MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATION

18EC743
Dr. Prakash Jadhav
B.E, M.Tech., Ph.D, MIEEE, MISTE,
Associate Professor
Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Sapthagiri College of Engineering
14/5 Chikkasandra, Hesaragatta main road
BENGALURU-560 057

Course Objectives:
This course will enable students to:
• Gain fundamental knowledge in understanding the basics of different multimedia networks and applications.
• Understand digitization principle techniques required to analyze different media types.
• Analyze compression techniques required to compress text and image and gain knowledge of DMS.
• Analyze compression techniques required to compress audio and video.
• Gain fundamental knowledge about multimedia communication across different networks.
 Module 1
Multimedia Communications :
Introduction,
Multimedia information representation,
multimedia networks,
multimedia applications,
Application and networking terminology.
(Chap 1 of Text 1)

Text Books:
Fred Halsall, “Multimedia Communications”, Pearson education, 2001 ISBN - 9788131709948.

K. R. Rao, Zoran S. Bojkovic, Dragorad A. Milovanovic, “Multimedia Communication Systems”, Pearson education,
2004. ISBN -9788120321458

Reference Book :
Raifsteinmetz, Klara Nahrstedt, “Multimedia: Computing, Communications and Applications”, Pearson
education, 2002. ISBN -9788177584417
 Multimedia Communication
• The term multimedia is used to indicate that the information / data being transferred over the
network.
• Multimedia communication includes arrange of applications and networking infrastructures.

Different Media Types

• Text: Includes both
Unformatted Text- comprising strings of characters from a limited character set and
Formatted Text-comprises strings as used for the structuring, access, and presentation of
electronic documents.
• Images: Includes Computer Generated Image-comprising lines, curves, circles, and Digitized Images of
documents and pictures.
• Audio: Includes both
low-fidelity speech-as used in telephony and
high-fidelity speech-stereo phonic music as used with compact discs.
• Video: Includes short sequences of moving images (also known as video clips) and complete
movies/films.
 Multimedia Applications
May involve either of the following: Person-to-Person communications
Person-to-System communications

• Person-to-Person communicates using suitable Terminal Equipment (TE)

• Person-to-System communications:
• Person interacts with the system using suitable Digital device like workstation or
multimedia personal computer (PC).
• These Digital device are located either in homes or offices.
• Basically system is a server containing a collection of files or documents-each
comprising digitized text, images, audio and video information.

• User interacts with the server by means of a suitable selection device connected to the Set-top box
(STB) associated with a television or modem used with the computers.
Networking infrastructure : provided using a number of different types of network

Networks: Two types

Designed initially to provide just a single type of service due to advances in various
technologies these networks can now provide a range of different other services

1: PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) or GSTN (General Switched Telephone Network)
Designed initially to provide the basic switched telephone service but due to the
Advances in digital signal processing hardware and associated software PSTNs / GSTNs now
provide a range of more advanced services involving-text, images and video.

2: Data network: designed initially to support basic data applications- e-mail, file transfers,
and others now support a much richer set of applications-which involve images, audio, and
video.
Designed from the out set to provide multimedia communication services.
Ex : ATM networks.
 Multimedia Information Representation:
Applications involving text and images - comprise blocks of digital data units.
• Text data - typical unit is block of characters with each character represented by, fixed
number of Binary digits (bits) or Codeword.
• Image data - comprises a 2-D block of pixels (picture elements) with each pixel represented
by a fixed number of bits.
Applications involving text and images: comprise the short request for a file.
Ex.: file contents being returned, the duration of the overall transaction is relatively short.

• Applications involving Audio and Video Signals: Vary continuously with time as the
amplitude of the speech, audio or video signal varies.

•Ex.: Typical telephone conversation can last for several minutes and Movie (comprising audio
and video) can last for a number of hours.
•Digitization of an audio signal: produces a digital signal with amplitude of the signal varies
continuously with time and is of relatively high bit rate, is measured by bps (bits per second)
and for speech signal a typical bit rate of 64 kbps.
•Applications involving audio can be of a long duration: this bit rate must be sustained for
an equally long time period.
•Digitization of video signal: the same applies as that of audio signals but, except that the
much higher bit rates and longer time durations are involved.
•In general, the communication networks that are used to support applications that involve audio and video
cannot support the very high bit rates that are required for representing these media types in a digital form
hence we go for compression.

•Compression: It's a technique first applied to the digitized signals in order to reduce the
resulting bit rate to a level which can be supported by various networks.
•Compression to text and images: To reduce the time delay between a requests being made
for some information and the information becoming available on the screen of a computers
or over others.
 Multimedia Networks:

•Five basic types of communication networks are used to provide

multimedia communication services:

 Telephone networks.
 Data networks.
 Broadcast television networks.
 Integrated services digital networks.
 Broadband multiservice networks.
1. Telephone networks:

• Public Switched Telephone network (PSTNs) has been in existence for many years
and have gone through many changes over the time.

• Designed to provide a basic switched telephone service which, with the initiation of
the other network types has become known as POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service).

• 'Switched': term is used to indicate that the subscriber can make a call to any other
telephone that is connected to the total network.

• Initially such networks spanned just a single country, later telephone networks of
different countries were interconnected so, that they now provide an international
switched service.
Main Components of the Network
• Local Exchange/End Office: Telephones located in the home or in a small business are connected
directly to their nearest LEs/Eos.

• Private Branch Exchange (PBX):

• Telephones located in the medium or large office/site are connected to a PBX or Private
switching Office.
• Provides a (free) switched service between any two telephones - that are connected to it.
• Connected to its nearest LE (public), which enables the telephone that are connected to the PBX
also to make calls through a PSTN.

• Cellular Phone Networks: Been introduced which provide the similar service to the mobile
subscribes by means of the handsets that are linked to the cellular phone network infrastructure by
radio.

• MSC (Mobile Switching Center): it's the switch used in the cellular phone network Like the PBXs also,
connected to a switching office in a PSTN which, enables both sets of subscribers to make calls to one
another.

• IGE (International Gateway Exchange): route and switch the international calls.
 General Scheme of Modem

Digital Transmission using modem

• Speech signal: is an analog signal varies continuously with time according, to the amplitude
and frequency variations of the sound resulting from the speech.
• Microphone: used to convert this into an analog electrical signal.
• Telephone networks operate in circuit mode which means, for each call a separate circuit is
set up through the network of the necessary capacity for the duration of the call.
• Access circuits: link the telephone handsets to a PSTN or PBX were designed to carry the 2-
way analog signals associated with a call.
within the PSTN all the switches and the transmission circuits that interconnect them
operate in digital mode to carry a digital signal a stream of binary 1s and 0s over the
analog access circuits require the device modem.

Modem:
At the sending side: modem converts the digital signal output by the source digital device
into an analog signal which is, compatible with a normal speech signal it is routed through
the network in the same way as a speech signal.
At the receiving side: modem converts the analog signal back again into its digital form
before, relaying this to the destination digital device.
Have the necessary circuits to set up and terminate the call.
Using a pair of modems: at each subscriber access point a PSTN can also be used to
provide a switched digital service.
Early modems: supported only a very low bit rate service of 300 bps.
Modems now support, bit rates of up to 56 kbps,

it can support high resolution audio and video hence, they are used to provide access to
servers that support a range of entertainment related applications.
 Multiple services via H-S Modem
Technological advances in modems area have been made PSTNs can now support speech
applications and also a wide range of other multimedia communication applications.
This applications need bit rates in excess of 1.5 Mbps.
2. Data networks:
Designed to provide basic data communication services such as e-mail and general file transfers.

User equipments - connected to data networks: are the computers such as a PC, a workstation, or an e-mail/file
server.
Two widely deployed types of data networks:
1. X.25 network
2. Internet.
X.25 network: operational mode is restricted to relatively low bit rate data applications. Hence, unsuitable for
most multimedia applications.
Internet: Made up of a vast collection of interconnected networks all of which operate using the same set of
communication protocols.

Communication protocol: an agreed set of rules that are adhered to by all communicating parties for the
exchange of information.

Rules define the sequence of messages that are exchanged between the communication parties and the syntax
of these messages.
By using, the same set of communication protocols: all the computers that are connected to the Internet can
communicate freely with each other irrespective of their type or manufacturer this is the origin of the term
"open systems interconnection".
Figure shows a selection of the different types of interconnected network.
User at home or in a small business access to Internet is through an intermediate: ISP
(Internet Service Provider) network normally, this type of user wants access to the Internet
intermittently the user devices are connected to the ISP network either through a PSTN with
modems or through an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network which provide access at a
higher bit rate).

Business user –
obtain access through a site/campus network if, the business comprises only a single site or
obtain access through an enterprise-wide private network if, it comprises multiple sites.

Colleges and Universities In the case of a single site/campus: network is known as a (private)
LAN (Local Area Network),

Enterprise network (Intranet): all internal services are provided by using the same set of
communication protocols, as those defined for the Internet.
IBN (Internet Backbone Network): different types of network are all connected to it through an
interworking unit called gateways.
Gateways (Router): an interworking unit connects IBN and the different types of network responsible
for routing and relaying all messages to and from the connected network hence, also called as a
router.
Packet mode: all data networks operate in this mode.
Packet: container for a block of data and has head in which, address of the intended recipient
computer (which is used to route the packet through the network).
Multimedia PCs: have become available that support a range of other applications.
Ex.: with the addition of microphone and a pair of speakers with sound card and associated software
to digitize the speech PCs now are used to support telephony and other speech-related applications.
Due to those availability above of higher bit rate transmission circuits and routing nodes have become
available, and also more efficient algorithms to represent speech, audio and video in a digital form.
Packet-mode networks and the Internet in particular: support general data communication
applications and also a range of other multimedia communication applications involving speech, audio,
and video currently.
3. Broadcast Television Networks:
• Designed to support the diffusion of analog television and radio programs throughout wide geographical areas.
• Cable distribution network used as broadcast medium, normally in large town or city.

• Satellite network (Terrestrial broadcast network): broadcast medium for large areas digital television services
have become available.
• Low bit rate return channel for interaction purposes - with digital television services provide a range of
additional services (like games, home shopping, and etc.,).

• General architecture of a cable distribution network: Consist of

• Set top box : attached to the cable distribution network Provides : Control of the television channels - that are
received.
Ex.: Cable modem: integrated into the STB provides a
low bit rate channel and
a high bit rate channel from the subscriber back to the cable head end.

• Low bit rate channel: used to connect the subscriber to a PSTN.

• High bit rate channel: used to connect the subscriber to the Internet.

• Cable distribution network: provide basic broadcast radio and television services access to the range of
multimedia communication services that are available with both PSTN and Internet.
Satellite and terrestrial broadcast networks: integrated into the STB provides
the subscriber with an interaction channel
hence, enhancing the range of services is the origin of the term "interactive television".

Broad cast Television Network

a) Cable Network

b) Satellite / Terrestrial Broadcast network

4. Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN):
• Started to be deploy in early 1980s.
• Originally designed to provide PSTN users with the capability of having additional services.
• Achieved by converting the access circuits that connect user equipment to the network
(Ex.: telephone network) into an all digital form.
• Providing TWO separate communication channels over these circuits allow users either to
have
• two different telephone calls in progress simultaneously or
• two different calls such as a telephone call and a data call.

•Access circuit with ISDN: known as DSL (Digital Subscriber Line).

• Subscriber telephone: can either a digital phone or a conventional analog one.

• Case of digital phone: electronics that are needed to convert the analog voice and call
setup signals into a digital form are integrated into the phone handset.
• Case of analog phone: electronics that are needed to convert the analog voice and call
setup signals into a digital form are located in the network termination equipment making
the digital mode of operation of the network transparent to the subscriber phone.
• Digitization of a telephone-quality analog speech signal - produces a constant bit rate binary
stream normally, referred to as the bit stream of 64kpbs.
• BRI (Basic Rate Access or Basic DSL of ISDN): support two 64kbps channels which can be used
either independently (as they were intended) or as a single combined 128kbps channel.

• Design of ISDN: Two channels were intended for two different calls require 2 separate circuits to be
set up through the switching network independently hence, to synchronize 2 separate 64kbps bit
streams into a single 128kbps stream requires an additional box of electronics to perform the
aggregation function.
• PRI (Primary Rate Access): single higher bit rate channel of either 1.5 or 2 Mbps is used.
• More flexible way of obtaining a switched 128kbps service has been introduced by many network
operators Service provided has been enhanced and a single switched channel supports now of
(p * 64kbps), where p=1,2,3,4...30
•Figure shows the summarization of the various services provided.

•ISDN can support a range of multimedia applications Due to the relatively high cost of digitizing the
access circuits: cost of the services associated with an ISDN is higher than the equivalent service
provided by a PSTN.
5. Broadband multiservice networks:

Designedin mid-1980s for use, as public switched networks to support a wide range of multimedia
communication applications.

Broadband: term used to indicate the circuits associated with a call could have bit rates in excess of the
maximum bit rate of 2Mbps, 30X64 kbps provided by an ISDN.

B-ISDN (Broadband Integrated Services Digital Networks): alternate names for broadband multiservice
networks since, were designed to be an enhanced ISDN.
N-ISDN (Narrowband Integrated Services Digital Networks): alternate name for ISDN.

B-ISDN: when in first technology associated with the digitization of the video signal using were, in general, an
ISD could not support services that included video.

Number of the basic design features associated with the B-ISDN: have been used as the basis of other
broadband multiservice networks.

Ex.: A multiservice network implies that the network must support multiple services.
To have this flexibility:
• All the different media types associated with a particular application are first converted in the source equipment into a
digital form.
• These to be integrated together.
• Resulting binary stream is divided into multiple fixed-size packets called cells.

Information streams: of this type provides a more flexible way of both transmitting and switching the multimedia
information associated with a the different types of application.
Ex.: Transmission terms in: cells relating to the different applications can be integrated together more flexibly.

Use of fixed-sized cells: means the switching of cells can be carried out much faster than, if variable-length packets
were used.

Different multimedia applications generate cell streams of different rates: this mode of operation in rate of transfer
of cells through the network also varies hence, the name: ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) ATM networks
(Broadband multiservice networks) - alternate name: Cell-Switching Networks.
Ex.: ATM LANs - span a single site, ATM MANs – span large town or city.
Being used as a high-speed backbone network to interconnect a number of LANs distributed around a large town or
city.
Note: Two of the LANs are ATM LANs and other two are simply higher-speed versions of older data only LANs. It's the
typical of ATM networks which must often interwork with older (legacy) networks.
Broadband multiservice network
 Multimedia Applications:
Many and varied applications involving of multiple media types present.
Major categories of multimedia applications:
Interpersonal communications.
Interactive applications over the Internet.
Entertainment applications.
In many instances networks used to support applications were initially
designed to provide the service which involves just the single type of
medium and with advances in technology, made multimedia applications
support possible along with initial designed of basic services being from
those possible and in some applications basic designed applications
become - still more enhanced form is of possible.
Interpersonal communications: May involve speech, image, text, or
video.
Interpersonal communications may involve single type or integrated
two or more type of media involved:
1. Speech only
2. Image only
3. Text Only
4. Text and Images
5. Speech and Video
6. Multimedia
Speech Only:
Traditionally, involves – speech, telephony.
Service is provided using telephones which are connected either to PSTN/ISDN/Cellular
network or PBX.
Multimedia PC with microphone and speakers, if using user can make telephone calls
through PC.
This requires the telephone interface card and associated software called CTI
(Computer Telephony Integration).

The advantages of using PC, instead of conventional telephone for calls are:
User can create his or her own private directory of numbers and initiate a call
simply by selecting the desired number on the PC screen.
Circuit’s bandwidth is more (providing access circuits to the network has sufficient
capacity).
Integration of telephony with all the other networked services are possible by PC.
In addition to Telephony many public and private networks support additional
services.
Ex.: Voice-mail and Teleconferencing
• Voice-mail: Used when the called party being unavailable Spoken message is
then be left in the voice mail box of the called party Voice mail server, located in
the central repository had voice mail boxes, Message can be read by owner of
the mailbox the next time he, or she contact the server.

• Teleconferencing: Calls involve multiple interconnected telephones/PCs. Person

can hear and talk to all of the others involved in the call called the conference
call/teleconference call since, it involves a telephone network or audio
conference call which require an audio bridge - a central unit which supports to
set up a conference call automatically.

• Internet was used to support telephony. Initially, designed to support computer-

to-computer communications Just (multimedia) PC-to-PC telephony was
supported subsequently, extended so that a standard telephone could be used.
PC-to-PC telephone call: Standard addresses are used to identify
individual computers connected to the internet are used same way as
for a data transfer application.

Internet: operates in the packet mode Both PCs must have the
necessary hardware and software to convert the speech signal from
the microphone into packets on input and back again prior to output
to the speakers.

Thus Telephony over the Internet is known as Packet voice as the

network protocol associated with the internet is called the Internet
Protocol (IP), Voice over IP (VoIP).
Telephony gateway:
• It’s a Interworking unit to connect the PC connected to the Internet and a
telephone connected to the PSTN/ISDN –
• since both operate in the circuit mode PC user sends a request to make a
telephone call to a pre-allocated telephony gateway using the internet
Address Gateway requests from the source PC the telephone number of the
called party assuming user is registered for this service.
• Source gateway on receipt of above initiates the session (call) with the
telephony gateway nearest to the called party using the Internet address of
the gateway.
• Called party then, initiates a call to the recipient telephone using its
telephone number and the standard call procedure of the PSTN/ISDN.
• Assuming the called party answers called gateway signals back to the PC user
through the source gateway that the call can commence.
• Similar procedure followed to clear the call on completion.
Image Only:
Exchange of electronic images of documents is an alternate form of interpersonal
communications over PSTN/ISDN known as Facsimile (Simply, fax).
Communication involves use of the pair of fax machines one at each network
termination point.

Document sending:
• caller keys in the telephone number of the intended recipient, a circuit is set up
through the network in the same way as for a telephone call.
• Two fax machines communicate with each other to establish operational
parameters
• after, which the sending machine starts to scan and digitize each page of the
document in turn both fax machines have an integral modem within them and
as, each page is scanned it’s digitized image is simultaneously transmitted over
the network
• the received at the called side a printed version of the document is produced
• after the last page of the document has been sent and received connection
through the network is cleared by the calling machine in the normal ways.
PC fax:
• PC can be used instead of the normal fax machine to send an electronic version
of document stored directly within the PCs memory. Digital image of each page
of the document is sent in the same way as the scanned image produced by a
conventional fax machine.

• With Telephony this requires a telephone interface card and associated

software, latter operates in the same way as like the fax machine so, and
terminal at the called side can be either a fax machine /another similar PC.

• It Is Possible to send (by using LAN interface card and associated software) the
digitized document over other network types such as an enterprise network
particularly, this mode of operation useful when working with paper-based
documents, such as invoices.
Text only:
Ex.: E-mail (Electronic mail).
User terminal is normally are normally a PC or a workstation.
 User at home access to the Internet through the PSTN/ISDN, and through an intermediate ISP
network.
Business users obtain access either through an enterprise network/site or campus network.

Email servers: One or more associated with each network Collectively contain a mailbox for
each user connected to that network User can both create and deposit mail his/her mailbox
read mail from it. Standard Internet communication protocol used by e-mail servers and
internetwork gateway.

•At the head: unique Internet-wide name of both the sender

and recipient of the mail, In addition present mail copy can be
sent to multiple recipients each of whom is listed in the cc part
of the mail header ‘cc’ acronym for the carbon copy the
original means of making (paper) copies of documents Text
only mails content: comprise unformatted text typically,
strings of ASCII characters.
Text and Images:
CSCW (Computer-Supported Cooperative Working) application : involves –text and images integrated.
Network used: enterprise network / LAN / Internet.
Typically distributed group of people each in the place of work are all working on the same
project.
User terminal is either a PC or a workstation.

Shared whiteboard: Window on each person’s display is used as the shared workspace,
display comprises integrated text and images.
Software associates comprises of white board program, a central program and a linked set of
support programs, one in each PC/workstation.

Linked set of supported programs made up of change-notification part and update-control

part.

Change-notification part: Sends details of the changes in the whiteboard program whenever,
a member of the group updates the contents of whiteboard.
Update-control part: Present in each of the other PCs/workstations obtain above change
information in turn, proceed to update the contents of their copy of the whiteboard
Speech and Video:
Ex.: video telephony uses integrated speech and video supported now by all the network types.
In Cases of Home use: Terminals used normally dedicated to providing the videophone service.

In Cases of Office Use: Single multimedia PC/workstation is used to provide videophone service together with a
range of other services.

In both the cases: video camera, microphone and speaker used for telephony by the terminals/PCs.
Dedicated terminal using a separate screen is used for the display Multimedia PC or workstation using a window
of the PC/workstation screen to display the moving image of the called party.
Network must provide two-way communication channel between 2 parties of sufficient BW to support the
integrated speech-and-video generated by each terminal/PC.

Integration of video and speech: Bandwidth of the access circuits required to support is higher than that require
for speech only.

Desktop videoconferencing call: Telephony like: call may involve not just 2 persons and so, terminals/PCs several
people each located in their own office.
Used widely in large corporations involving multiple geographically distributed sites to minimize the travel
between the various locations.
Large corporations of this type have enterprise-wide network to link the sites together MCU (Multipoint control
unit) is a Central unit to support the videoconferencing. Videoconferencing server associated with the network
used in few cases.
Figure shows separate window on screen of each participant’s PC/workstation should be used to display video
image of all the other participants.
Needed to implement displaying of video image of all the other participants on screen of each participant this
requires:
Multiple integrated speech-and-video communication channels, one for each participant, being sent to
each of the other participants needed to do this which Require more bandwidth than is available.
Integrated speech-and-video information stream: from each participant is sent to the MCU which then,
selects just a single information stream to send to each participant.
Ex.: voice-activated MCU
MCU whenever detects a participant speaking it relays the information stream from the participants to all the
other participants so, a single 2-way communication channel is needed between each location and the MCU is
needed thereby reducing the communication bandwidth needed considerably.

Some Networks such as LANs and the Internet supports Multicasting where all transmissions from any of the
PCs/workstations belonging to a predefined multicast group are received by all the other members of the group
Possible to hold a conferencing session without an MCU possible with networks that support multicasting.
Figure shows the principle of this is only feasible when only a limited number of participants are involved owing
to the high load it places on the network.
In Figure shows a person at one location is communicating with a group of people at another location.
Multimedia:
Assumption: The information content
of each e-mail message consisted of
text only used in the earlier discussed.
Ex.: In addition an mail containing,
other media types such as images,
audio, and video are also used like
voice-mail, video-mail, and multimedia
mail.
Voice-mail: Similar in principle to
earlier discussed telephone networks.
Internet-based voice-mail there is a
voice-mail server associated with each
network, in addition to e-mail server.
User first enters the voice message addressed to the intended recipient local voice-mail
server then, relays this to the server associated with the intended recipient’s network
stored voice message is then, played out the next time the recipient accesses voice-
mailbox.
Same mode of operation is used for video-mail except, the mail message comprises an
integrated speech-and video sequence.
Multimedia mail: An extension of text-only mail in as much as the basic content of the
mail comprises textual information.
Textual information is annotated with a digitized image, a speech message, or a video
message, as in Figure.
Speech-and-video case in the annotations can be sent either directly to the mailbox of the
intended recipient together with the original textual message and, hence stored and
played out in the normal way or they may have to be requested specifically by the
recipient when the textual message is being read.
Recipient can always receive the basic text-only message but, the multimedia annotations
can be received only if the terminal being use by the recipient supports voice and/or
video.
Interactive Applications Over The Internet:
Internet is used to support a range of
interactive applications along with
interpersonal communication applications.
Ex.: WWW (World Wide Web) or simply
Web server comprises the linked set of
multimedia information servers that are
geographically distributed around the
Internet.
Total information stored on all the servers is
equivalent to a vast library of document.
Each document comprises a linked set of pages and linkages between the pages are
known as hyperlinks.
Hyperlinks are pointers also known as references to other pages of the same
document or to any other document within the total web so, a reader of the
document has the option at well-defined points throughout the pages that make up
a document to jump either to a different page of the same document or, to a
different document. Also, to return subsequently to a specific point on a page at a
later time.
Optional linkage points within documents are defined by the creator of the
document and are known as anchors for which the necessary linkage information is
attached.
Hypertext are documents comprising only texts and are created using hypertext.
Hypermedia are documents comprising multimedia information and are created
using hypermedia.
Figure below Shows general structure of this type of document.
There is no central authority for the introduction of new documents into the web. On side in anyone create a new document
providing the server has been allocated an Internet address, and make hyperlink references from it to any other document
on the web.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a Document’s unique address which identifies both location of the server on the Internet,
where the first page of the document is stored and also the file reference on the server.
Home page is the First page of the document all the hyperlinks on this and other pages have similar URLs associated with
them physical location of a page is transparent, to the user and in theory can be located anywhere on the web.
A Standard format is used for writing documents is known as HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) and is also used for
writing client software to explore the total contents of the web, i.e., the contents of the linked information on all the web
servers.
A Browser is a Client function and there are number of user-friendly browsers available to explore visited servers and to
open up a dialog with a particular server at the click of the mouse. Once the desired document has been located, the user
simply clicks on an anchor point within a page of the document to activate the linkage information stored at that point
Possible to return to the previous anchor at any time.
With the hypertext document: Anchor is usually, an underlined word or phrase.
With the hypermedia document: Anchor is usually, an icon of an appropriate shape.
Ex.: Loudspeaker for a sound annotation for a video camera for a video clip.
In Some applications client simply wishes to browse through the information stored at a particular site. Ex.: Browsing through
sales literature, product information, application notes periodicals, newspapers, and so on. In general, no charge for
accessing this information however, access to books, journals, and similar documents may be by subscriptions only.
Teleshopping (home shopping)/ Telebanking (home banking) applications: A client may wish not only to browse through the
information at a site but also to initiate an additional transaction Server must provide additional transaction processing
support for, say, ordering and purchasing since, this will also often involve financial transaction, more rigorous security
procedures are required for access and authentication purposes.
Entertainment Applications:
Entertainment applications can be of 2 types:
Movie/video-on-demand
Interactive television

Movie/Video-On-Demand:
• The video and audio associated with entertainment applications must be of a much higher
quality/resolution. Since, wide-screen televisions and stereophonic sound are often used.

• Digitized movie/video with sound requires a minimum channel bit rate (bandwidth) of
1.5Mbps. Hence, network used to support this application, must be either a PSTN with a
high bit rate modem or a cable network of this type.

• For PSTN: high bit rate channel provided by the modem used only over the access circuit
and provides additional services to the other switched services that the PSTN supports.
• Information stored on the server: collection of digitized movies/videos.
• Normally, subscriber terminal comprises a conventional television with device for interaction purposes.
• User interactions are relayed through the server through a set-top box which also contains the high bit rate
modem.
MOD (Movie-On-Demand)/VOD (Video-On-Demand):
• From suitable menu subscriber is able to browse
through the set of movies/videos available and
initiate the showing of a selected movie.
• Subscriber can control the showing of the movie by
using similar controls to those used on a
conventional VCR (Video Cassette Recorder) i.e.,
pause, fast-forward, and so on.
• Key feature of MOD: a subscriber can initiate
showing of a movie selected from a large library of
movies at any time of the day or night.
N-MOD (Near Movie-On-Demand):
• in this mode of operation all request
for the same movie which are made
during the period up to the next play
out time are satisfied simultaneously
by the server outputting a single video
stream clearly, the viewer is unable to
control the play out of the movies.
Interactive Television:
• Broadcast television networks: include cable, satellite, and terrestrial networks.
• Basic service of this network is diffusion of both analog and digital television (and radio) programs.
• STB (Set-Top Box): associated with these networks has a modem within it.
• For cable networks as in Figure below. , STB provides both a low bit rate connection to the PSTN and a high bit rate
connection to the Internet.
• By connecting appropriate TE to the STB a keyboard, telephone, and so on subscriber is
able to gain access to all the services provided through the PSTN and the Internet.
• Through the connection to the PSTN subscriber is able to actively respond to the
information being broadcast it’s the origin of the term interaction television.
• Typical uses of the return channel are for voting, participation in games, home shopping,
and so on.
Media types:
Continuous media case:
• Information stream is generated by the source continuously in a time dependent way.
• Continuous media is passed directly to the destination as it is generated, and at the destination, the
information stream is played out directly as it is received operation mode of which is called streaming.
• Continuous media generated in a time-dependent way is called Real-time media.
• Continuous media with the bit rate of the communication channel that is used must be compatible with
the rate the source media is being generated.
• Ex.: Media types that guarantee continuous streams of information in real time are audio and video.

• Bit rate of source information stream can be either CBR (Constant Bit Rate)/ VBR (Variable Bit Rate).
• Audio: Ex.: Digitized audio stream is generated at a constant bit rate which is determined by the
frequency. The audio waveform is sampled and the number of bits that are used to digitize each
sample.
• Video: Ex.: Individual pictures/frames that make up the video are generated at a constant rate after
compression amount of information associated with each frame varies in general, information stream
associated with compressed video is generated at fixed time intervals but the resulting bit rate is
variable.
Block mode media:
Source information comprises single block of information that is created in a time
independent way.
Ex.: block of text representing an e-mail or computer program a 2-D matrix of pixel values that
represents an image and so on.

Block mode media created in a time-independent way often stored at the source in say, a file
Downloading when it is requested block of information is transferred across the network to
the destination where it is again stored and subsequently output/displayed at a time
determined by the requesting application program.

Bit rate of the communications channel need not be constant but, such that, when a block is
requested.

RTD (Round-Trip Delay): delay between the request being made and the contents of the block
being output at the destination is within an acceptable time interval - RTD – for HCI (Human-
Computer Interface): can be no more than a few seconds.
 Communication Modes:
Transfer of information streams associated with an application can be in 5 modes:
Simplex
Half-duplex (Two-way alternate)
Duplex (Two-way simultaneous)
Broadcast
Multicast

Simplex:
Information associated with the application flows in
one direction only.
Ex.: transmission of photographic images from a
deep-space probe at predetermined times Involves
unidirectional flow of information from the probe
to an earth station.
Half-duplex (Two-way alternate):

Information flows in both directions but, alternatively.

Ex.: user making a request for some information form a
remote server, which returns the requested information.
Duplex (Two-way simultaneous) :
Information flows in both directions simultaneously.
Ex.: two-way flow of the digitized speech and video
associated with a video telephony application.

Broadcast:
•Information output by a single source node
is received by all the other nodes,
computers, and others which are connected
to the same network.
•Ex.: broadcast of a television program over
a cable network as all the television
receivers that are connected to the network
receive the same set of programs.
Multicast:
Similar to broadcast except, information output by the source is received by only a specific subset of the nodes that are
connected to the network (multicast group).
Ex.: video conferencing involving a predefined group of terminals/computers connected to a network exchanging integrated
speech and video streams.
In half-duplex and duplex communications the bit rate associated with the flow of information in each direction can be same
or different.
Rate associated, with the flow of information in each direction is equal then is called as Symmetric.
Rate associated, with the flow of information in each direction is unequal then is called as Asymmetric.
Ex.: Video telephone call: involves exchange of integrated digitized speech and video stream both direction simultaneously so,
symmetric duplex communications channel is required.
Application involving browser (program) and a web server:
Low bit rate channel from the browser to the web server is required for request and control purposes.
High bit rate channel from the server to the subscriber for the transfer of, say, and requested file so, asymmetric half-
duplex communications channel is required
Network Types:
Types of information stream associated with the different media types
are:
Continuous mode
Block mode
There are TWO types of communications channel associated with the
various network types they are:
Circuit-mode: operates in a time-dependent way, also called as Synchronous
communications channel as it provides a constant bit rate service at a
specified rate.
Packet-mode: operates in a time-varying way, also called as Asynchronous
communications channel provides a variable bit rate service - actual rate is
determined by the variable transfer rate of packets across the network.
 Circuit-mode:
Figure below shows – the circuit mode network
Circuit-switched networks comprise an interconnected set of switching offices/exchanges for which
the subscriber terminals/computers are connected.
Prior sending information source set up a connection through the network.
Each subscriber terminal/computer has a unique network-wide number/address associated with it.
To make a call source first enters the number/address of the intended communication partner Local
switching office/exchange uses this to set up a connection through the network to the switching
office/exchange to which destination is connected.
Assuming destination is free and ready to receive a call a message is returned to the source indicating
that it can start to transfer/exchange information. After all the information has been
transferred/exchanged either the source or the destination requests for the connection to be cleared.
Bit rate associated with the connection is fixed and, determined by the bit rate that is used over the
access circuits that connect the source and destination terminal/computer to the network signaling
messages associated with the setting up and clearing of a connection.
Call/connection setup delay is the time delay while a connection is being established.
Ex.: PSTN and ISDN.
PSTN: call setup delay can range from a fraction of a second for a local call through to several seconds
for an international call.
ISDN: delay ranges from tens of milliseconds through to several hundred milliseconds.
Packet-mode:
Types of packet-mode networks:
•Connection-Oriented(CO)
•Connectionless(CL)
Connection-Oriented(CO):
• Comprises an interconnected set of PSEs (Packet-Switching Exchanges).
• Connection-Oriented network is also called as Packet-switched network.
• Each terminal/computer is connected to the network has a unique network-
wide number/address associated with it. Prior to the sending any information
connection is first set up through network using the addresses of the source
and destination terminals.
• Connection/circuit that is set up utilizes only a variable portion of the BW
of each link hence, connection is known as Virtual Connection/Virtual
Circuit (VC).
Connectionless:
In connectionless network:
Establishment of connection is not
required. Two communicating
terminals/computers can communicate
and exchange information as and when
they wish.
Figure shows each packet must carry
the full source and destination
addresses in its header in order for each
PSE to route the packet onto the
appropriate outgoing link.

•Ex.:
Internet (Ex.: for packet-switched network –
that operates in the CL mode).
International X.25 packet-switching
network and ATM (Ex.: for networks that
operate in the CO mode).
Multipoint Conferencing:

• Features in many interpersonal applications including audio and video

conferencing, data sharing, and computer supported cooperative working.

• These involve exchange of information between 3 or more

terminals/computers.

• Multipoint conferencing is implemented in one of following ways:

Centralized mode
Decentralized mode
Hybrid mode
Centralized mode:
• Used with circuit-switched networks such as
PSTN/ISDN.
• Prior to sending any information, each
terminal/computer to be involved in the conference
must first set up a connection to the server.
• Each terminal/computer then, sends its own media
stream comprising, say, audio, video, and data
integrated together in some way to the server using
the established connection.
• Server in turn, distributes either the media stream
received from a selected terminal/computer or a mix
of the media streams received from several
terminals/computers back to all the other
terminals/computers that are involved in the
conference.
Decentralized mode:
• Used with packet-switched networks that
support multicast communications.
Ex.: LANs, intranets, and the Internet.

• Figure Shows output of each

terminal/computer is received by all the
other members of the
conference/multicast group.

• Conference server is not normally used,

and instead each terminal/computer
manages the information streams that it
receives from the other members.
Hybrid mode:
• Used when the various terminals/computers that makes up the conference are
attached to different network types.
• Figure Shows Ex.: conference comprises 4 terminals/computers 2 attached to a
circuit-switched network and 2 to a packet switched network that supports
multicasting.
• Like in the centralized mode conference server is used output of each
terminal/computer is sent to the server either over individual circuits terminals A and
B or using multicasting terminals C and D Server that determines output stream(s) to
be sent to each terminal.
Types of conferencing based on media Type:
• Data conferencing
• Audio conferencing
• Videoconferencing
• Multimedia conferencing

• Data conferencing: Involves data only. Ex.: include data sharing and computer-supported
cooperative working.
• Audio conferencing: Involves audio (speech) only.
• Video conferencing: Involves speech and video synchronized and integrated together.
• Multimedia conferencing: Involves speech, video, and data integrated together.
Network QoS
Definition: “Operational parameters associated with a communications channel through a network
collectively determine the suitability of the channel in relation to its use for a particular application”.
• QoS parameters are different for circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.

Circuit-Switched Network:
QoS parameters associated with a constant bit rate channel that is set up through a Circuit-switched
network are
• Bit rate
• Mean bit error rate
• Transmission delay

Bit rate:
• In digital telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given point in a
telecommunication network in a given amount of time, usually a second.
• A bit rate is usually measured in some multiple of bits per second.
• The term bit rate is a synonym for data transfer rate (or simply data rate).
Mean BER (Mean Bit Error Rate) of a channel:
• Probability of a bit being corrupted during its transmission across the channel in a defined
time interval.
• For constant bit rate channel: Mean BER is the probability of a bit being corrupted in a
defined number of bits Mean BER of 10-3 means, on average for every 1000 bits that are
transmitted, 1 of these bits is corrupt.
• Some applications providing the occurrence of bit errors is relatively infrequent their
presence is acceptable while in other applications it is imperative that no residual bit
errors are present in the received information.
• Ex.:
• If the application involves speech then, an occasional bit error will go unnoticed.
• If the application involves transfer say, financial information it is essential that the received information contains no
errors in such applications, prior to transmission the source information is normally divided into blocks the
maximum size of which is determined by the mean BER of the communications channel.

• Ex.: if mean BER is 10-3 number of bits in a block must be considerably < 1000, otherwise,
on an average every block will contain an error and will be discarded.
• Normally bit errors occur randomly hence, even with a block size of (say 100 bits) blocks may still
contain an error but, the probability of this occurring is considerably less.
• In general,
BER probability is P,
Number of bits in a block is N,
Probability of a block containing a bit error is PB.

• Assuming: random errors: PB=1-(1-P)N

which approximates to NxP if, NxP<1.

• In practice, both circuit-switched and packet-switched provide unreliable service (best-try or

best-effort service).

• Unreliable service (Best-try/Best-effort service) is a type of service where any blocks containing
bit errors will be discarded either with the network (packet-switched network) or in the network
interface at the destination (both packet-switched and circuit switched networks).

• When the above occurs destination must request source send another copy of the missing block.
This type of service is called Reliable service.
Transmission delay:
• Associated with the channel is determined by:
• Bit rate used
• Delays occur in the terminal/computer network interfaces (codec delays) +
propagation delay of the digital, as they pass from source to destination, across
the network.

• The above is determined by physical separation of 2 communicating devices and

velocity of propagation of a signal, across the transmission medium (free space:
3*108 m/s and a fraction of this in physical media, a typical value 2*108 m/s).

• Propagation delay: in each case is independent of the bit rate of the

communication channel. Assuming codec delay remains constant; propagation
delay remains same whether bit rate is 1kpbs, 1Mbps, or 1Gbps.
PROBLEM
Drive the maximum block size that should be used over a channel
which has a mean BER probability of 10-4 if the probability of a block
containing an error –and hence being discarded –is to be 10-1.
ANSWER:
PB=1-(1-P)N
Hence 0.1=1-(1-10-4)N and N=950bits
Alternatively, PB=N x P
Hence 0.1=Nx10-4 and N=1000bits
Packet-switched network:
QoS parameters – associated with a packet-switched network include
Maximum packet size
Mean packet transfer rate
Mean packet error rate
Mean packet transfer delay
Worst-case jitter
Transmission delay

Packet-switched network: rate of packets transfer across the network influenced

strongly by bit rate of the interconnecting links due to, variable store-and-forward
delays in each PSE/router. Actual rate of transfer of packets across the network is
also variable.

Mean packet transfer rate: Measure of the average number of packets transferred
across the network/second coupling with packet size being used determines
equivalent mean bit rate of the channel.
• Mean PER (Mean Packet Error Rate): Probability of a received packet
containing one or more bit errors. It is same as block error rate, associated
with a circuit-switched network. Thus related to both maximum packet size
and worst-case BER of the transmission links which interconnects
PSEs/routers that make up the network.

• Mean packet transfer delay: Summation of the mean store-and-forward

delay that a packet experiences in each PSE/router which, it encounters along
a rout.

• Jitter: Worst-case variation in the mean packet transfer delay.

• Transmission delay: Same for network operates in the packet mode or a

circuit mode Includes: Codec delay, in each of the two-communicating
computers and Signal propagation delay.
PROBLEM:
Determine the propagation delay associated with the following communication channels:
A connection through a private telephone network of the 1km,
A connection through a PSTN of 200km,
A connection over a satellite channel of 50 000km.

Assume that the velocity of propagation of a signal in the case of (1) and (2) is 2x108ms-1 and in the case of (3) 3x108ms-1
Application QoS parameters relate to the network include:
Required bit rate or mean packet transfer rate
Maximum startup delay
Maximum end-to-end delay
Maximum delay variation/jitter
Maximum round-trip delay

Applications involving – transfer of constant bit rate stream: Parameters important are:
Required bit rate/mean packet transfer rate
End-to-end delay
Delay variation/jitter (can cause problem – in the destination decoder – if the rate of arrival of
the bit stream is variable)
PROBLEM:
A packet-switch network with a worst-case jitter of 10ms is to be used for a number of applications each of
which involves a constant bit rate information stream. Determine the minimum amount of memory that is
required at the destination and a suitable packet size for each of the following input bit rate. It can be assumed
that the main packet transfer network exceeds the equivalent input bit rate in each case.
(1) 64kbps
(2) 256kbps
(3) 1.5Mbps
ANSWER:
(1) At 64kbps, 10ms=640bits
Hence chose a packet size of, say, 800 bits with a FIFO buffer of 1600 bits -2 packet –and start play out of the
bitstream after the first packet has been received.
(2) At 256kbps, 10ms=2560 bits
Hence chose a packet size of, say, 2800 bits with a FIFO buffer of 4800 bits.

(3) AT 1.5Mbps, 10ms=15000 bits

Hence choose a packet size of, say, 16000 bits with a FIFO buffer of 32000 bits.
NOTICE: that if the computed packet size exceeds the network maximum packet size, then the equivalent
number of packet must be sent before play out starts for example, if the maximum network packet size was 800
bits , then for case (3) above play out would not start until two packets have received and the FIFO buffer should
hold four packets.