Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌt nɪk, ˈspʊt nɪk/; see § Et ymology) was t he first art ificial Eart h sat ellit e.[5] It was
launched int o an ellipt ical low Eart h orbit by t he Soviet Union on 4 Oct ober 1957 as part of t he
Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back t o Eart h for t hree weeks before it s t hree silver-
zinc bat t eries ran out , and cont inued in orbit for anot her t wo mont hs unt il at mospheric drag
caused it t o fall back int o t he at mosphere on t he 4t h of January 1958.
 Sputnik 1

Replica of Sputnik 1

Names Спутник 1
Object PS (Prosteishiy Sputnik)
Простейший Спутник-1
Elementary Satellite-1

Mission type Technology demonstration

Operator OKB-1

Harvard designation 1957 Alpha 2[1]

COSPAR ID 1957-001B (https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sp

acecraft/display.action?id=1957-001B)

SATCAT no. 00002

Mission duration 22 days (achieved)

Orbits completed 1440[2]

Spacecraft properties

Spacecraft Sputnik-1

Manufacturer OKB-1
Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry

Launch mass 83.6 kg (184 lb)

Dimensions 58 cm (23 in) diameter

Power 1 watt

Start of mission

Launch date 4 October 1957, 19:28:34 UTC

Rocket Sputnik 8K71PS [3]

Launch site Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 1/5[3]

Contractor OKB-1

End of mission

Disposal Atmospheric entry

Last contact 26 October 1957

Decay date 4 January 1958[3]

Orbital parameters

Reference system Geocentric orbit [4]

Regime Low Earth orbit

Semi-major axis 6,955.2 km

Eccentricity 0.05201

Perigee altitude 215 km (134 mi)

Apogee altitude 939 km (583 mi)

Inclination 65.10°

Period 96.20 minutes

Instruments

Radio transmitter
20.005 and 40.002 MHz

Sputnik program
It was a polished met al sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diamet er wit h four ext ernal radio ant ennas t o
broadcast radio pulses. It s radio signal was easily det ect able by amat eur radio operat ors,[6] and
t he 65° orbit al inclinat ion made it s flight pat h cover virt ually t he ent ire inhabit ed Eart h.

The sat ellit e's unant icipat ed success precipit at ed t he American Sput nik crisis and t riggered t he
Space Race, part of t he Cold War. The launch was t he beginning of a new era of polit ical, milit ary,
t echnological and scient ific development s.[7][8] The word sputnik is Russian for satellite when
int erpret ed in an ast ronomical cont ext ;[9] it s ot her meanings are spouse or traveling
companion.[10][11]

Tracking and st udying Sput nik 1 from Eart h provided scient ist s wit h valuable informat ion. The
densit y of t he upper at mosphere could be deduced from it s drag on t he orbit , and t he
propagat ion of it s radio signals gave dat a about t he ionosphere.

Sput nik 1 was launched during t he Int ernat ional Geophysical Year from Sit e No.1/5, at t he 5t h
Tyurat am range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as t he Baikonur Cosmodrome). The sat ellit e t ravelled
at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), t aking 96.20 minut es t o complet e each orbit . It
t ransmit t ed on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz,[12] which were monit ored by radio operat ors t hroughout
t he world. The signals cont inued for 21 days unt il t he t ransmit t er bat t eries ran out on 26
Oct ober 1957. Sput nik 1 burned up on 4 January 1958 while reent ering Eart h's at mosphere, aft er
t hree mont hs, 1,440 complet ed orbit s of t he Eart h,[2] and a dist ance t raveled of about
70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi).[13]

Etymology

Спутник-1, romanized as Sputnik-Odin (pronounced [ˈsput ʲnʲɪk.ɐˈdʲin]), means 'Sat ellit e-One'. The
Russian word for sat ellit e, sputnik, was coined in t he 18t h cent ury by combining t he prefix s-
('t oget her') and putnik ('t raveler'), t hereby meaning 'fellow t raveler', a meaning corresponding t o
t he Lat in root satelles ('guard, at t endant or companion'), which is t he origin of English satellite.[14]
In t he Russian language, sputnik is t he general t erm for t he art ificial sat ellit es of any count ry and
t he nat ural sat ellit es of any planet .[14]

Before the launch

Satellite construction project

On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scient ist Sergei Korolev proposed a development al
plan for an art ificial sat ellit e t o t he Minist er of t he Defense Indust ry, Dimit ri Ust inov. Korolev
forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov, wit h an overview of similar project s abroad.[15]
Tikhonravov had emphasized t hat t he launch of an orbit al sat ellit e was an inevit able st age in t he
development of rocket t echnology.[16]

On 29 July 1955, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced t hrough his press secret ary
t hat , during t he Int ernat ional Geophysical Year (IGY), t he Unit ed St at es would launch an art ificial
sat ellit e.[17] Four days lat er, Leonid Sedov, a leading Soviet physicist , announced t hat t hey t oo
would launch an art ificial sat ellit e. On 8 August , t he Polit buro of t he Communist Part y of t he
Soviet Union approved t he proposal t o creat e an art ificial sat ellit e.[18] On 30 August Vasily
Ryabikov—t he head of t he St at e Commission on t he R-7 rocket t est launches—held a meet ing
where Korolev present ed calculat ion dat a for a spaceflight t raject ory t o t he Moon. They decided
t o develop a t hree-st age version of t he R-7 rocket for sat ellit e launches.[19]

Last remaining piece of Sputnik 1: metal arming key which prevented contact between batteries and transmitter prior to
launch; on display at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum[20]

On 30 January 1956 t he Council of Minist ers approved pract ical work on an art ificial Eart h-
orbit ing sat ellit e. This sat ellit e, named Object D, was planned t o be complet ed in 1957–58; it
would have a mass of 1,000 t o 1,400 kg (2,200 t o 3,100 lb) and would carry 200 t o 300 kg (440 t o
660 lb) of scient ific inst rument s.[21] The first t est launch of "Object D" was scheduled for
1957.[16] Work on t he sat ellit e was t o be divided among inst it ut ions as follows:[22]
 The USSR Academy of Sciences was responsible for t he general scient ific leadership and t he
supply of research inst rument s

The Minist ry of t he Defense Indust ry and it s primary design bureau, OKB-1, were assigned t he
t ask of building t he sat ellit e

The Minist ry of t he Radio t echnical Indust ry would develop t he cont rol syst em,
radio/t echnical inst rument s, and t he t elemet ry syst em

The Minist ry of t he Ship Building Indust ry would develop gyroscope devices

The Minist ry of t he Machine Building would develop ground launching, refueling and
t ransport at ion means

The Minist ry of t he Defense was responsible for conduct ing launches

Preliminary design work was complet ed in July 1956 and t he scient ific t asks t o be carried out by
t he sat ellit e were defined. These included measuring t he densit y of t he at mosphere and it s ion
composit ion, t he solar wind, magnet ic fields, and cosmic rays. This dat a would be valuable in t he
creat ion of fut ure art ificial sat ellit es; a syst em of ground st at ions was t o be developed t o
collect dat a t ransmit t ed by t he sat ellit e, observe t he sat ellit e's orbit , and t ransmit commands
t o t he sat ellit e. Because of t he limit ed t ime frame, observat ions were planned for only 7 t o 10
days and orbit calculat ions were not expect ed t o be ext remely accurat e.[23]

By t he end of 1956 it became clear t hat t he complexit y of t he ambit ious design meant t hat
'Object D' could not be launched in t ime because of difficult ies creat ing scient ific inst rument s
and t he low specific impulse produced by t he complet ed R-7 engines (304 sec inst ead of t he
planned 309 t o 310 sec). Consequent ly, t he government rescheduled t he launch for April
1958.[16] Object D would lat er fly as Sput nik 3.[24]

Fearing t he U.S. would launch a sat ellit e before t he USSR, OKB-1 suggest ed t he creat ion and
launch of a sat ellit e in April–May 1957, before t he IGY began in July 1957. The new sat ellit e
would be simple, light (100 kg or 220 lb), and easy t o const ruct , forgoing t he complex, heavy
scient ific equipment in favour of a simple radio t ransmit t er. On 15 February 1957 t he Council of
Minist ers of t he USSR approved t his simple sat ellit e, designat ed 'Object PS'.[25] This version
allowed t he sat ellit e t o be t racked visually by Eart h-based observers, and it could t ransmit
t racking signals t o ground-based receiving st at ions.[25] The launch of t wo sat ellit es, PS-1 and
PS-2, wit h t wo R-7 rocket s (8K71), was approved, provided t hat t he R-7 complet ed at least t wo
successful t est flight s.[25]
Launch vehicle preparation and launch site selection

R-7 Semyorka Sputnik 8K71PS

ICBM

30 kopek USSR stamp depicting Sputnik 1 orbiting the Earth, the Earth orbiting the Sun and the Sun orbiting the centre of the
Milky Way galaxy

The R-7 rocket was init ially designed as an int ercont inent al ballist ic missile (ICBM) by OKB-1.
The decision t o build it was made by t he Cent ral Commit t ee of t he Communist Part y of t he
Soviet Union and t he Council of Minist ers of t he USSR on 20 May 1954.[26] The rocket was t he
most powerful in t he world; it was designed wit h excess t hrust since t hey were unsure how
heavy t he hydrogen bomb payload would be.[27] The R-7 was also known by it s GRAU (lat er
GURVO, t he Russian abbreviat ion for "Chief Direct orat e of t he Rocket Forces") designat ion
8K71.[28] At t he t ime, t he R-7 was known t o NATO sources as t he T-3 or M-104,[29] and Type
A.[30] A special reconnaissance commission select ed Tyurat am for t he const ruct ion of a rocket
proving ground, t he 5t h Tyurat am range, usually referred t o as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in t he post -
Soviet t ime. The select ion was approved on 12 February 1955 by t he Council of Minist ers of t he
USSR, but t he sit e would not be complet ed unt il 1958.[31] Act ual work on t he const ruct ion of t he
sit e began on 20 July by milit ary building unit s. On 14 June 1956, Korolev decided t o adapt t he R-
7 rocket t o t he 'Object D' (Sput nik 3),[32] t hat would lat er be replaced by t he much light er 'Object
PS' (Sput nik 1).[33]

The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. A fire began in t he Blok
D st rap-on almost immediat ely at lift off, but t he boost er cont inued flying unt il 98 seconds aft er
launch when t he st rap-on broke away and t he vehicle crashed some 400 km (250 mi)
downrange.[34] Three at t empt s t o launch t he second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10–11
June, but an assembly defect prevent ed launch.[35] The unsuccessful launch of t he t hird R-7
rocket (8K71 No.7) t ook place on 12 July.[34] An elect rical short caused t he vernier engines t o
put t he missile int o an uncont rolled roll which result ed in all of t he st rap-ons separat ing 33
seconds int o t he launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km (4.3 mi) from t he pad.[36]

CC

0:46

One of the first American newsreel reports about the Sputnik in 1957

The launch of t he fourt h rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25 Moscow Time,[34] was
successful. The rocket 's core boost ed t he dummy warhead t o t he t arget alt it ude and velocit y,
reent ered t he at mosphere, and broke apart at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) aft er t raveling 6,000 km
(3,700 mi). On 27 August , t he TASS issued a st at ement on t he successful launch of a long-
dist ance mult ist age ICBM. The launch of t he fift h R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 Sept ember,[34]
was also successful, but t he dummy was also dest royed on at mospheric re-ent ry,[36] and hence
needed a redesign t o complet ely fulfill it s milit ary purpose. The rocket , however, was deemed
suit able for sat ellit e launches, and Korolev was able t o convince t he St at e Commission t o allow
t he use of t he next R-7 t o launch PS-1,[37] allowing t he delay in t he rocket 's milit ary exploit at ion
t o launch t he PS-1 and PS-2 sat ellit es.[38][39]

On 22 Sept ember a modified R-7 rocket , named Sput nik and indexed as 8K71PS,[40] arrived at t he
proving ground and preparat ions for t he launch of PS-1 began.[41] Compared t o t he milit ary R-7
t est vehicles, t he mass of 8K71PS was reduced from 280 t t o 272 t , it s lengt h wit h PS-1 was
29.167 met res (95 ft 8.3 in) and t he t hrust at lift off was 3.90 MN (880,000 lbf).[42]

Observation complex

PS-1 was not designed t o be cont rolled; it could only be observed. Init ial dat a at t he launch sit e
would be collect ed at six separat e observat ories and t elegraphed t o NII-4.[38] Locat ed back in
Moscow (at Bolshevo), NII-4 was a scient ific research arm of t he Minist ry of Defence t hat was
dedicat ed t o missile development .[43] The six observat ories were clust ered around t he launch
sit e, wit h t he closest sit uat ed 1 km (0.62 mi) from t he launch pad.[38]

A second, nat ionwide observat ion complex was est ablished t o t rack t he sat ellit e aft er it s
separat ion from t he rocket . Called t he Command-Measurement Complex, it consist ed of t he
coordinat ion cent er in NII-4 and seven dist ant st at ions sit uat ed along t he line of t he sat ellit e's
ground t rack.[44] These t racking st at ions were locat ed at Tyurat am, Sary-Shagan, Yeniseysk,
Klyuchi, Yelizovo, Makat in Guryev Oblast , and Ishkup in Krasnoyarsk Krai.[38][44] St at ions were
equipped wit h radar, opt ical inst rument s, and communicat ions syst ems. Dat a from st at ions were
t ransmit t ed by t elegraphs int o NII-4 where ballist ics specialist s calculat ed orbit al
paramet ers.[45]

The observat ories used a t raject ory measurement syst em called "Tral", developed by OKB MEI
(Moscow Energy Inst it ut e), by which t hey received and monit ored dat a from t ransponders
mount ed on t he R-7 rocket 's core st age.[46] The dat a was useful even aft er t he sat ellit e's
separat ion from t he second st age of t he rocket ; Sput nik's locat ion was calculat ed from t he dat a
on t he second st age's locat ion which followed Sput nik at a known dist ance.[47] Tracking of t he
boost er during launch had t o be accomplished t hrough purely passive means such as visual
coverage and radar det ect ion. R-7 t est launches demonst rat ed t hat t he t racking cameras were
only good up t o an alt it ude of 200 km (120 mi), but radar could t rack it for almost 500 km
(310 mi).[42]

Out side t he Soviet Union, t he sat ellit e was t racked by amat eur radio operat ors in many
count ries.[48] The boost er rocket was locat ed and t racked by t he Brit ish using t he Lovell
Telescope at t he Jodrell Bank Observat ory, t he only t elescope in t he world able t o do so by
radar.[48] Canada's Newbrook Observat ory was t he first facilit y in Nort h America t o phot ograph
Sput nik 1.[49]

Design

Exploded view

The chief const ruct or of Sput nik 1 at OKB-1 was Mikhail S. Khomyakov.[50] The sat ellit e was a
585-millimet re (23.0 in) diamet er sphere, assembled from t wo hemispheres t hat were
hermet ically sealed wit h O-rings and connect ed by 36 bolt s. It had a mass of 83.6 kilograms
(184 lb).[51] The hemispheres were 2 mm t hick,[52] and were covered wit h a highly polished 1 mm-
t hick heat shield[53] made of an aluminium–magnesium–t it anium alloy, AMG6T. The sat ellit e
carried t wo pairs of ant ennas designed by t he Ant enna Laborat ory of OKB-1, led by Mikhail V.
Krayushkin.[22] Each ant enna was made up of t wo whip-like part s, 2.4 and 2.9 met res (7.9 and
9.5 ft ) in lengt h,[54] and had an almost spherical radiat ion pat t ern.[55]

The power supply, wit h a mass of 51 kg (112 lb), was in t he shape of an oct agonal nut wit h t he
radio t ransmit t er in it s hole.[56] It consist ed of t hree silver-zinc bat t eries, developed at t he All-
Union Research Inst it ut e of Power Sources (VNIIT) under t he leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko.
Two of t hese bat t eries powered t he radio t ransmit t er and one powered t he t emperat ure
regulat ion syst em. The bat t eries had an expect ed lifet ime of t wo weeks, and operat ed for 22
days. The power supply was t urned on aut omat ically at t he moment of t he sat ellit e's separat ion
from t he second st age of t he rocket .[57]

The sat ellit e had a one-wat t , 3.5 kg (7.7 lb)[38] radio t ransmit t ing unit inside, developed by
Vyacheslav I. Lappo from NII-885, t he Moscow Elect ronics Research Inst it ut e,[57][58] t hat worked
on t wo frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on t he first frequency were t ransmit t ed in
0.3 s pulses (near f = 3 Hz) (under normal t emperat ure and pressure condit ions on board), wit h
pauses of t he same durat ion filled by pulses on t he second frequency.[59] Analysis of t he radio
signals was used t o gat her informat ion about t he elect ron densit y of t he ionosphere.
Temperat ure and pressure were encoded in t he durat ion of radio beeps. A t emperat ure regulat ion
syst em cont ained a fan, a dual t hermal swit ch, and a cont rol t hermal swit ch.[57] If t he
t emperat ure inside t he sat ellit e exceeded 36 °C (97 °F), t he fan was t urned on; when it fell
below 20 °C (68 °F), t he fan was t urned off by t he dual t hermal swit ch.[55] If t he t emperat ure
exceeded 50 °C (122 °F) or fell below 0 °C (32 °F), anot her cont rol t hermal swit ch was act ivat ed,
changing t he durat ion of t he radio signal pulses.[57] Sput nik 1 was filled wit h dry nit rogen,
pressurized t o 1.3 at m (130 kPa).[40] The sat ellit e had a baromet ric swit ch, act ivat ed if t he
pressure inside t he sat ellit e fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicat ed failure of t he
pressure vessel or punct ure by a met eor, and would have changed t he durat ion of radio signal
impulse.[6]

While at t ached t o t he rocket , Sput nik 1 was prot ect ed by a cone-shaped payload fairing, wit h a
height of 80 cm (31.5 in).[38] The fairing separat ed from bot h Sput nik and t he spent R-7 second
st age at t he same t ime as t he sat ellit e was eject ed.[57] Test s of t he sat ellit e were conduct ed
at OKB-1 under t he leadership of Oleg G. Ivanovsky.[50]

Launch and mission

Artist's impression of Sputnik 1 in orbit

The cont rol syst em of t he Sput nik rocket was adjust ed t o an int ended orbit of 223 by 1,450 km
(139 by 901 mi), wit h an orbit al period of 101.5 minut es.[60] The t raject ory had been calculat ed
earlier by Georgi Grechko, using t he USSR Academy of Sciences' mainframe comput er.[38][61]

The Sput nik rocket was launched on 4 Oct ober 1957 at 19:28:34 UTC (5 Oct ober at t he launch
sit e [2][4]) from Sit e No.1 at NIIP-5.[62] Telemet ry indicat ed t hat t he st rap-ons separat ed 116
seconds int o t he flight and t he core st age engine shut down 295.4 seconds int o t he flight .[60] At
shut down, t he 7.5-t onne core st age (wit h PS-1 at t ached) had at t ained an alt it ude of 223 km
(139 mi) above sea level, a velocit y of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft /s), and a velocit y vect or inclinat ion
t o t he local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minut es. This result ed in an init ial orbit of 223 km (139 mi) by
950 km (590 mi), wit h an apogee approximat ely 500 km (310 mi) lower t han int ended, and an
inclinat ion of 65.10° and a period of 96.20 minut es.[60]

A fuel regulat or in t he boost er also failed around 16 seconds int o launch, which result ed in
excessive RP-1 consumpt ion for most of t he powered flight and t he engine t hrust being 4%
above nominal. Core st age cut off was int ended for T+296 seconds, but t he premat ure
propellant deplet ion caused t hrust t erminat ion t o occur one second earlier when a sensor
det ect ed overspeed of t he empt y RP-1 t urbopump. There were 375 kg (827 lb) of LOX
remaining at cut off.[2]

At 19.9 seconds aft er engine cut -off, PS-1 separat ed from t he second st age [2] and t he
sat ellit e's t ransmit t er was act ivat ed. These signals were det ect ed at t he IP-1 st at ion by Junior
Engineer-Lieut enant V.G. Borisov, where recept ion of Sput nik 1's "beep-beep-beep" t ones
confirmed t he sat ellit e's successful deployment . Recept ion last ed for 2 minut es, unt il PS-1 fell
below t he horizon.[38][63] The Tral t elemet ry syst em on t he R-7 core st age cont inued t o t ransmit
and was det ect ed on it s second orbit .[2]
The designers, engineers and t echnicians who developed t he rocket and sat ellit e wat ched t he
launch from t he range.[64] Aft er t he launch t hey drove t o t he mobile radio st at ion t o list en for
signals from t he sat ellit e.[64] They wait ed about 90 minut es t o ensure t hat t he sat ellit e had
made one orbit and was t ransmit t ing before Korolev called Soviet premier Nikit a Khrushchev.[65]

On t he first orbit t he Telegraph Agency of t he Soviet Union (TASS) t ransmit t ed: "As result of
great , int ense work of scient ific inst it ut es and design bureaus t he first art ificial Eart h sat ellit e
has been built ".[66] The R-7 core st age, wit h a mass of 7.5 t onnes and a lengt h of 26 met res, also
reached Eart h orbit . It was a first magnit ude object following behind t he sat ellit e and visible at
night . Deployable reflect ive panels were placed on t he boost er in order t o increase it s visibilit y
for t racking.[65] A small highly polished sphere, t he sat ellit e was barely visible at sixt h magnit ude,
and t hus harder t o follow opt ically.[25] The bat t eries ran out on 26 Oct ober 1957, aft er t he
sat ellit e complet ed 326 orbit s.[67]

The core st age of t he R-7 remained in orbit for t wo mont hs unt il 2 December 1957, while
Sput nik 1 orbit ed for t hree mont hs, unt il 4 January 1958, having complet ed 1,440 orbit s of t he
Eart h.[2]

Reception

Our movies and television programs in the fifties were full of the
idea of going into space. What came as a surprise was that it was the
Soviet Union that launched the first satellite. It is hard to recall the
atmosphere of the time.

— John Logsdon [68]

The Soviet s provided det ails of Sput nik 1 before t he launch, but few out side t he Soviet Union
not iced. Aft er reviewing informat ion publicly available before t he launch, t he science writ er Willy
Ley wrot e in 1958:

If somebody tells me that he has the rockets to shoot—which we

know from other sources, anyway—and tells me what he will shoot,
how he will shoot it, and in general says virtually everything except
for the precise date—well, what should I feel like if I'm surprised
when the man shoots?[69]
Organized t hrough t he cit izen science project Operat ion Moonwat ch, t eams of visual observers
at 150 st at ions in t he Unit ed St at es and ot her count ries were alert ed during t he night t o wat ch
for t he sat ellit e at dawn and during t he evening t wilight as it passed overhead.[70] The USSR
request ed amat eur and professional radio operat ors t o t ape record t he signal being t ransmit t ed
from t he sat ellit e.[70]

0:05

Sputnik 1's steady beep, which "both thrilled and terrified" listeners.[71]

"BEEP ... BEEP ... To Bob's" spaceship ad spoofs Sputnik in the California Institute of Technology yearbook of 1958.

News report s at t he t ime point ed out t hat "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear
t he new Russian eart h sat ellit e as it hurt les over t his area of t he globe."[72] Direct ions, provided
by t he American Radio Relay League, were t o "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by t he t ime
signals, given on t hat frequency. Then t une t o slight ly higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound
of t he sat ellit e can be heard each t ime it rounds t he globe."[73] The first recording of Sput nik 1's
signal was made by RCA engineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They t hen drove t he t ape
recording int o Manhat t an for broadcast t o t he public over NBC radio. However, as Sput nik rose
higher over t he East Coast , it s signal was picked up by W2AEE, t he ham radio st at ion of Columbia
Universit y. St udent s working in t he universit y's FM st at ion, WKCR, made a t ape of t his, and were
t he first t o rebroadcast t he Sput nik signal t o t he American public (or whoever could receive t he
FM st at ion).[71]
The Soviet Union agreed t o t ransmit on frequencies t hat worked wit h t he Unit ed St at es' exist ing
infrast ruct ure, but lat er announced t he lower frequencies.[70] Assert ing t hat t he launch "did not
come as a surprise", t he Whit e House refused t o comment on any milit ary aspect s.[74] On 5
Oct ober t he Naval Research Laborat ory capt ured recordings of Sput nik 1 during four crossings
over t he Unit ed St at es.[70] The USAF Cambridge Research Cent er collaborat ed wit h Bendix-Friez,
West inghouse Broadcast ing, and t he Smit hsonian Ast rophysical Observat ory t o obt ain a video of
Sput nik's rocket body crossing t he pre-dawn sky of Balt imore, broadcast on 12 Oct ober by WBZ-
TV in Bost on.[75]

The success of Sput nik 1 seemed t o have changed minds around t he world regarding a shift in
power t o t he Soviet s.[76]

The USSR's launch of Sput nik 1 spurred t he Unit ed St at es t o creat e t he Advanced Research
Project s Agency (ARPA, lat er DARPA) in February 1958 t o regain a t echnological lead.[77][78][79]

In Brit ain, t he media and populat ion init ially react ed wit h a mixt ure of fear for t he fut ure, but also
amazement about human progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded t he arrival of t he
Space Age.[80] However, when t he USSR launched Sput nik 2, cont aining t he dog Laika, t he media
narrat ive ret urned t o one of ant i-Communism and many people sent prot est s t o t he Soviet
embassy and t he RSPCA.[81]

Propaganda

A Soviet 40 kopek stamp, showing the satellite's orbit

Sput nik 1 was not immediat ely used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviet s had kept quiet about
t heir earlier accomplishment s in rocket ry, fearing t hat it would lead t o secret s being revealed
and failures being exploit ed by t he West .[82] When t he Soviet s began using Sput nik in t heir
propaganda, t hey emphasized pride in t he achievement of Soviet t echnology, arguing t hat it
demonst rat ed t he Soviet s' superiorit y over t he West . People were encouraged t o list en t o
Sput nik's signals on t he radio[82] and t o look out for Sput nik in t he night sky. While Sput nik it self
had been highly polished, it s small size made it barely visible t o t he naked eye. What most
wat chers act ually saw was t he much more visible 26-met re core st age of t he R-7.[82] Short ly
aft er t he launch of PS-1, Khrushchev pressed Korolev t o launch anot her sat ellit e t o coincide
wit h t he 40t h anniversary of t he Oct ober Revolut ion, on 7 November 1957.[83][84]

The launch of Sput nik 1 surprised t he American public, and shat t ered t he percept ion creat ed by
American propaganda of t he Unit ed St at es as t he t echnological superpower, and t he Soviet
Union as a backward count ry.[85] Privat ely, however, t he CIA and President Eisenhower were
aware of progress being made by t he Soviet s on Sput nik from secret spy plane imagery.[86]
Toget her wit h t he Jet Propulsion Laborat ory (JPL), t he Army Ballist ic Missile Agency built
Explorer 1, and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was complet ed, however, t he Soviet
Union launched a second sat ellit e, Sput nik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, t he t elevised
failure of Vanguard TV-3 on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over t he count ry's
posit ion in t he Space Race. The Americans t ook a more aggressive st ance in t he emerging space
race,[87] result ing in an emphasis on science and t echnological research, and reforms in many
areas from t he milit ary t o educat ion syst ems.[88] The federal government began invest ing in
science, engineering, and mat hemat ics at all levels of educat ion.[85][89] An advanced research
group was assembled for milit ary purposes.[85] These research groups developed weapons such
as ICBMs and missile defense syst ems, as well as spy sat ellit es for t he U.S.[85]

Legacy

On Friday, 4 October 1957, the Soviets had orbited the world's first
artificial satellite. Anyone who doubted its existence could walk into
the backyard just after sunset and see it.

— Mike Gray, Angle of Attack[90]

Init ially, U.S. President Eisenhower was not surprised by Sput nik 1. He had been forewarned of
t he R-7's capabilit ies by informat ion derived from U-2 spy plane overflight phot os, as well as
signals and t elemet ry int ercept s.[91][92] The Eisenhower administ rat ion's first response was low-
key and almost dismissive.[93] Eisenhower was even pleased t hat t he USSR, not t he U.S., would
be t he first t o t est t he wat ers of t he st ill-uncert ain legal st at us of orbit al sat ellit e
overflight s.[94] Eisenhower had suffered t he Soviet prot est s and shoot -downs of Project
Genet rix (Moby Dick) balloons[95] and was concerned about t he probabilit y of a U-2 being shot
down.[96] To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before t he launch of America's secret WS-
117L spy sat ellit es,[97] t he U.S. had launched Project Vanguard as it s own "civilian" sat ellit e ent ry
for t he Int ernat ional Geophysical Year.[98] Eisenhower great ly underest imat ed t he react ion of t he
American public, who were shocked by t he launch of Sput nik and by t he t elevised failure of t he
Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch at t empt . The sense of anxiet y was inflamed by Democrat ic
polit icians and professional cold warriors, who port rayed t he Unit ed St at es as woefully behind.[99]
One of t he many books t hat suddenly appeared for t he lay-audience not ed seven point s of
"impact " upon t he nat ion: West ern leadership, West ern st rat egy and t act ics, missile product ion,
applied research, basic research, educat ion, and democrat ic cult ure.[29] As public and t he
government became int erest ed in space and relat ed science and t echnology, t he phenomenon
was somet imes dubbed t he "Sput nik craze".[100]

Sputnik 1, Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko on a 2007 Ukrainian stamp

The U.S. soon had a number of successful sat ellit es, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE, and
Courier 1B. However, public react ion t o t he Sput nik crisis spurred America t o act ion in t he Space
Race, leading t o t he creat ion of bot h t he Advanced Research Project s Agency (renamed t he
Defense Advanced Research Project s Agency, or DARPA, in 1972),[101] and NASA (t hrough t he
Nat ional Aeronaut ics and Space Act ),[102] as well as increased U.S. government spending on
scient ific research and educat ion t hrough t he Nat ional Defense Educat ion Act .[103]

Sput nik also cont ribut ed direct ly t o a new emphasis on science and t echnology in American
schools. Wit h a sense of urgency, Congress enact ed t he 1958 Nat ional Defense Educat ion Act ,
which provided low-int erest loans for college t uit ion t o st udent s majoring in mat hemat ics and
science.[104][105] Aft er t he launch of Sput nik, a poll conduct ed and published by t he Universit y of
Michigan showed t hat 26% of Americans surveyed t hought t hat Russian sciences and
engineering were superior t o t hat of t he Unit ed St at es. (A year lat er, however, t hat figure had
dropped t o 10% as t he U.S. began launching it s own sat ellit es int o space.)[106]

One consequence of t he Sput nik shock was t he percept ion of a "missile gap". This became a
dominant issue in t he 1960 President ial campaign.[107]

One irony of t he Sput nik event was t he init ially low-key response of t he Soviet Union. The
Communist Part y newspaper Pravda only print ed a few paragraphs about Sput nik 1 on 4
Oct ober.[108]

Sput nik also inspired a generat ion of engineers and scient ist s. Harrison St orms, t he Nort h
American designer who was responsible for t he X-15 rocket plane, and went on t o head t he
effort t o design t he Apollo command and service module and Sat urn V launch vehicle's second
st age, was moved by t he launch of Sput nik t o t hink of space as being t he next st ep for
America.[109] Ast ronaut s Alan Shepard (who was t he first American in space) and Deke Slayt on
lat er wrot e of how t he sight of Sput nik 1 passing overhead inspired t hem t o t heir new
careers.[110]

The launch of Sput nik 1 led t o t he resurgence of t he suffix -nik in t he English language.[111][112]
The American writ er Herb Caen was inspired t o coin t he t erm "beat nik" in an art icle about t he
Beat Generat ion in t he San Francisco Chronicle on 2 April 1958.[113]
The flag of Kaluga, featuring Sputnik 1

The flag of t he Russian cit y of Kaluga, which, due t o it s import ance as Konst ant in Tsiolkovsky's
birt hplace, is very focused on space, feat ures a small Sput nik in t he cant on.[114]

Backup units and replicas

Sputnik replica in Spain

At least t wo vint age duplicat es of Sput nik 1 exist , built apparent ly as backup unit s. One resides
just out side Moscow in t he corporat e museum of Energia, t he modern descendant of Korolev's
design bureau, where it is on display by appoint ment only.[115][116] Anot her is in t he Museum of
Flight in Seat t le, Washingt on. Unlike Energia's unit , it has no int ernal component s, but it does have
casings and molded fit t ings inside (as well as evidence of bat t ery wear), which suggest s it was
built as more t han just a model. Aut hent icat ed by t he Memorial Museum of Cosmonaut ics in
Moscow, t he unit was auct ioned in 2001 and purchased by an anonymous privat e buyer, who
donat ed it t o t he museum.[115] Two more Sput nik backups are said t o be in t he personal
collect ions of American ent repreneurs Richard Garriot t [115] and Jay S. Walker.[117]

In 1959, t he Soviet Union donat ed a replica of Sput nik t o t he Unit ed Nat ions.[118] There are ot her
full-size Sput nik replicas (wit h varying degrees of accuracy) on display in locat ions around t he
world, including t he Nat ional Air and Space Museum in t he Unit ed St at es,[115] t he Science
Museum in t he Unit ed Kingdom,[119] t he Powerhouse Museum in Aust ralia,[120] and out side t he
Russian embassy in Spain.
Three one-t hird scale st udent -built replicas of Sput nik 1 were deployed from t he Mir space
st at ion bet ween 1997 and 1999. The first , named Sput nik 40 t o commemorat e t he fort iet h
anniversary of t he launch of Sput nik 1, was deployed in November 1997.[121] Sput nik 41 was
launched a year lat er, and Sput nik 99 was deployed in February 1999. A fourt h replica was
launched, but never deployed, and was dest royed when Mir was deorbit ed.[115][122]

The Sput nik 1 EMC/EMI is a class of full-scale laborat ory models of t he sat ellit e. The models,
manufact ured by OKB-1 and NII-885 (headed by Mikhail Ryazansky), were int roduced on February
15, 1957.[123] They were made t o t est ground elect romagnet ic compat ibilit y (EMC) and
elect romagnet ic int erference (EMI).[123]

Satellite navigation

The launch of Sput nik also plant ed t he seeds for t he development of modern sat ellit e
navigat ion. Two American physicist s, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins
Universit y's Applied Physics Laborat ory (APL) decided t o monit or Sput nik's radio
t ransmissions[124] and wit hin hours realized t hat , because of t he Doppler effect , t hey could
pinpoint where t he sat ellit e was along it s orbit . The Direct or of t he APL gave t hem access t o
t heir UNIVAC comput er t o do t he heavy calculat ions required.

Early t he next year, Frank McClure, t he deput y direct or of t he APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach
t o invest igat e t he inverse problem: pinpoint ing t he user's locat ion, given t he sat ellit e's. At t he
t ime, t he Navy was developing t he submarine-launched Polaris missile, which required t hem t o
know t he submarine's locat ion. This led t hem and APL t o develop t he TRANSIT syst em,[125] a
forerunner of modern Global Posit ioning Syst em (GPS) sat ellit es.

See also

Donald B. Gillies — one of t he first t o calculat e t he Sput nik 1 orbit

ILLIAC I — first comput er t o calculat e t he orbit of Sput nik 1

Kerim Kerimov — one of t he lead archit ect s behind Sput nik 1

Timeline of art ificial sat ellit es and space probes

Timeline of Russian innovat ion

Yuri Gagarin — Soviet cosmonaut and first human t o journey int o out er space
 Valent ina Tereshkova — first woman in space

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