Algorithmic Analysis and Development for

Enhanced Human-Autonomous Vehicle Coexistence

Samir Rana Jay Upadhyay Ashish Joshi
Dept. of CSE Dept. of CSE Dept. of CSE
Graphic Era Hill University Graphic Era Hill University Graphic Era Hill University
Dehradun Dehradun Dehradun
samir.rana7@gmail.com jayupadhyayju7@gmail.com learnerashish01@gmail.com

Aditya Pratap Prashant Kholiya

Dept. of CSE Dept. of CSE
Graphic Era Hill University Graphic Era Hill University
Dehradun Dehradun
snghaditya.pps1@gmail.com prashantk19@gmail.com

Abstract— This research paper delves into the world of with traditional vehicles.
autonomous vehicle algorithms, conducting a thorough analysis
and development of essential features. We focus on comparing
and evaluating these components along with thealgorithms that
drive them. Lane detection ensures precise lane-keeping and
enhances road safety. The study demonstrates how accurate
lane detection algorithms help autonomous vehicles navigate
with confidence. Speed control assesses algorithms governing
vehicle speed to improve road safety, reduce accidents, and save
fuel. We concentrate on theirrole in providing safety-centric
speed recommendations and ensuring compliance with speed
limits. We also focus on need for a standardized development
framework to pave the way forward. Our investigation extends
to a driver-assist speeding feature, offering recommended
speeds directly to the driver's smartphone. This innovative
feature empowers drivers to make informed decisions,
Fig. 1. Represetation of Autonomous Vehicle.
augmenting road safety and traffic rule compliance. Collision
detection uses advanced algorithms to identify potential
collision risks. Autonomous vehicles make rapid decisions to This transformation promises to bring a multitude of benefits,
prevent accidents, ensuring passenger and road user safety. We ranging from enhanced safety and traffic efficiencyto reduced
explore algorithms such as CNN, RCNN, Canny edge detection, fuel consumption and environmental conservation.
and Sobel operator, each playing a unique role in enhancing
autonomous driving features. In summary, this research paper However, this transition is not without its challenges. The
offers insights into the interplay of algorithms and critical complexities of autonomous vehicle development, coupled
autonomous driving features. Comprehensive analysis and
comparative evaluation advance the autonomous vehicle with fragmented efforts, escalating costs, and heightened
landscape, enhancing road safety and efficiency for all road safety concerns, have underscored the pressing need for a
users. standardized development framework topave the way forward.
Keywords—Autonomous Vehicles, Algorithm Analysis, Human-
Autonomous Vehicle Coexistence

I. INTRODUCTION
In the ever-evolving landscape of autonomous vehicles, the
promise of a transportation revolution hinges on the intricate
interplay between cutting-edge algorithms and the essential
features that empower these vehicles to autonomously
perceive, interpret, and respond to their surroundings. This
research paper embarks on an in-depth exploration titled
"Algorithmic Analysis and Development for Enhanced Fig. 2. Data Flow in an Autonomous Vehicle.
Human-Autonomous Vehicle Coexistence," with a particular
This research encompasses a combined investigation into
emphasis on the comparative evaluation of algorithms for key
multiple pivotal features that collectively define the capabilities
functionalities that play a pivotal role in the realm of and safety of autonomous vehicles, Figure 2 displays a
autonomous driving. The automotive industry is at a acomplete dataflow of hardware and software components of an
crossroads, poised to transition into a new era of autonomous vehicle. Among these, object detection stands to
transportation, where self- driving cars coexist harmoniously. identify and respond to objects in its environment.
The vehicle's perception capabilities are greatly influenced by
the algorithms used, which include CNN (Convolutional
Neural Network), RCNN (Region-based Convolutional
Neural Network), and YOLO (You Only Look Once). To find
out the best strategy, the research aims to perform a detailed
analysis and comparison of these object detection algorithms.
The deployment of automatic braking systems is important
because it is a basic safety feature that is linked to the
precision and dependability of object detection algorithms.
The study also looks into the essential elements of lane
detection and traffic sign recognition. In order to ensure safe
and law-abiding autonomous driving, advanced algorithms
such as CNN and RCNN for traffic sign detection are
examined, with particular emphasis on how precisely they
identify and interpret traffic signs.
To make sure that the car keeps exact lane discipline, lane
detection uses algorithms such as Sobel operator and Canny
edge detection. This research project stands out for its careful
investigation of over speeding detection and real-time speed
estimation. These new features provide a quick view from a
smartphone and can help people drive more efficiently. This
improves safety and increases peace of mind and traffic
control on the road.
More importantly, the research in this article demonstrates
the importance of key features in practical tools. They
provide the basis for vehicles to be aware of their
surroundings, make informed decisions, communicate with
traffic and comply with traffic laws. This research aims to
improve cooperation between drivers and road users by
providing valuable information through analysis and
comparison.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
As the automotive industry undergoes major technological
changes, electric vehicles are leading the way. These
autonomous vehicles have the potential to revolutionize
transportation by increasing efficiency and safety. But there
are many problems in their adoption, including business,
management and business issues. In response to these
problems, a great idea emerged to create and analyze
autonomous vehicles.
This paper [1] provides an overview of the progress in this
field while highlighting the challenges faced by autonomous
vehicles. As technology advances, it is clear that the future is
driverless cars. This paper [2] explores the future of the
automobile, focusing on the modification and integration of
new technologies into conventional vehicles, turning them
into nearby cars , the future belongs to autonomous vehicle
and smart driving applications, with so much advancement
and in the automobile sector existing infrastructure will be
improved by human autonomous systems.
In past few years, we have seen a rapid growth in automotive
sector. In the past we have seen very efficient self-driving car
like Tesla, which have changed the way we look at self-
driving vehicles, but with rise of automotive industry there is
a concern about security which needs to be considered. With
time different safety regulations have been developed but
different company have their different technologies and
algorithms used for R and D of their self-driving or
autonomous vehicle. Our framework come as a centralized
framework for all company and fundamental framework for all
available safety regulations.
In the realm of autonomous vehicle algorithm analysis and
development, prior research has laid a strong foundation for
the current study. The work of Firoz Khan and his co- authors,
as presented in the paper "Autonomous vehicles: A study of
implementation and security,”[3] underscores the significance
of safety and the importance of robust algorithms in advancing
autonomous vehicles. The present study, titled "Algorithmic
Analysis and Development for Enhanced Human-
Autonomous Vehicle Coexistence," draws inspiration from the
foundational workby Khan and his team. It builds upon their
insights, underscoring the need for real-time data analysis and
the integration of modern technology.
This research zeroes in on critical components that are pivotal
in shaping the future of autonomous vehicles, including lane
detection, speed control, collision detection, object
recognition, and a pioneering driver-assist system that offers
real-time speed recommendations directly to the driver's
smartphone. This article[4] reviews the methods employed for
lane detection in an autonomous vehicle.
Our paper also do a comparative analysis of algorithm which
are best for features mentioned above. This paper[5] [6] [7]
explains the computational approach , working of canny edge
detection and the improvements for better efficiency. Other
Algorithms can also be used for better result in detecting edge
like sobel operator ,This Paper[8][9][10][11]discusses
Comprehensive and Comparative Analysis of Image Edge
Detection Techniques.
Object detection and algorithm used for it plays an important
role in autonomous vehicle software , For different features
like Traffic sign , signal detection , vehicledetection , obstacle
detection advance algorithm like CNN,R-CNN ,YOLO is
used. This paper[12][13][14][15][16] gives a comparative and
detailed Analysis of theseAlgorithm and discusses how these
Deep Learning Algorithm performs object and image
detection.
III. METHODOLOGIES
Our research aims to establish a minimalistic framework for
autonomous vehicles while introducing an innovative feature
for real-time speed detection and alert systems to enhance
coexistence between human-driven and autonomous vehicles.
We conducted our study through a systematic three-phase
approach.
Phase 1: Lane Detection
In the first phase, we focused on the critical aspect of lane
detection. Our analysis revolved around a comparative
 assessment of two prominent techniques: Canny edge step involves image thresholding. This step plays a pivotal
detection and the Sobel operator. The objective was to role in reducing noise and emphasizing prominent lane lines
identify the most suitable method for accurate lane detection, withinthe image.
a fundamental component for autonomous vehicles. In direct or simple thresholding, a routine is used for each
In the first phase, we focused on the critical aspect of lane pixel in the image. 0 if the pixel value is less than the
detection. Our analysis revolved around a comparative specified parameter; otherwise it is set to the maximum
assessment of two prominent techniques: Canny edge value. OpenCV's cv.threshold function is commonly
detection and the Sobel operator. The objective was to employed forthis purpose.
identify the most suitable method for accurate lane detection,
This function takes the base grayscale image as the first
a fundamental component for autonomous vehicles. First of
all we will be doing camera calibration for accurate spatial argument, the pixel distribution threshold as the second
mapping. Some pinhole cameras introduce significant argument, and the maximum value assigned to the pixel
distortion to images., OpenCV provides two methods for value exceeding the default value as the third argument.
handling distortion and obtaining accurate spatial mapping: Yields result like:
the radial distortion model and the tangential distortion
model.
1. Radial Distortion Model:
Radial distortion is caused by imperfections in
the camera's lens.
2. Making straight lines appear curved. OpenCV
represents radial distortion with a mathematical
model that includes distortion coefficients k1,k2,k3.
The distorted coordinates (xdistorted, However, in cases where images show different lighting
conditions in different areas, using the same general threshold
ydistorted) are calculated using the formula:
may not be ideal. To solve this limitation, a dynamic change is
xdistorted=x(1+k1r2+k2r4+k3r6) applied. In threshold adjustment, an algorithm dynamically
ydistorted=y(1+k1r2+k2r4+k3r6) determines the threshold for each pixel. This adjustment
where r is the radial distance from the image Centre. method creates different areas in the same image, improving
3. Tangential Distortion Model: OpenCV accounts for results especially in images with uneven illumination.
tangential distortion with distortion coefficients
p1,p2.
The formula to calculate xdistorted is:
xdistorted=x+[2p1xy+p2(r2+2x2)]
The formula to calculate xdistorted is:
ydistorted=y+[p1(r2+2y2)+2p2xy]

To perform camera calibration, five distortion coefficients

(k1,k2,p1,p2,k3) need to be determined. There also need to be
specific camera parameters such as focal length (fx, fy) and
optical position (cx, cy). These parameters are used to create
a 3x3 camera matrix.

Fig. 3. Yields Result.

The next step in lane detection being perspective transformation

Extrinsic parameters involve rotation and translation
vectors, describing the transformation from a 3D point in
the world coordinates to the camera's image coordinates.
Once the camera is calibrated, the distortion introduced by
the lens can be corrected. OpenCV provides methods to
undistort images based on the calibration parameters. This
allows for accurate spatial mapping and the removal of
distortions, making images suitable for further computer
vision tasks. In the lane detection process, the next crucial
to convert driver view to top-down view.Visibility changes are
very useful if you want to adjust your photos just right. When
used, perspective transformation transforms the image in a
straight line. In the realm of lane detection, Edge detection
methods such as the Canny and Sobel operators are frequently
employed for identifying lane markings.
The algorithm Canny Edge Detection, created by John F.
Canny, operates through multiple stages:
1. Noise reduction: 5x5 Gauss filter is the first step to
reduce the effect of noise in the image. This filter
helps smooth the image.
 2. Finding the reference for gradient of the image: The
smoothed image filter is in horizontal and vertical
directions by the Sobel kernel to obtain its first
derivatives in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Using these derivatives, the algorithm calculates
the edge slope and direction for each pixel. The
gradient direction is always on the edge, and the
vertices are equal to one of the four vertices
representing vertical, horizontal, and two
diagonals.
3. Limitations: Once the direction and magnitude of
the gradient are obtained, the image is fully
analyzed to remove unnecessary pixels that will not
create edges. At each pixel, check whether there is
a maximum in the near direction of the gradient. If
so, proceed to the next stage; otherwise it is
removed (set to zero) In essence,this stage yields a
binary image with thin edges.
Fig. 4. Binary image with thin edges.
4. Hysteresis threshold: This stage determines which
edges are true and which are not. Two defaults are
used: minVal and maxVal. Pixels with gradient
intensity above maxVal are considered true edges,
while pixels below minVal are pixels that are not
true edges and are discarded. Pixels that fall within
these thresholds are classified as edges or non-
edges based on their connection to “cutting-edge”
pixels. If they connect to "real edge" pixels, they
are considered part of the edge; otherwise they are
thrown away. Choosing minVal and maxVal is
important to get accurate results. This level also
helps remove small pixel noise, meaning edges
appear as long lines.
The Canny Edge Detection algorithm yields a binary image
with well-defined and strong edges in the original image, a
crucial step in identifying and highlighting lane markings.
Fig. 5. Original image and edge image.
The Sobel operator is a two-dimensional spatial gradient
measurement technique widely used to identify high spatial
frequency regions corresponding to edges in images. Its
operation involves implementing a pair of 3x3 convolution
kernels, each designed to be optimally responsive to edges
either vertically or horizontally relative to the pixel grid. As
shown in Figure 1, these nuclei are still the same; a kernel is
rotated 90°, similar to the Roberts Cross operator.
Fig. 6. Sobel Convolution Kernels.
The main purpose of the Sobel operator is to capture the
approximate true gradient magnitude at each point in the
grayscale input image. As shown in Figure 8, convolution with
kernels occurs in separate measurements of the gradient
components in each direction.
Here direction 0 tells that the direction for maximum contrast
from black to white is given from left to right of image and other
angles are measured counterclockwise from this reference
point. Usually the output presented to the user is the actual
gradient magnitude calculated using the so-called convolution
kernel and added to the previous image output.
The Sobel operator is instrumental in highlighting edges in
images, emphasizing variations in intensity and aiding in the
extraction of important features from the visual data.
The comparison between the Canny edge detection and Sobel
operator reveals distinct characteristics and trade-offs. The
Sobel operator is praised for its simplicity, attributed to its use
of approximate gradient calculations. However, a significant
drawback is its vulnerability to the signal-to- noise ratio. As
noise increases, the accuracy of edge gradient magnitude
decreases, leading to inaccurate results. In scenarios with
elevated noise levels, neither the Sobel operator nor other
similar operators like Prewitt or Roberts Cross can effectively
detect appropriate edges, often discarding noise at the expense
of losing genuine edge information.
Fig. 7. Original image and after applying Sobel Operator
On the other hand, the Canny edge detection method, despite its
greater computational complexity and time consumption, offers
several advantages. It exhibits a superior signal-to-noise ratio,
contributing to more accurate edge detection. The application of
non-maximal suppressionin the Canny algorithm results in thin
edges, precisely single-pixel-wide edges in the output,
enhancing the clarity of detected edges. The thresholding
method in Canny further contributes to robust edge detection.
Unlike gradient-based operators such as Sobel, Prewitt, and
Roberts Cross, which may detect thick and rough edges,
Canny's design prioritizes thin and smooth edges. This is
crucial for subsequent matching processes, where detailed
and accurate edge information is essential.
Phase 2: Object and Traffic sign Detection
While moving next to the second phase, now our main
attention goes to the second phase object identification. We
did a full comparison and analysis of CNN, RCNN and the
YOLO Model. By doing this phase we not only focus on but
also explore the benefits and limitations of these models but
also get to know about their importance to features like traffic
sign detection and obstacle detection, integral for confirming
safe autonomous driving.
For classification module we used GTSRB (German Traffic
Sign Recognition Benchmark). 51,800 images
approximately. For validation 12,600 and for training data we
used 39,200 images. The measurement of these images
ranged from 15 x 15 to 250 x 250 pixels. 43 different traffic
sign classes were there in our dataset for data collection and
processing.
The GTSDB (German Traffic Sign Detection Benchmark
Dataset), which consist of 900 images with measurement of
1360 x 800 pixels, was used in the detection module. In this
phase, distinct subsets for training and validation were made
from this dataset.
To increase the quality of our dataset we took the help of
number of data enhancement strategies. Particularly, we
begin a number of pre-processing steps in the classification
phase. To make things work better, we made sure all images
had the same size of 32x32 pixels, turned them black and
white, and adjusted the pixel values to be in a certain range.
This helps our models learn faster and gives the surety that
the input data for the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
is not changing in any circumstances.
To make our dataset more varied, we also used tricks like
flipping and rotating the images. All these enhancements are
very important to make dataset look more diverse to give
precise and accurate results.
We used GTSRB dataset which we splitted into three parts-
training, testing and validation. We distributed 60% for
training, 20% for testing and 20% for validation. To take care
of uneven distribution and include variation among classes
we used augmentation techniques. TensorFlow was used for
making models to classify images. Our model included
combination of categorical cross-entropy loss function,
convolutional layers and ReLU activation function. For
optimization we used Adam optimizer with a learning rate of
0.001. While for detection we experimented among two
advance method YOLOv4 and R-CNN. Using these methods
allowed us to accurately detect and locate traffic sign. We
considered all factors like size, lightning, angles. Both models
were fine tuned for betterment and specific requirements of
sign detection.
To detect objects in images the YOLOv4 method is perfect
with good balance between speed and accuracy. This method
uses several neural networks structures like CSPDarknet53,
which is used to extract important features. To enhance feature
extraction the model uses path aggression network and spatial
pyramid pulling (SPP). Additionally we customize the
YOLOv4 basic architecture for identifying traffic signs by
adjusting input resolution, network structure to balance out
specific requirements of this task.
To ensure efficient identification and sort traffic signs based
on various environments and image characteristics we created
a technique by carefully designed research phases.
Additionally our framework goes beyond identifying traffic
signs. To identify the objects like identifying road blocks, any
anonymous moment we have integrated YOLOv4. As soon as
obstacles are identified our system give recommendation to
apply break and to reduce speed for safety enhancement.
Phase 3: Speed Detection and Alert System
In the third phase our focus was to develop new advance
features like alert system and quick identification. We came up
with two plans. First one being evaluating vehicles speed
based on two nearest location by the help of GPS. Second, we
used the OpenCV function to find an object and calculated the
distance between our location and the object that was found.
With the use of this data, the app will instantly notify the driver
to change his speed and apply brakes.
Our system not only calculates the vehicle's speed throughGPS
but also employs computer vision to assess and evaluate the
surroundings. In this process, the system detects objects in
Depending on the detected objects and their distances, the
application issues alerts, recommending speed adjustments for
safety. Other than this, the system cross-references the current
location with legal speed limits, providing a comprehensive
review to the driver and ensuring adherence to traffic
regulations. This integrated approach enhances road safety by
offering instant alerts depended on the driving environment.
This feature comprises two integral components:
1st Part: In this section, our objective was to convey the
coordinates of the vehicle to our function, where we calculate
both the average and instantaneous speed of the vehicle.
Utilizing the Indian navigation system (NavIC developed by
ISRO), we obtained the coordinates of our location, storing
them in three 1D arrays: loc1, loc2, and loc3. Each array
encompasses two variables, one for the x-coordinate and one
for the y-coordinate. These coordinates, representing the
vehicle's position, undergo conversion, equating to a change of
1 unit for every meter traveled. Later, these coordinates are
passed to the 2nd part to extract average and immediate speed.
loc1: Stores the coordinates of the starting position of the
vehicle.
loc2: Stores the coordinates of the previous position of the
vehicle.
loc3: Stores the coordinates of the current position of the
vehicle.
Beside these parameters, a variable is passed to the 2nd part
that starts at 1 and incremented by 1 with each pass. The
function calculates and returns the average and current speed
of the vehicle. The obtained speeds are then checked against
the user-entered speed limit. If either speed is higher than the
limit, analert is triggered, warning the driver to slow down the
vehicle speed.
2nd Part: In this step, we used the location data we got in the
1st part to calculate the distance the vehicle has traveled.
Leveraging Python's math library, we appliedvarious formulas
to determine the distance between two points, reflecting the
vehicle's travel distance. The calculated speed is subsequently
passed back to the main function (1st part) for further
processing.
Formulas Used for Average Speed:
Explanation:
• Line 1: Obtaining the start and current location
coordinates, calculating the total distance traveled.
• Line 2: Using a variable x
x that increments with each pass, determining the average
speed (since the function is called every second).
• Line 3: Converting the speed to kilometers perhour
and returning it to the 1st part.
Formula Used for Instant Speed:
Explanation:
• Line 1: Passing coordinates of the previous and
current locations to find the current instance's speed
in meters per second.
• Line 2: Converting the speed to kilometers per hour
and returning it to the 1st part.
Our system also makes use of GPS and computer vision to
give a thorough evaluation of the environment around the
vehicle. This entails locating adjacent objects, estimating
their separation from the car, and sending out alerts in
response to their existence and closeness. The app offers
instant alerts suitable for the driving situation and suggests
adjusting speed based on objects detected and their distance.
IV. CONCLUSION
Overall, the three-stage method explained in this study adds
value to driving studies by offering a framework for
resolving significant issues and enhancing general
dependability and safety . It provides all necessary features
needed for autonomous vehicle and existence of non-
autonomous vehicle using mobiles software. The
comparative analysis carried out at every phase demonstrates
how crucial algorithm selection is to obtaining quality
outcomes and a standardized framework.
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