. Consequently, the Internet and the social media are changing us, our
communities, our societies in unprecedented ways, and they are becoming more
pervasive with each passing year. In this lecture, we shall take a closer look at
the Internet and the social media and examine how they are impacting our lives.
Objectives:
Students will learn
7. definition of internet as well as what the internet is
8. what is meant by Internet revolution and how it has influenced the society
9. what Social media is
10. about some Social media networks or platforms
11. some positive and negative impact of social media on the human society
10.1 THE INTERNET
What is the Internet?
The internet may be simply defined as a global communication network that

allows almost all computers worldwide to connect and exchange information.
The internet is the single worldwide computer network that interconnects other
computer networks, on which end-user services, such as World Wide Web sites,
Electronic Mail or data repositories are located, enabling data and other
information to be exchanged effectively.
93
notes
Known by other names such as the Information Super Highway or simply the Net,
the Internet grew out of the Advanced Research Projects Agency's Wide Area
Network (then called ARPANET), which was established by the US Department Of
Defense in 1960s for collaboration in military research among business and
government laboratories.
Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining communication

facility accessible to hundreds of millions of people worldwide.
The internet, by itself, is basically a gigantic communication infrastructure. This

massive infrastructure provides the bedrock for a number of services, which
include the following:
 World Wide Web (WWW)

 Electronic Mail (E-mail)
 News Groups
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
 Telnet
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
 Gopher
Among these internet-enabled services, the WWW and the E-mail are the most
predominantly used.
10.2 THE INTERNET REVOLUTION
The Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines the word revolution as, “a

sudden, radical, or complete change,” while the Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary defines it as, “a great change in conditions, ways of working, beliefs,
etc., that affects large numbers of people.” Essentially, a revolution is a drastic
and total change in the way and manner a large group of people do certain things,
be it political, economical, social, cultural or even religious. Therefore, when a
new development in an industry or society changes everything drastically, it can
be called a revolution. The Internet has certainly caused a revolution in the way
people lead their lives.
However, preceding the internet revolution was another technological revolution

known as the Digital revolution. The Digital Revolution refers to the advancement
of technology from analog electronic and mechanical devices to digital
technology. This includes the sweeping changes brought about by the mass
94
notes
production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, which are the building
blocks of digital computing and communication technology and their derived
technologies, including the computer, cellular phone, and the Internet. Analogous
to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution
marked the beginning of the Information Age.
The internet is an offshoot of the digital revolution. For the first twenty or so
years of its existence, the Internet remained predominantly hidden from public
view and functioned as the private and entirely commerce-free playground of
researchers and scientists, students and computer center workers, and some
members of the military.
It was not until after the Internet was privatized and opened up to commercial
traffic in the early 1990s that it become a basic and essential part of our daily
lives. In less than ten years thereafter, it has become an integral component of
our home life, our businesses, our jobs, and the world’s communication
infrastructures, economies, and cultures, thus resulting to the Internet Revolution.
In the course of a few, frenetic years, the Internet has grown into an inexorable
force that businesses, non-commercial organizations, governments, scientific
and academic institutions, and individuals throughout the industrialized world
have not only accepted but embraced. Consequently, the impact of the Internet
can be seen all around us.
The Internet has transformed how business is conducted, and it has provided
powerful new ways to locate, learn about, and buy all types of products and
services. It has inspired and made possible the creation of entirely new business
enterprises, including the much touted and highly speculative business of e-
commerce.
It has enabled governments to better share information about and distribute

information to their citizens, and better collect information about those citizens.
It has facilitated collaboration on research, which, incidentally, fulfilled one of the
visions of its original creators. It has dramatically changed the way we
communicate and has enabled the creation of new social structures in the form
of virtual communities. It has forever altered how we access information and the
variety and quantity of information we can access, empowering us to gain
knowledge through a richness of resources that was previously only imagined in
science fiction. It has allowed us to become publishers of family photos, shared
genealogies, journals, diaries, diatribes, musical compositions, short stories, full
length novels, and just about anything else that can be stored and distributed in
the form of a computer file.
95
notes
For the purposes of a comparison, consider an earlier revolution incited by a

different, but an equally pronounced, leap in technology: the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century and
resulted from the invention and refinement of the steam engine, brought about
the mechanization of labor. Machines were created that performed the labor of
men, women, and farm animals, and they performed this work faster, cheaper,
with fewer problems and interruptions, and often with greater precision.
For many people, the Industrial Revolution meant new-found wealth, provided one
understood how to apply the new technology and succeeded in financing and
managing a new type of business venture. For some others, it meant a change in
employment and, more often than not, a resulting change for better or worse in
one’s financial situation, as many old, established jobs were eliminated or greatly
changed and new, very different jobs were created.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution and the mechanization of labor was
immediately evident in changes in the job market, the creation of new businesses
and new products, and the quality and quantity of products that could be
produced. But its most profound and lasting impact albeit less immediately
apparent was revealed in how individuals lived their lives and interacted with
others. It not only affected what people did for employment, it affected how
people performed their jobs. It also affected people’s home life and the amenities
in their homes, their health and the general comfort and quality of their lives, their
opportunities for education and advancement, and how fast and how far they
(and their information) traveled the world. In some way, shape, or form, the
Industrial Revolution eventually affected every region of the world and nearly
every member of society. Even the few, isolated areas of the world that, for
whatever reason, failed to feel its direct impact, were eventually indirectly
affected either through the trade and transportation of goods, the
communication of information, the expansion of urban areas into rural
communities, or the increased movement and migration of people. The
Industrial Revolution changed forever the face and form of the world, and, directly
or indirectly, these changes had consequences for everyone.
Similarly, the Internet Revolution, which began in the U.S. in the early 1990s has
brought about a different sort of mechanization than that brought about by the
Industrial Revolution, but one equally broad and far-reaching in its impact: the
mechanization of information and communication. Moreover, there is no going
back, no undoing of its effects, any more than one could undo the effects of the
Industrial Revolution. Also, much as the Industrial Revolution changed the lives of
individuals in different ways, the Internet and its revolution in how we
communicate, acquire information and educate ourselves, perform our jobs,
entertain ourselves, contribute to our communities, and interact with others,
96
notes
means something different to each of us.
If you currently use the Internet, consider for a moment how much time you
spend online at home, at work, or elsewhere. Think about the information you
routinely access through the Internet or the amount of email you send and
receive. Two of the most popular Internet services email and the Web are used
by millions of people across the globe every day. These two services constitute
only a small fraction of the services the Internet offers. But they alone have
changed the way we interact with our friends, family, and others, the variety and
volume of information at our disposal, and, more generally, how we conduct our
lives.
Everywhere we look, we see more and more references to the Internet. That is
because it is becoming part and parcel of everything we do. The Internet is
changing how we raise and educate our children, how we stay connected with
our families and friends, how, when, and where we perform our jobs, how we
purchase our goods, how we read the weather forecast or our horoscope or send
a birthday card. These changes in our behavior are fundamental and permanent,
and they are becoming more pervasive with each passing year. Consequently, the
Internet is changing us, our communities, our societies in unprecedented ways.
10.3 SOCIAL MEDIA
What is social media?
Social media is comprised of online communications channels dedicated to

community-based input, interaction, content-sharing and collaboration. Websites
and applications dedicated to forums, microblogging, social networking , social
bookmarking, social curation, and wikis are among the different types of social
media.
Presently, there are hundreds of social media platforms in existence and

operational, with many new ones springing up everyday. Some of them are:
Facebook, Google+, Friendster, hi5, LinkedIn, Twitter, Tumblr, XING, Flickr,
Howcast, iTunes, MySpace, Picasa, Vimeo, YouTube, Blab, Delicious, Digg,
Instagram, Pinterest, Quora, Reddit, Scribd, SlideShare, Wikipedia, Yelp,
WhatsApp, 2Go, Nairaland, LindaIkejiBlog, etc.
As mentioned earlier, the World Wide Web (WWW), or simply the Web, is one of
the services enabled by the internet. The social media platforms as we have
them today operate on the WWW.
97
notes
Social media is becoming an integral part of life online as social websites and
applications proliferate. Most traditional online media include social components,
such as comment fields for users. In business, social media is used to market
products, promote brands, connect to current customers and foster new
business.
Social media can be a very powerful business tool. For example, establishing a
Facebook page allows people who like your brand and the way you conduct
business to “Like” your page, which creates a venue for communication,
marketing and networking. Through social media sites, you can follow
conversations about your brand for real-time market data and feedback.
From the customer’s perspective, social media makes it easy to tell a company
and everyone else about their experiences with that company -- whether those
experiences are good or bad. The business can also respond very quickly to both
positive and negative feedback, attend to customer problems and maintain,
regain or rebuild customer confidence.
Enterprise social networking allows a company to connect individuals who share

similar business interests or activities. Internally, social tools can help employees
access information and resources they need to work together effectively and
solve business problems. Externally, public social media platforms help an
organization stay close to their customers and make it easier to conduct
research that they can use to improve business processes and operations.
Nigerians are not left out in the global movement towards the adoption and
integration of social media in the every facet of human life.
Here are some prominent social media platforms among Nigerians:
1. Facebook
Facebook is a popular free social networking website that allows
registered users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send
messages and keep in touch with friends, family and colleagues. At
present, this is the most popular social media platform among Nigerians.
Many Nigerian businesses use it to promote their brands and to market
their products and services.
2. Twitter
Twitter is a free microblogging service that allows registered members to
broadcast short posts called tweets. Twitter members can broadcast
tweets and follow other users' tweets by using multiple platforms and
devices. A lot of Nigerians as well as Nigerian organizations have Twitter
98
notes
accounts with massive followership.
3. Google+
Google+ (pronounced Google plus) is Google's social networking project,
designed to replicate the way people interact offline more closely than is
the case in other social networking services. Google+ is similar to
Facebook, albeit, less popular.
4. LinkedIn
LinkedIn is a social networking site designed specifically for the business
community. The goal of the site is to allow registered members to
establish and document networks of people they know and trust
professionally. LinkedIn is quite popular among Nigerians, especially the
professionals.
5. Instagram
Instagram is an online mobile photo-sharing, video-sharing, and social
networking service that enables its users to take pictures and videos, and
share them on a variety of social networking platforms, such as Facebook,
Twitter, Tumblr, and Flickr. Instagram is fastly gaining traction among
Nigerians, especially from the social angle.
6. Wikipedia
Wikipedia is a free, open content online encyclopedia created through the
collaborative effort of a community of users known as Wikipedians.
Anyone registered on the site can create an article for publication;
registration is not required to edit articles. Wikipedia is the de-facto online
encyclopedia that Nigerians make reference to a lot.
7. Pinterest
Pinterest is a social curation website for sharing and categorizing images
found online. Pinterest requires brief descriptions but the main focus of
the site is visual. Clicking on an image will take you to the original source,
so, for example, if you click on a picture of a pair of shoes, you might be
taken to a site where you can purchase them. More and more Nigerian
business owners are using the platform to advertize and market their
products and services.
8. Nairaland
Nairaland is an online community or forum created by Seun Osewa in
March 2005. It is targeted at Nigerians. It is a forum where members and
visitors can exchange and share information freely. It also provides a
platform for businesses to connect and relate with their customers and
99
notes
prospects as well as market to them. As of January 2016, Nairaland has

over 1,500,000 registered users and is ranked as the 7th most visited site
in Nigeria (and the most visited indigenous site) according to Alexa.com.
9. WhatsApp
WhatsApp Messenger is a proprietary cross-platform instant messaging
client for smartphones that operates under a subscription business model.
It uses the Internet to send text messages, images, video, user location
and audio media messages to other users using standard cellular mobile
numbers. This platform enjoys a huge patronage from Nigerians and small
business owners, who use it as a veritable tool for interacting with their
peers or clients.
10. Youtube
YouTube is a free video sharing website that makes it easy to watch
online videos. You can even create and upload your own videos to share
with others. YouTube is now very popular amongst Nigerians who use it
for entertainment, education and business.
10.4 THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON SOCIETY
By now, we are all aware that social media has had a tremendous impact on our
culture, in business, on the world-at-large. Social media websites are some of
the most popular haunts on the Internet. They have revolutionized the way people
communicate and socialize on the Web. This section takes a closer look at some
of the impact, both positive and negative, that social media has had on our
society
Positive Impact of the Internet Revolution & the Social Media
Impact on Politics
Social media has grown to become an indispensible tool for politicking the world
over. Every modern day politician worth his salt has come to realize the power of
social media with regards to winning elections and has jumped on the social
media bandwagon. This is because social websites have played an important
role in many elections around the world, including in the U.S., Iran, and India. Back
home here in Nigeria, political parties and politicians have taken to social media
as duck to water. The reason is simply because it works. It is widely believed that
the last general elections in Nigeria were to a larger extent contested and won on
the social media, particularly Facebook, Twitter and Nairaland. The change
100
notes
mantra, adopted by the opposition party, was widely successful mainly due to
social media platforms to spread it.
In addition, social media serves to rally people for a cause, and have inspired
mass movements and political unrests in many countries.
Impact on Business
Social media is transforming the way businesses are created and operated
across the world. Smart companies and small business owners are using social
media to advertise their products, build customer loyalty and many other
functions. Interactions and feedback from customers help businesses to
understand the market, and fine-tune their products and strategies. These days, it
is common to go unto any of the social media platforms and see many Nigerian
businesses advertising their products and brands. Realizing the huge potentials
and benefits to their bottom line, many Nigerian businesses have their presence
on majority of the social media platforms. Many more are joining the train on a
daily basis.
Even more enthusing is the fact that the internet and social media are helping to
create new types of businesses that exist entirely on the cyberspace rather than
having brick-and-mortar presence. Yet these online businesses are generating
millions of naira in profits for their owners.
In addition the internet and social media have changed the way we buy and sell
things forever. These days, there are a lot of online market places where people
can buy or sell things from the comfort of their homes. On the international
scene, we have the likes of Ebay, Amazon, Aliexpress, etc. Here in Nigeria, we
have Jumia, Konga, DealDey, Kaymu,Nairaland, Yudala, Wakanow, etc.
Many brick-and-mortar businesses in Nigeria are establishing online presence on

the Web as well as using social media to increase brand recognition, manage
their existing customers and to prospect for new ones.
A lot of firms organize contests and give away prizes to enthuse consumers to
visit their social website page more often. Compared to television
advertisements and other expensive forms of marketing, social media presence
is a cheap and effective means to enhance brand image and popularity.
Effect on Socialization
Social media has forever changed the way people connect and interact with each
other. We are no longer limited to socializing with only people in our immediate
physical environment. These days, people are empowered to form friendships
with other people from all over the world and to communicate in real time, all
thanks to the internet and social media. After all, the world is now a global village.
101
notes
Social networks offer the opportunity for people to re-connect with their old
friends and acquaintances, make new friends, trade ideas, share content and
pictures, and many other activities. Users can stay abreast of the latest global
and local developments, and participate in campaigns and activities of their
choice. Professionals use social media sites like LinkedIn to enhance their career
and business prospects. Students can collaborate with their peers to improve
their academic proficiency and communication skills. You can learn about
different cultures and societies by connecting with people in other countries. A
lot of Nigerians are taking advantage of these
Negative Impact of the Internet Revolution & the Social Media
Unfortunately, there are a few downsides too to social media and social
networking. Many introverts and socially reclusive users place too much
emphasis on virtual interaction, and ignore the real world outside. Read on to
learn about a few more negative repercussions of social media.
Cyber Bullying and Online Harassment

If you are not careful, unscrupulous people can target you for cyber bullying and
harassment on social sites. School children, young girls, and women can fall prey
to online attacks which can create tension and distress. In recent times a number
of Nigeria celebrities have been crying out against some persons who have been
stalking and harassing them on social media platforms, such as Facebook and
Twitter. Yet some other Nigerians have complained about some so called online
friends of theirs, who have resorted to posting inappropriate media contents to
them being warned to desist from doing so. These are all forms of cyber bulling
and online harassment. If you are a victim of cyber bullying, do not take it lying
down, but try to take appropriate legal action against the attacker.
Impact on Productivity
Social media can be very engaging. Many companies have blocked social
networks on their office Internet as addicted employees can distract themselves
on such sites, instead of focusing on work. In fact, studies show that British
companies have lost billions of dollars per year in productivity because of social
media addiction among employees. Unfortunately, this is also the case in some
of the organizations in Nigeria, especially government owned organizations. It is
not uncommon to enter into any public office in Nigeria and see workers chatting
or twitting away instead of doing the work for which they were employed.
Another area where this decrease in productivity is very evident is in our schools
especially our tertiary institutions. Students tend to pay more attention to social
102
notes
media engagements than to their studies. It is quite normal, to see students

engaged in one form of social media activity or another while a lecture is going
on. At the end of the day they come out with subpar results.
Impact on Privacy
If you are not careful, what you post on the Net can come back to haunt you.
Revealing personal information on social sites can make users vulnerable to
crimes like identity theft, blackmailing, stalking, etc. Many companies perform a
background check on the Internet before hiring an employee. If a prospective
employee has posted something embarrassing on social media, it can drastically
affect their chances of getting the job. The same holds true for our relationships
too, as our loved ones and friends may get to know if we post something
undesirable on social networks. With the recent increase in kidnapping cases in
Nigeria, one will agree that this is certainly not a desirable development.
Obviously, the full impact of the internet revolution as well as social media
cannot yet be fully grasped or assessed, as the internet and the social media are
both still evolving.
Conclusion
In this lecture we have looked at the Internet and the social media and examined
how they have and are still impacting our lives. We touched on what the internet
and social media really are, as well as the revolution occasioned by them. We
also examined some of their impacts on our lives and activities. We saw that in a
relatively short period of time, the Internet has had an amazing impact on almost
every facet of our lives. With it, we are able access to new ideas, more
information, unlimited possibilities, and a whole new world of communities. It
has grown and evolved to influence how we interact, how we conduct business,
how we learn, and how we proceed day to day.
Social media has its advantages and drawbacks as revealed in this lecture. It is
up to each user to use social media sites wisely to enhance their professional
and social life, and exercise caution to ensure they do not fall victim to any of the
online dangers.
References
6. Internet:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/internet.html#ixzz3xIW1FN
PG
7. Internet: The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, (3rd
103
notes
Ed.): http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internet
8. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010). Oxford University Press.
9. June J. Parsons and Dan Oja (2004). New Perspectives on Computer
Concepts (7th ed.). Thomson Course Technology.
10. Brief History of the Internet: http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-
internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet
11. Impact of Social Media on Society:
http://www.business2community.com/social-media/impact-social-media-
truly-society-0974685#ZkkjD81dltydFmku.97
12. Services of the Internet: http://www.informatics.buzdo.com/p914-internet
-services.htm
13. Definition of Revolution: http://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/revolution
14. Digital Revolution: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/23371/digital-
revolution
15. Social Media: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/social-media
Practice Questions
15. Define internet.

16. What is Internet revolution?
17. What is social media?
18. Mention any five social media platforms.
19. State the most prevalent social media platforms among Nigerians.
20. Briefly explain any three positive impact of social media on the Nigerian
society.
21. Discuss one negative social media impact on the Nigerian youth.
104

CSC 200 Lecture Notes 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

CSC 200 Lecture Notes 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CSC 200 Lecture Notes 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Computer Science –University of Abuja Lecture series

CSC200- INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

Students will learn:

As the modern definition suggests, a computer must be capable of retrieving,

(Figure adopted from http://gujarat-education.gov.in/)

Simple Computer Model

(Figure adopted from http://gujarat-education.gov.in)

The characteristics of a computer as described here are based on efficiency, meaning

characteristics are automation, accuracy, speed, storage capacity, versatility, diligence,

Storage: Storage capacity is another characteristic of a computer. A computer can store

Communications: Computers have the ability to communicate using some sort of

Multitasking: Computers can perform several tasks simultaneously in time.

1. Computers makes it possible to receive, supply and process large volumes of

Disadvantages of computers include:

1. Computer is highly dependent on the quality of input data fed to it.

Software: This is the intangible part of a computer. It consists of programs and

Digital computers can be further classified as,

 General Purpose Computers

Classification of digital computers based size and performance

Minicomputers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage

1. What is the modern definition of a computer?

11. State and describe all four classes of digital computers

Data, information and knowledge are very integral to computers. An understanding of

Students will learn

Definition of Data, Information and Knowledge

A decimal number contains digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,and 9.

Examples: 104, 3568, -348, 234, -667

Examples: 89.1, 67.001, 251.0, 5.456e-3, 0.0005, 4.75675e7

0x10A is 1*16^2 + 0*16^1 + 10*16^0 = 266 (base 10)

0xFF is15*16^1 + 15*16^0 = 255 (base 10)

10010 (base 2) = 1*2^4 + 0*2^3 + 0*2^2 + 1*2^1 + 0*2^0 = 18 (base 10)

237 (base 8) = 2*8^2 + 3*8^1 + 7*8^0 = 159 (base 10)

One can write them in scientific notation, thus,

Conversion of binary, octal or hexadecimal number to decimal

We will use synthetic multiplication to convert to decimal

Consider the binary, octal or hexadecimal number in the general form

the equivalent of this in base 10 is

d0*b^0 + d1*b^1 + d2*b^2 + d3*b^3 + … + dk*b^k = N

This can be computed using the sequence formula:

1. Convert 100101 (base 2) to decimal.

3. Convert 127 (base 8) to decimal.

1. Convert 0.10101 (base 2) to decimal.

Answer: 0.65625 (base 10)

2. Convert 110.011 (base 2) to decimal.

Answer = 6.375 (base 10)

3. Convert 10101.001 (base 2) to decimal.

Answer = 21.125 (base 10)

4. Convert 152.4 (base 8) to decimal.

Answer = 105.5 (base 10)

Converting from decimal to base b (binary, octal or hexadecimal) involves synthetic

N/b (N divided by b) = whole part (multiple of base b) + remainder/b and so we write:

Next, we repeat the division using c0, thus,

We continue this process repeatedly until

ck-1/b = ck + dk/b and ck=0.

Convert 37 (in decimal) to binary (base 2).

37/2 = 18 + 1/2, d0 = 1, c0= 18 (remainder =1)

Answer: 37(base 10) = 100101 (base 2)

0x10A is 116^2 + 016^1 + 10*16^0 = 266 (base 10)

0xFF is1516^1 + 1516^0 = 255 (base 10)

10010 (base 2) = 12^4 + 02^3 + 02^2 + 12^1 + 0*2^0 = 18 (base 10)

237 (base 8) = 28^2 + 38^1 + 7*8^0 = 159 (base 10)

d0b^0 + d1b^1 + d2b^2 + d3b^3 + … + dk*b^k = N