metals

Article
Finite Element Implementation of a Temperature-
Dependent Cyclic Plastic Model for SA508-3 Steel
Jun Tian 1 , Jian Li 2 , Hai Xie 1 , Yu Yang 1 and Qianhua Kan 2, *
1 Science and Technology on Reactor System Design Technology Laboratory, Nuclear Power Institute of China,
Chengdu 610213, China; tianjunhi@gmail.com (J.T.); kareemxh@gmail.com (H.X.); tianjunhd@163.com (Y.Y.)
2 Applied Mechanics and Structure Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, School of Mechanics and
Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610213, China; lijian12306@foxmail.com
* Correspondence: qianhuakan@home.swjtu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-028-8760-1442




Received: 22 October 2018; Accepted: 14 November 2018; Published: 16 November 2018


Abstract: A new temperature-dependent cyclic plastic model, combining the nonlinear cyclic
softening and kinematic hardening rules is established for a nuclear material of SA508-3 steel. A
modified isotropic hardening rule is proposed to capture the temperature-dependent cyclic softening,
and a modified kinematic hardening rule is established to improve the prediction of the ratcheting
behavior by introducing an exponential function related to the accumulated plastic strain. The stress
is updated by the radial return mapping algorithm based on the backward Euler integration. A
new expression of consistent tangent modulus for the equilibrium iteration is derived, and then
the proposed model is implemented into the finite element software ABAQUS by using the user
material subroutine (UMAT) to simulate the temperature-dependent ratcheting behaviors of SA508-3
steel. Finally, the ratcheting evolutions of notched bars at elevated temperature are obtained by
uniaxial stress-controlled cyclic tests, and the nonuniform strain fields on the surface of plates with
a center hole is measured by using the digital image correlation (DIC) technology. Comparisons
between experimental and simulated results of a material point and structural examples show that
the implemented model can provide reasonable predictions for ratcheting behaviors and nonuniform
strain fields of structures at different temperatures for SA508-3 steel.

Keywords: SA508-3 steel; ratcheting behavior; cyclic plastic model; temperature-dependence; finite
element implementation

1. Introduction
Ratcheting is a progressively accumulated inelastic strain under cyclic stressing with a non-zero
mean stress. In the process of life prediction and safety assessment, both ASME and RCC-M codes
specify that the ratcheting deformation occurring in structural components of nuclear reactor must be
addressed. Numerous experiments were carried out to reveal the evolutions of ratcheting behaviors
and many nonlinear kinematic hardening models were established to predict ratcheting deformation at
different loading conditions [1–4]. Commercial finite element software, such as ANSYS and ABAQUS,
are widely applied in engineering design and analysis. The nonlinear kinematic hardening rule, such
as the Chaboche’s rule [5], is available in these commercial software tools, which can capture the
cyclic plastic deformation of some metal materials. For example, a Chaboche-type material model was
applied in the Low-Cycle Fatigue finite element assessment on 316L pipes for the “Wendelstein 7-X”
stellarator-type nuclear fusion experiment [6], but it commonly gives a conservative prediction [7].
To reasonably describe ratcheting behaviors of different materials, suitable modifications in the
kinematic hardening rule are necessary. For example, the material parameter mi in the Ohno-Wang
II kinematic hardening rule [8,9] was modified as a function of the maximum equivalent stress

Metals 2018, 8, 955; doi:10.3390/met8110955 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 955 2 of 15

to improve simulation for ratcheting behaviors of AZ31B magnesium alloy by Lin et al. [10]. To
improve the predictions of plastic shakedown and ratcheting behavior of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy,
one of three nonlinear backstress components was replaced as a linear term based on the superposed
Armstrong-Frederick rule [11]. Besides, Chen et al. [12] proposed a unified viscoplastic model to
simulate the time-dependent ratcheting behavior and low cycle fatigue of 316L stainless steel, and
provide satisfactory predictions for most experimental results. Focusing on a wide range of heat
treatments, the Kocks-Mecking-Estrin model [13] was adopted to predict the cyclic deformation
behavior and residual stress of 690 nickel alloy during and after welding.
It must be noted that different materials exhibit different ratcheting behaviors [14]. SA508-3
steel, one kind of nuclear material, is widely used in the nuclear reactor pressure vessel (RPV) of the
pressurized water reactor (PWR). The RPV is a piece of key equipment for the first loop of the nuclear
plant, of which the structural integrity directly affects the service life of the whole plant. The working
temperature of the pressure vessel varies from 25 ◦ C to 350 ◦ C, and the cyclic thermal and mechanical
loadings always run through the whole lifetime. Besides, SA508-3 steel is one of the alloyed ferritic
steels. Notable cyclic softening at elevated temperature was observed in the experiments of alloyed
ferritic steels, which is totally different from the characteristics of carbon steels and austenitic stainless
steels [15]. Therefore, it is worthwhile to develop the temperature-dependent cyclic plastic model for
the nuclear material of SA508-3 steel.
Moreover, one of main purposes to develop cyclic plastic models is to simulate the accumulations
of plastic strain of structural components under cyclic loadings by finite element method (FEM), which
is a foundation to understand the fatigue failure of engineering structures. Therefore, it is necessary
to implement these advanced cyclic plastic models into finite element codes. In the process of finite
element implementation, the following two problems should be highlighted: one is to determine
the stress integration algorithm at each Gauss integration point, the other is to derive the consistent
tangent modulus for the equilibrium iteration of finite element analysis. Many progresses have been
made to implement cyclic plastic models into commercial finite element softwares, such as ANSYS,
ABAQUS, and so on. For example, based on the Abdel Karim-Ohno kinematic hardening rule [16],
a cyclic plastic model with a memory surface was implemented into the finite element code ANSYS
by using the UMAT [17], which provided a good prediction of the additional hardening caused by
the non-proportional loading path. Considering the true stress instead of the effective stress in the
yield function, the damage-coupled cyclic plastic model proposed by Bonora [18] was implemented
into the finite element code, and an implicit method with an explicit update was used to solve the
system of non-linear equations instead of a matrix inversion. An optimization by successive iterations
was applied to obtain optimal parameters of the Chaboche model, and the cyclic deformations of
nuclear installations [19] made of 316L-N, 316L, and 304L, were successfully simulated. Besides, a
multi-objective genetic algorithm was also applied to optimize the parameters of the Chaboche model
for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy [20].
Motivated by the above considerations, the present work aims to implement a
temperature-dependent cyclic plastic model into finite element software ABAQUS by using the
UMAT for SA508-3 steel. The organization of this work is below: firstly, a brief introduction on the
Chaboche model is presented. Then, based on the Chaboche model, the discrete material constants are
modified into a continuous function corresponding to the accumulated plastic strain. The finite element
implementation of the modified model is addressed in detail, including the discretization of constitutive
equations, implicit stress integration and derivation of consistent tangent modulus. Finally, finite
element models of structures including a notched bar and a plate with a center hole are established,
and simulations are carried out to verify the implementation of the present temperature-dependent
cyclic plastic model.
Metals 2018, 8, 955 3 of 15

2. Temperature-Dependent Cyclic Plastic Model

Considering the temperature term and on the basis of the plastic flow rule at small deformation
.
as well as the initial isotropic elasticity, the total strain rate ε can be written as the sum of three parts,
.e .p .T
i.e., the elastic strain rate ε , plastic strain rate ε and thermal strain rate ε .
. .e .p .T
ε = ε +ε +ε (1)

According to the Hooke’s law, the elastic constitutive relation can be expressed as following:
.e .
ε = D ( T ) −1 : σ (2)
.
where D( T ) denotes the temperature-dependent fourth-order elastic tensor, σ is the stress rate tensor.
The plastic strain rate is formulated based on the flow rule as:
r
.p 3 . s−α
ε = p (3)
2 ks − αk
.
where p is the accumulated plastic strain rate, s and α represent the deviatoric stress and backstress
tensors, respectively. kk denotes the norm.
The thermal strain rate is defined as:
.T .
ε = α1T (4)
.
where α is the thermal expansion coefficient and T is the rate of temperature. 1 is the second-order
unit tensor.
The von Mises yield surface can be written in the general form:
r
3
Fy = (s − α) : (s − α) − Q (5)
2

where Q represents the isotropic deformation resistance and reflects the change in the radius of
yield surface.
The nonlinear kinematic hardening rule revealing the evolution of backstress makes it possible
to describe the progressive ratcheting deformation. Based on the Armstrong-Frederick’s rule [21],
Chaboche [5] firstly decomposed the backstress of into several components, which can be expressed as:

M
α= ∑ αi (6)
i =1

. 2 .p .
αi = C ε − r i αi p (7)
3 i
where Ci and ri are material constants and M is the number of decomposed backstress components. If
the number of components increases, a higher prediction accuracy in the accumulation of plastic strain
will be obtained, that is, the curve of stress versus plastic strain will be correspondingly divided into
more parts (as shown in Figure 1), but it would cost greater computational consumption.
It is noted that the plastic hardening moduli Ci can be calculated by differentiating the curve
of stress versus accumulated plastic strain with fixed ri . Figure 2 shows an exponential function
of the plastic hardening modulus C with respect to the accumulated plastic strain at 250 ◦ C and
300 ◦ C, respectively.
 2
α i = Ci ε p − ri α i p (7)
3
where Ci and ri are material constants and M is the number of decomposed backstress
components. If the number of components increases, a higher prediction accuracy in the
accumulation of plastic strain will be obtained, that is, the curve of stress versus plastic strain will be
Metals 2018, 8, 955
correspondingly divided into more parts (as shown in Figure 1), but it would cost greater 4 of 15
computational consumption.

1500

1400

1300

Stress (MPa)
1200

1100
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
1000

It is noted that the plastic900hardening moduli Ci can be calculated by differentiating the curve
800
of stress versus accumulated plastic
0 strain
1 with2 fixed 3ri . Figure
4 2 shows
5 an exponential function of
Plastic strain
the plastic hardening modulus C with respect to the(%) accumulated plastic strain at 250 °C and

300 °C, respectively. Figure 1. Curves

Figure 1. Curves of of stressversus
stress versusplastic
plastic strain.
strain.

6000 6000

Plastic hardening modulus (MPa)

Plastic hardening modulus (MPa)

o
T = 250 C C(p, T)
o
T = 300 C C (p,T)
Eq. (8) Eq. (8)

4000 4000
o 2
o
C(p, 250 C)= exp(8.41-3.88p-439p )
2 C (p,300 C) = exp(8.30+1.61p-450p )

2000 2000

0 0

-2000 -2000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Accumulated plastic strain Accumulated plastic strain

(a) (b)

Figure Figure 2. Exponential

2. Exponential curvescurves between
between the plastic
the plastic hardening
hardening C ( p,CT()pand
modulus
modulus , T ) accumulated
and accumulated
plastic
strain pplastic
at: (a)strain ◦
250 Cp and (b)250
at: (a) ◦
300°C C.
and (b) 300 °C.

Therefore, an exponential
Therefore, relationship
an exponential can
relationship canbebeused
usedtoto describe the dependence
describe the dependenceof of
thethe plastic
plastic
hardening moduli
hardening Ci on C
moduli the accumulated
i on plastic
the accumulated strain
plastic andand
strain temperature
temperatureas:
as:
C ( p, T ) = exp( a (T ) + b(T ) p + c(T ) p 2 )  (8)
2
where a , b and c C ( p, T ) = exp a ( T ) + b ( T ) p + c ( T ) p
are material constants and can be determined by fitting the corresponding (8)
experimental results. Therefore, the evolution of backstress in the kinematic hardening rule can be
where a, b and c as:
modified are material constants and can be determined by fitting the corresponding experimental
results. Therefore, the evolution of backstress
2 in thep kinematic hardening rule can be modified as:
α (T ) = C ( p, T ) ε − r (T ) α (T ) p (9)
3
2
where C ( p,T ) represents theαfunction
. .p .
( T ) = ofCthe
( p,accumulated α( T ) pstrain p and the temperature T (9)
T )ε − r ( T )plastic
3
, and r (T ) is only relevant to T .
where C ( p,Considering
T ) represents thetemperature
the function of dependence
the accumulated of the plastic p and the the
strainhardening,
isotropic temperature T, and
temperature-
r ( T ) is dependent
only relevant to T.deformation resistance Q is expressed as:
isotropic
Considering the temperature dependence of the isotropic∂Qhardening, ( p, T )  the temperature-dependent
isotropic deformation resistance Q ( p ,Q
T )is (T ) ( Qsa (T )as:
= γexpressed − Q ( p, T ) ) p + T (10)
∂T
where γ (T ) is a material
. parameter controlling the rate of resistance Q ( p., T ) ; Qsa (T ) represents
. ∂Q( p, T )
p, T ) = γ( Tresistance
Q(deformation
the saturated isotropic − Q(related
)( Qsa ( T ) only p, T )) pto+temperature. T It should be noted that,(10)
∂T
when the accumulated plastic strain equals to zero, the initial deformation
. resistance Q0 can be
γ( T ) is a material
where determined parameter
from Equation controlling
(10). For the rate
cyclic softening of resistance
or cyclic hardening ( p, T ); Qsait(isT )observed
Qmaterials, represents
that the
saturated
the isotropic deformation
initial deformation resistance
resistance Q0 only relatedtests
in tensile to temperature.
is apparentlyItdifferent
should be from notedthatthat, when
in the
the accumulated plastic strain equals to zero, the initial deformation resistance Q0 can be determined
subsequent cycles, so the initial value of Q0 should be changed at the end of tensile curve in the first
from Equation (10). For cyclic softening or cyclic hardening materials, it is observed that the initial
cycle.
deformation resistance Q0 in tensile tests is apparently different from that in the subsequent cycles, so
the initial value of Q0 should
3. Finite Element
be changed at the end of tensile curve in the first cycle.
Implementation
The cyclic plastic model proposed in Section 2 is implemented into ABAQUS by using the
UMAT. The implicit stress integration algorithm and a new expression of the consistent tangent
modulus are derived based on the radial return mapping and backward Euler integration methods,
respectively.
Metals 2018, 8, 955 5 of 15

3. Finite Element Implementation

The cyclic plastic model proposed in Section 2 is implemented into ABAQUS by using the UMAT.
The implicit stress integration algorithm and a new expression of the consistent tangent modulus are
derived based on the radial return mapping and backward Euler integration methods, respectively.

3.1. Discretization of Constitutive Equations

Firstly, it is necessary to discretize constitutive equations by the backward Euler integration
method. It is noted that ratcheting behaviors of SA508-3 steel are investigated at different temperatures
in this work; however, each temperature is fixed in the process of cyclic loading, and thus the
. .T
temperature gradient T and thermal strain rate ε can be neglected in following derivations.
Considering the interval from a state n to n + 1, if the terms with n subindexes are known, then
the terms with subindexes n + 1 can be calculated with the following expressions:
p
εn+1 = εen+1 + εn+1 (11)
p p p
εn+1 = εn + ∆εn+1 (12)
p
σn +1 = D ( T ) : (εn +1 − εn +1 ) (13)
r
p 3
∆εn+1 = ∆p n (14)
2 n +1 n +1
s − αn +1
nn +1 = n +1 (15)
k sn +1 − αn +1 k
q
Fy(n+1) = 1.5(sn+1 − αn+1 ) : (sn+1 − αn+1 ) − Qn+1 (16)

The discrete evolution rule of kinematic hardening is given by

2 p
αn+1 = αn + C ( p, T )∆εn+1 − r ( T )αn+1 ∆pn+1 (17)
3
The isotropic hardening rule can be discretized as:

∆Qn+1 ( p, T ) = γ( T )( Qsa ( T ) − Qn ( p, T ))∆pn+1 (18)

3.2. Implicit Stress Integration Algorithm

It is assumed that the variables at time tn are known, then once the values of ∆εn+1 and ∆tn+1 are
given, σn+1 and the variables at time tn+1 can be calculated subsequently.
Assuming the strain increment as elasticity, the trail stress can be obtained as
 
p
σ∗n+1 = D( T ) : εn+1 − εn (19)

For the trial stress state, the yield function is given by

r
3 ∗
Fy∗(n+1) sn+1 − αn : s∗n+1 − αn − Qn ( p, T )



= (20)
2

where s∗n+1 = σ∗n+1 − 13 tr σ∗n+1 I. If Fy∗(n+1) ≤ 0, then the trial stress state is accepted as the true stress

state. If Fy∗(n+1) > 0, then plastic yielding occurs, and then the stress state should be corrected as:

p
σn+1 = σ∗n+1 − D( T ) : ∆εn+1 (21)
p
where D( T ) : ∆εn+1 is the plastic corrector.
Metals 2018, 8, 955 6 of 15

p
It is seen from Equation (21) that σn+1 can be obtained once ∆εn+1 is solved. A non-linear scalar
equation can be derived to solve this increment. The deviatoric part of Equation (21) can be given as:
p
sn+1 = s∗n+1 − 2G ( T )∆εn+1 (22)

where G ( T ) denotes the shear modulus.

From Equation (17), αn+1 can be rewritten as
 
2 p
αn+1 = θn+1 αn + Cn+1 ( p, T )∆εn+1 (23)
3

where θn+1 is defined by the following form:

1
θ n +1 = (24)
1 + r ( T )∆pn+1
p
Eliminating ∆εn+1 in Equations (22) and (23) with (14) and (15) yields

Qn+1 ( p, T ) s∗n+1 − θn+1 αn

sn +1 − αn +1 = (25)
Qn+1 ( p, T ) + ∆pn+1 (3G ( T ) + θn+1 Cn+1 ( p, T ))

Substituting Equation (25) into the yield function Equation (20) gives
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15

3∗ Q ( p, T ) (∗

s −θ α )

 12
*

2 s α −= θ n+1 αn : sn+1 − θ n+1 αn − Qn+1 ( p, T(25)

)
n +1 n +1 n +1 n
s n+−1
∆pn+1 = n +1
Q ( p, T ) + Δp ( 3G (T ) + θ C ( p, T ) )
n +1
n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 (26)
3G ( T ) + θn+1 Cn+(20)
Substituting Equation (25) into the yield function Equation
p, T )
1 (gives
1
3 * 2
It is noted that Qn+1 ( p, T ) and 2 C( snn+1+− 1θn(+1p,
α n )T
: ( s)*n +1are n )  − Qn +1 ( p, T ) related to ∆p
− θ n +1αfunctions
 n+ 1 and T, the above
(26)
Δpn +1 =
non-linear scalar equation can be solved by 3G (the +1Cn +1 ( p, T )
T ) + θ nsuccessive substitution method. The variables at
It is noted that Q ( p, T ) and C ( p, T ) are functions related to Δp and T, the above non-
time tn+1 will be updated after ∆pn+1 is obtained. The convergence of the successive iteration process
n +1 n +1 n +1

linear scalar equation can be solved by the successive substitution method. The variables at time t n +1
had been proved by will Kobayashi
be updated after and
Δp Ohno [22].
is obtained.
n +1
The scheme
The convergence of the implicit
of the successive stress
iteration process had integration
been process is
illustrated in Figure 3. by Kobayashi and Ohno [22]. The scheme of the implicit stress integration process is
proved
illustrated in Figure 3.

No

Yes

No
Convergence?
Successive substitution

Yes

Figure 3. Flow diagram of stress integration algorithm.

Figure 3. Flow diagram of stress integration algorithm.
3.3. Consistent Tangent Modulus
In the process of finite element implementation, the consistent tangent modulus is necessary to
ensure the global equilibrium iteration. In this subsection, a new expression of consistent tangent
d Δσ n +1
modulus is derived.
d Δε n +1
Differentiating Equations (13)–(15) and (18) gives
d Δσ n +1 = D (T ) : ( d Δε n +1 − d Δε np+1 ) (27)
Metals 2018, 8, 955 7 of 15

3.3. Consistent Tangent Modulus

In the process of finite element implementation, the consistent tangent modulus is necessary to
ensure the global equilibrium iteration. In this subsection, a new expression of consistent tangent
d∆σ
modulus d∆ε n+1 is derived.
n +1
Differentiating Equations (13)–(15) and (18) gives
 
p
d∆σn+1 = D( T ) : d∆εn+1 − d∆εn+1 (27)
r
p 3
d∆εn+1 = (d∆pn+1 nn+1 + ∆pn+1 dnn+1 ) (28)
2
r !
3 d∆sn+1 − d∆αn+1 nn +1 dQn+1 ( p, T )
dnn+1 = − d∆pn+1 (29)
2 Qn+1 ( p, T ) Qn+1 ( p, T ) dpn+1
n +1

nn+1 : dnn+1 = 0 (30)

dQn+1 ( p, T )
= γ( Qsa ( T ) − Qn+1 ( p, T )) (31)
dpn+1
It is noted that D( T ) : d∆ε p = 2G ( T )d∆ε p , and taking the deviatoric part of Equation (27) gives
 
p
d∆sn+1 = 2G ( T ) Id : d∆εn+1 − d∆εn+1 (32)

where Id = I − 31 (1 ⊗ 1) is the deviatoric operation of a tensor, ⊗ stands for operation of tensor product
and I is the fourth order unit tensors.
Combination of Equations (28) and (30) gives
r
2 p
d∆pn+1 = n : d∆εn+1 (33)
3 n +1

Substituting Equation (29) into Equation (28) gives

 
∆pn+1 3 ∆pn+1
 
p dQn+1 ( p,T ) p
d∆εn+1 = 1 − Qn+1 ( p,T ) dp nn+1 ⊗ nn+1 : d∆εn+1 + 2 Qn+1 ( p,T ) ( d∆sn+1 − d∆αn+1 ) (34)
n +1

According to literature [21], it is assumed that the increment of deviatoric back stress has the
following differential form:
p
d∆αn+1 = Hn+1 : d∆εn+1 (35)

where Hn+1 is fourth-order hardening modulus of back stress.

Substituting Equations (35) and (32) into Equation (34) to eliminate d∆αn+1 and d∆sn+1 yields
p
Ln+1 : d∆εn+1 = 2G ( T )Id : d∆εn+1 (36)

where Ln+1 is defined as

M 
dQn+1 ( p,T )

2 2 Qn+1 ( p,T )
Ln+1 = 2G ( T )I + ∑ Hn+1 + 3 dpn+1 nn +1 ⊗ nn +1 + 3 ∆pn+1 (I − nn+1 ⊗ nn +1 ) (37)
i =1 n +1

p
Then elimination of d∆εn+1 in Equation (27) using Equation (36) gives
 
d∆σn+1 = D( T ) − 4G ( T )L− 1
n+1 : Id : d∆εn+1 (38)
Metals 2018, 8, 955 8 of 15

d∆σn+1
Therefore, the expression of consistent tangent modulus d∆εn+1 is derived as

d∆σn+1
= D( T ) − 4G ( T )L− 1
n +1 : Id (39)
d∆εn+1

The main differences between the above derived consistent tangent modulus and that done
by Kobayashi and Ohno [22] are reflected in two aspects: the temperature effect considering in the
variables and the tensor Hn+1 (shown in Equations (35) and (37)) resulting in different formation of
Ln+1 . Though applying different material parameters in the kinematic hardening rule, the general
form of Equation (39) seems to be similar to the classical approach of Chaboche model, because the
backstress is hided in the tensor Ln+1 . In order to employ the successive substitution algorithm, it is
necessary to obtain the tensor Hn+1 . Detailed derivation of Hn+1 are given below.
For the proposed model, firstly differentiating Equation (23) gives

dθn+1 2 
p p

dαn+1 = αn+1 + θn+1 Cn+1 ( p, T )d∆εn+1 + ∆εn+1 dCn+1 ( p, T ) (40)
θ n +1 3

Besides, differentiating Equation (24) using Equation (33) yields

r
2 2 p
dθn+1 = − θ r ( T )nn+1 : d∆εn+1 (41)
3 n +1

Substitution of Equation (40) using Equation (41) becomes

 q  q 
p p
dαn+1 = θn+1 − 23 r ( T )αn+1 ⊗ nn+1 + 23 Cn+1 ( p, T )I + 23 Cn+1 ( p, T )(b + 2cpn+1 )∆εn+1 ⊗ nn+1 : d∆εn+1 (42)

Comparing Equation (35) and Equation (42), Hn+1 can be expressed as

 q  q 
p
Hn+1 = θn+1 − 23 r ( T )αn+1 ⊗ nn+1 + 23 Cn+1 ( p, T )I + 23 Cn+1 ( p, T )(b + 2cpn+1 )∆εn+1 ⊗ nn+1 (43)

Then, Ln+1 in Equation (37) can be derived by Hn+1 . Finally, a new expression of consistent
d∆σ
tangent modulus d∆ε n+1 can be obtained, as shown in Equation (39).
n +1

4. Verification of Finite Element Implementation

4.1. Ratcheting Behaviors in A Material Point

Stress-controlled cyclic tests are performed to reveal ratcheting behaviors of SA508-3 steel at
different temperatures. The experimental temperature is set as 25 ◦ C, 150 ◦ C and 325 ◦ C, the loading
condition is set as 50 ± 450 MPa (mean stress = 50 MPa; stress amplitude = 550 MPa), and the stress
rate is prescribed as 100 MPa/s. Corresponding material parameters are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Material parameters using in the proposed model at different temperatures.

Temperature /◦ C Material Parameters

E = 2.23e5 MPa, ν = 0.3, a = 8.52, b = −1.0, c = −319, r = 5,
25
Q0 = 445 MPa, Q1 = 447 MPa, Qsa = 410 MPa, γ = 0.6
E = 2.0e5 MPa, ν = 0.3, a = 8.49, b = −4.29, c =−384.5, r = 5,
150
Q0 = 435 MPa, Q1 = 428 MPa, Qsa = 395.6 MPa, γ = 0.6
E = 2.0e5 MPa, ν = 0.3, a = 8.435, b = 0.5, c = −388.5, r = 5,
325
Q0 = 410 MPa, Q1 = 412.6 MPa, Qsa = 413 MPa, γ = 0.3
Metals 2018, 8, 955 9 of 15

The experimental stress-strain curves are shown in Figure 4a–c. Only the hysteresis loops in the
1st–5th, 25th and 50th cycles are extracted for more clear observation. It is shown that in the 50th
cycle, the strain at 150 ◦ C is greater than that at 25 ◦ C when the temperature increases; but it shows a
contrary tendency when the temperature is up to 325 ◦ C. This is due to the dynamic strain aging effect,
which can improve the material’s ability to resist deformation at elevated temperature. Liu et al. [23]
also observed similar dynamic strain aging effect of SA508-3 steel when the temperature exceeded
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
260 ◦ C at a certain loading rate.

800 o
800 o
T=25 C T=150 C
600 600

400 400
Axial stress (MPa)

Axial stress (MPa)

200 200

0 0

-200 -200
1st - 5th
1st - 5th
-400 25th -400 25th
50th
50th
-600 -600
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8

Axial strain (%) Axial strain (%)

(a) (b)

800 o
T=325 C
600

400
Axial stress (MPa)

200

-200
1st - 5th
-400 25th
50th
-600
0 1 2 3 4

Axial strain (%)

(c)

4. Experimental stress-strain curves under stress-controlled ◦ C, (b) 150 ◦ C and

Figure Figure 4. Experimental stress-strain curves under stress-controlledcycling at (a)
cycling at (a)25
25°C, (b) 150 °C and
◦
(c) 325 (c)C.325 °C.

Simulations in a material point by using the finite element software ABAQUS are performed to
14 10
verify the implemented model.
50±450 The
MPa T = 25 C ratcheting strain is defined50±450as
MPathe averaged value of maximum
o

12 Experiment Experiment Simulation

strain and minimum strain Proposed in each cycle. Take the case 8of 25
model ◦
25C C as an example, the simulations o
Ratcheting strain (%)

Ratcheting strain (%)

Chaboche
10 150 C
o

are made by Chaboche model and the proposed model respectively. 6 325 C
The corresponding material o

8 ◦
parameters for Chaboche model at 25 C are: C1 = 7e3 MPa, C2 = 2.8e3 MPa, C3 = 800 MPa, r1 = 100,
6
4
r2 = 25, r3 = 30. The simulated results are compared in Figure 5a. It can be seen that the Chaboche
4
model gives a very conservative estimation on the ratcheting 2
strain, while the proposed model gives a
2
relatively good prediction. There is no need to repeat predictions by Chaboche model at 150 ◦ C and
0 0
325 ◦ C, which are also 0 notably
10 over-estimated.
20 30 40 Comparisons
50 0 between
10 20experimental
30 40 and
50 simulated

Number of cycles (N) Number of cycles (N)

ratcheting strain evolution by the proposed model are demonstrated in Figure 5b. It can be seen
that the simulated results match(a) the experimental ones well. Therefore, (b) the implemented model can
provide good simulations to ratcheting behaviors of SA508-3 steel.
Figure 5. Comparisons between experimental and simulated ratcheting strain by: (a) Chaboche model
and the proposed model at 25 °C; (b) the proposed model at different temperatures.

4.2. Ratcheting Behaviors of Notched Bars

Uniaxial stress cyclic experiments were performed to investigate ratcheting behaviors of notched
bars. The SA508-3 steel was machined into a round notched bar specimen with a section diameter of
10 mm and a gauge length of 30 mm. The finite element model with two-dimensional (2D) axi-
symmetrical four-node element is established in ABAQUS, as shown in Figure 6.
 Axial strain (%)

(c)

Figure 4. Experimental stress-strain curves under stress-controlled cycling at (a) 25 °C, (b) 150 °C and
Metals 2018,
(c)8,325
955°C. 10 of 15

14 o
10
50±450 MPa T = 25 C 50±450 MPa
12 Experiment Experiment Simulation
Proposed model 8 o

Ratcheting strain (%)

Ratcheting strain (%)

25 C
Chaboche
10 o
150 C
o
6 325 C
8

6
4

4
2
2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50

Number of cycles (N) Number of cycles (N)

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 5. Comparisonsbetween
5. Comparisons between experimental
experimental and
andsimulated
simulatedratcheting strain
ratcheting by: (a)
strain by:Chaboche model model
(a) Chaboche
andand
thethe proposed
proposed modelatat25
model 25◦°C; (b) the
C; (b) theproposed
proposedmodel
modelat different temperatures.
at different temperatures.

4.2. 4.2. Ratcheting

Ratcheting BehaviorsofofNotched
Behaviors Notched Bars
Uniaxial
Uniaxial stress
stress cyclicexperiments
cyclic experiments were
wereperformed
performedto to
investigate ratcheting
investigate behaviors
ratcheting of notched
behaviors of notched
bars. The SA508-3 steel was machined into a round notched bar specimen with a section diameter of
bars. The SA508-3 steel was machined into a round notched bar specimen with a section diameter of 10
10 mm and a gauge length of 30 mm. The finite element model with two-dimensional (2D) axi-
mm and a gauge length of 30 mm. The finite element model with two-dimensional (2D) axi-symmetrical
symmetrical four-node element is established in ABAQUS, as shown in Figure 6.
four-node
Metalselement is established
2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW in ABAQUS, as shown in Figure 6. 10 of 15

Figure 6. Axi-symmetrical finite element model of the notched bar.

Figure 6. Axi-symmetrical finite element model of the notched bar.

The stress-controlled loading

The stress-controlled condition
loading conditionisisprescribed
prescribed as 50 ±±550
as 50 550MPa,
MPa,and andthethe stress
stress raterate
is is
prescribed as 100 MPa/s. Ratcheting strains near the notch center can be obtained
prescribed as 100 MPa/s. Ratcheting strains near the notch center can be obtained from experiments,from experiments,
as shown in Figures
as shown 7–9. The
in Figures notch
7a–9a. The center entersenters
notch center plastic zonezone
plastic because of the
because stress
of the concentration.
stress concentration.With
the increasing of number
With the increasing ofof cycles,ofthe
number plastic
cycles, strainstrain
the plastic of theofnotch center
the notch accumulates
center accumulatesgradually.
gradually. For
For thebar,
the notched notched bar, the structural
the structural strainisfield
strain field not is not uniform
uniform because
because of stress
of stress concentrationeffect
concentration effectsosothat
that the simulated precision is not as good as that in a material point. The model
the simulated precision is not as good as that in a material point. The model is modified based on the is modified based
on the Chaboche model, though still some efforts should be made to improve it, the conservative
Chaboche model, though still some efforts should be made to improve it, the conservative prediction
prediction has been improved remarkably. Comparisons between experimental and simulated
has been improved remarkably. Comparisons between experimental and simulated results at 25 ◦ C,
results at 25 °C, 150 °C and 325 °C are shown in Figures 7–9 respectively. It can be seen that the
150 ◦ Csimulated
and 325 ◦results
C are shown in Figures 7–9 respectively. It can be seen that the simulated results can
can give similar evolutions of ratcheting strain to experimental ones. Though the
give similar evolutions of ratcheting
predicted ratcheting strains in the last strain to experimental
cycles are higher thanones.
those Though the ones,
in the initial predicted ratcheting
the proposed
strainsmodel
in thestill
last cycles
can are higherpredictions
give acceptable than those of in the initial
ratcheting ones, the
behaviors proposed
of notched bars.model still can give
acceptable predictions of ratcheting behaviors of notched bars.
800 800
o o
T = 25 C T = 25 C
600 600

400 400
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

200 200

0 0

-200 -200
1st - 5th 1st - 5th
-400 10th -400 10th
20th 20th
 on the Chaboche model, though still some efforts should be made to improve it, the conservative
prediction has been improved remarkably. Comparisons between experimental and simulated
results at 25 °C, 150 °C and 325 °C are shown in Figures 7–9 respectively. It can be seen that the
simulated results can give similar evolutions of ratcheting strain to experimental ones. Though the
predicted ratcheting strains in the last cycles are higher than those in the initial ones, the proposed
Metals 2018,
model 8, 955
still can give acceptable predictions of ratcheting behaviors of notched bars. 11 of 15

800 800
o o
T = 25 C T = 25 C
600 600

400 400

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
200 200

0 0

-200 -200
1st - 5th 1st - 5th
-400 10th -400 10th
20th 20th

-600 -600
-0.15 0.00 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 -0.15 0.00 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75
Strain (%) Strain (%)
Metals
Metals 2018,
2018, 8, 8, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1111
of of
1515
(a) (b)
2.02.0 o
=o25
T =T25 C C Experiment
Experiment
Simulation
Simulation

1.51.5
Ratcheting strain (%)
Ratcheting strain (%)

1.01.0

0.50.5

0.00.0
0 0 4 4 8 8 12 12 16 16 20 20
Number
Number of of cycles
cycles (N)(N)

(c)(c)

Figure Figure
Figure 7. 7.
7. Results Results
Results of
ofofthe
thethe notched
notched
notched bar
bar
bar at
2525
atat 25 ◦(a)
°C:°C:C:(a) experimental
experimental
(a) stress-strain
stress-strain
experimental curves,
curves,
stress-strain (b)
(b) simulated
simulated
curves, stress-
(b) stress-
simulated
strain
strain curves
curves and
and (c)(c) experimental
experimental andand simulated
simulated ratcheting
ratcheting strains
strains versus
versus number
number
stress-strain curves and (c) experimental and simulated ratcheting strains versus number of cycles. of of cycles.
cycles.

800800 o
800800 o
o o
T =T150
= 150
C C T =T150
= 150
C C
600600 600600

400400 400400
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

200200 200200

0 0 0 0

-200
-200 -200
-200
1st 1st
- 5th- 5th 1st 1st
- 5th- 5th
-400
-400 10th10th -400
-400 10th10th
20th20th 20th20th

-600
-600 -600
-600
0.00.0 0.40.4 0.8 0.8 1.21.2 1.6 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.6
Strain
Strain (%)(%) Strain
Strain (%)(%)

(a)(a) (b)(b)
2.02.0 o o
T =T150
= 150
C C Experiment
Experiment
Simulation
Simulation

1.51.5
Ratcheting strain (%)
Ratcheting strain (%)

1.01.0

0.50.5

0.00.0
0 0 4 4 8 8 12 12 16 16 20 20
Number
Number of of cycles
cycles (N)(N)

(c)(c)

Figure Figure
Figure 8. 8.
8. Results Results
Results ofof
of the the
the notched
notched
notched bar
bar
bar at
atat150 150
150 C:°C:
◦°C: (a)(a)
(a) experimental
experimental
experimental stress-strain
stress-strain
stress-strain curves,
curves, (b)(b)
curves, simulated
simulated
(b) simulated
stress-strain
stress-strain curves
curves and
and (c)
(c) experimental
experimental and
and simulated
simulated ratcheting
ratcheting strains
strains versus
versus number
number ofof cycles.
cycles.
stress-strain curves and (c) experimental and simulated ratcheting strains versus number of cycles.
800800
800800 o o
T =T325 C C
= 325
o o T =T325
= 325
C C
600600
600600

400400
400400
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

200200
200200

0 0
0 0

-200
-200
-200
-200
1st 1st - 5th
- 5th
1st 1st - 5th
- 5th
-400
-400 10th10th
-400
-400 10th10th
20th20th
20th20th
-600
-600
-600
-600 0.00.0 0.3 0.3 0.60.6 0.90.9 1.2 1.2 1.51.5
0.0 0.0 0.20.2 0.40.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2
Strain
Strain (%)
(%)
 0.0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Number of cycles (N)

(c)
Metals 2018,Figure
8, 955 8. Results of the notched bar at 150 °C: (a) experimental stress-strain curves, (b) simulated 12 of 15
stress-strain curves and (c) experimental and simulated ratcheting strains versus number of cycles.

800
800 o
o
T = 325 C T = 325 C
600
600

400
400

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
200
200

0
0

-200
-200
1st - 5th
1st - 5th
-400 10th
-400 10th
20th
20th
-600
-600 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Strain (%) Strain (%)
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
(a) (b)
2.0
o
T = 325 C Experiment
Simulation
Ratcheting Strain (%)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Number of cycles (N)

(c)

Figure Figure 9. Results

9. Results of theofnotched
the notched
bar bar
at 325 ◦ C:°C:
at 325 (a)(a) experimental stress-strain
experimental stress-strain curves,
curves,(b)(b)
simulated
simulated
stress-strain
stress-strain curvescurves
and (c)and (c) experimental
experimental andand simulated
simulated ratchetingstrains
ratcheting strains versus
versusnumber
numberofof cycles.
cycles.

4.3. Ratcheting Behaviors

4.3. Ratcheting of Plates
Behaviors withwith
of Plates A Center Hole
A Center Hole
To accurately
To accurately simulatesimulate the plastic
the plastic strain
strain accumulation,ititis
accumulation, is necessary
necessary to toverify
verifythe prediction
the prediction of of
strain field distribution. Therefore, the displacement-controlled cyclic tests
strain field distribution. Therefore, the displacement-controlled cyclic tests are performed to obtain are performed to obtain
the strain field distribution on the surface of plates with a center hole. The thickness of the plate is
the strain field distribution on the surface of plates with a center hole. The thickness of the plate is
2 mm, the gauge length is 10 mm, and the diameter of center hole is 2 mm. A non-contact digital
2 mm, the gauge length is 10 mm, and the diameter of center hole is 2 mm. A non-contact digital
image correlation (DIC) system ARAMIS5M (from GOM mhH Ltd., Brunswick, Germany) is used to
image correlation (DIC) system ARAMIS5M (from GOM mhH Ltd., Brunswick, Germany) is used to
measure the full-field strain within the gauged section of specimens. It is difficult to accurately obtain
measure the full-field strain within
the strain field distribution the gauged
of plates section
with a center holeofby
specimens.
our DIC device It is difficult to accurately
at an elevated temperatureobtain
the strain field
since the distribution of plates
specimen is heated by awith a center electric
surrounding hole byoven
our and
DICthe device at an elevated
temperature temperature
is also too high to
since the
usespecimen is heated
a transparent by a surrounding
temperature controller, whichelectric
wouldoven
cut and
off the thefield
temperature
of vision ofiscameras.
also tooThus,
high to
use a transparent temperature controller, which would cut off the field of vision of cameras. by
experiments are only carried out at room temperature. The cyclic loading is controlled Thus,
displacement
experiments are only with a nominal
carried out atstrain
roomrate of 0.2%/s and
temperature. thecyclic
The nominal strainisamplitude
loading controlled is 0.6%. Material
by displacement
with a parameters
nominal strainused rate
in simulations
of 0.2%/sare andshown in Table 1.strain amplitude is 0.6%. Material parameters
the nominal
It is noted that the tensile strength and fatigue performance of specimens was reported to be
used in simulations are shown in Table 1.
affected by scale and manufacturing mechanisms [24]. All tested specimens in this work were
It is noted that the tensile strength and fatigue performance of specimens was reported to
machined by the WEDM (Wire Electrical-Discharge Machining, Xinhe machinery processing Ltd.,
be affected
Chengdu,by China)
scale and manufacturing
technology, mechanisms
which is considered [24].alternative
as a valid All tested specimens
to milling in tensileinspecimen
this work
were machined
manufacturingby the WEDM
[25]. (Wire
Besides, theElectrical-Discharge
ratcheting deformation Machining,
is a type Xinhe machinery
of secondary processing
deformation
Ltd., Chengdu, China) technology, which is considered as a valid alternative to
superimposing on the primary deformation, it is very difficult to predict accurately. In fact, although milling in tensile
specimenthe manufacturing
proposed model [25]. Besides,
provided morethe ratcheting
accurate deformation
predictions is a type
of ratcheting of secondary
behaviors than the deformation
Chaboche
model, some
superimposing differences
on the primarybetween predictions
deformation, and simulations
it is very difficult to can be observed
predict accurately.in all
Insimulations.
fact, although
That is say,
the proposed modelcomparing
provided to the
more differences
accurateinpredictions
predictions ofof ratcheting
ratcheting behaviors,
behaviorsthe effects
than the of scale
Chaboche
and manufacturing on ratcheting behaviors are relatively small, and
model, some differences between predictions and simulations can be observed in all simulations.thus they are neglected in finite
element simulations. A 2D finite element model copying the specimen size is established in ABAQUS,
That is say, comparing to the differences in predictions of ratcheting behaviors, the effects of scale
as shown in Figure 10.
and manufacturing on ratcheting behaviors are relatively small, and thus they are neglected in finite
Comparisons between experimental and simulated results at the 1st, 10th and 20th cycle are
elementshown
simulations.
in FiguresA11 2Dand
finite element
12. It model
can be seen thatcopying the specimen
the simulated results ofsize is established
the gauged zone havein ABAQUS,
similar
as shown in Figure 10.
strain field distribution with experimental ones measured by the DIC technology. Besides, the strain
value of Y direction (along the loading direction) on a specific path is extracted to compare the
difference between simulated results and measured ones by the DIC technology. The path location is
shown in Figure 13a. It can be seen from Figure 13b that the simulated strain along the specific path
is acceptable comparing with the experimental results, which means the strain field of the plate with
a center hole can be reasonably simulated by the implemented cyclic plastic model.
Metals 2018, 8, 955 13 of 15
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

Metals 2018,
Metals 2018, 8,
8, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 13 of
13 of 15
15

Figure
Figure 10.10. Finiteelement
Finite elementmodel
model of
of the
theplate
platewith
witha center hole.
a center hole.

Comparisons between experimental and simulated results at the 1st, 10th and 20th cycle are shown
in Figures 11 and 12. It can be seen that the simulated results of the gauged zone have similar strain
field distribution with experimental ones measured by the DIC technology. Besides, the strain value
of Y direction (along the loading direction) on a specific path is extracted to compare the difference
between simulated results and measured ones by the DIC technology. The path location is shown in
Figure 13a. It can be seen from Figure 13b that the simulated strain along the specific path is acceptable
comparing with the experimental results, which means the strain field of the plate with a center hole
can be reasonably simulatedFigure
by the
Figure 10. implemented
10. Finite
Finite element cyclic
element model
model of the
of plastic
the plate
plate withmodel.
with aa center
center hole.
hole.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11. Experimental strain fields along the loading direction measured by the DIC technology in
the (a) 1st cycle, (b) 10th cycle and (c) 20th cycle.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 11. Figure 11. Experimental
11. Experimental
Experimental strain
strainstrain fields
fields
fields along
along
along thetheloading
the loading direction
loading direction
directionmeasured
measured by the
by
measured theby
DICthe
DIC technology
technology in
in
DIC technology in
the (a)
the (a) 1st
1st cycle,
cycle, (b)
(b) 10th
10th cycle
cycle and
and (c)
(c) 20th
20th cycle.
cycle.
the (a) 1st cycle, (b) 10th cycle and (c) 20th cycle.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12. Simulated strain fields in the (a) 1st cycle, (b) 10th cycle and (c) 20th cycle.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure 12. Simulated strain fields in the (a) 1st cycle, (b) 10th cycle and (c) 20th cycle.
Figure 12. Simulated strain fields
Figure 12. Simulated strain fields ininthe
the(a)
(a) 1st
1stcycle,
cycle,(b)(b)
10th10th
cyclecycle
and (c)and
20th(c)
cycle.
20th cycle.
Metals 2018, 8, 955 14 of 15
Metals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 15

12
o
T = 25 C DIC Simulation
1st:
10

Strain in Y direction (%)

10th:
20th:
8

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Distance along X direction (mm)

(a) (b)

Figure 13. Comparison

Figure 13. Comparison between between
the the simulated results
simulated results and
andmeasured ones by
measured the DIC
ones by technology: (a)
the DIC technology:
evaluated path location; (b) curves of strain in Y direction versus distance along X direction at
(a) evaluated path location; (b) curves of strain in Y direction versus distance along X direction at
different temperatures.
different temperatures.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
A temperature-dependent cyclic plastic model for SA508-3 steel, considering the nonlinear cyclic
A temperature-dependent cyclic plastic
softening and kinematic hardening rules,model for SA508-3
is implemented steel, considering
into a commercial thecode,
finite element nonlinear
i.e., cyclic
ABAQUS.
softening and kinematic hardening rules, is implemented into a commercial finite element code,

i.e., ABAQUS. The discrete material parameters in the developed kinematic hardening rule are considered as
an exponential function related to the accumulated plastic strain.
• 
The discrete material
Details parameters scheme
of implementation in the developed
based on thekinematic hardening
radial return rule
mapping and are considered
backward Euler as an
integration methods are presented.
exponential function related to the accumulated plastic strain.
 A new expression of consistent tangent modulus for overall equilibrium iteration is derived.
• Details of implementation scheme based on the radial return mapping and backward Euler
Then the model is implemented into ABAQUS by using the UMAT. Finite element simulations
integration methods are presented.
are carried out to predict ratcheting behaviors of both material point and structures, including
• A newnotched
expression of plates
bars and consistent tangent
with a center hole.modulus forbetween
Comparisons overallexperimental
equilibrium
anditeration is derived.
simulated results
show that:
Then the model is implemented into ABAQUS by using the UMAT. Finite element simulations
 The implemented temperature-dependent cyclic plastic model can provide reasonable
are carried out to predict ratcheting behaviors of both material point and structures, including notched
predictions for ratcheting behaviors of structure components of SA508-3 steel at different
bars and platestemperatures.
with a center hole. Comparisons between experimental and simulated results show
that: This work is helpful to evaluate ratcheting behaviors of nuclear reactor structures at different
• temperatures temperature-dependent
The implemented in further work. It should becyclic
mentioned thatmodel
plastic the working temperature
can provide range of the
reasonable predictions
researched material is from room temperature to 350 °C, which has been covered by the present
for ratcheting behaviors of structure components of SA508-3 steel at different temperatures.
experiments. The adaptability of the proposed model beyond the working temperature range should
be validated
This work by performing
is helpful moreratcheting
to evaluate experimentalbehaviors
researches inof
further work.reactor structures at different
nuclear
temperaturesAuthorin further work.
Contributions: It should
Methodology, J.T.be
andmentioned that
J.L.; Supervision, the
H.X., Y.Y.working temperature draft,
and Q.K.; Writing—original range of the
Writing—review & editing, Q.K. ◦
researched material is from room temperature to 350 C, which has been covered by the present
J.T.;

experiments. The adaptability

Funding: offunded
This research was the proposed model
by the National beyond
key research the working
and development temperature
program range should
(2016YFB1102601),
be validatedNational Natural Science Foundation of China (11572265), the Excellent Youth Found of Sichuan Province
by performing more experimental researches in further work.
(2017JQ0019) and Exploration Project of Traction Power State Key Laboratory (2017TPLT04) are acknowledged.

Conflicts of Interest:
Author Contributions: The authors
Methodology, J.T.declare no conflict
and J.L.; of interest.H.X., Y.Y. and Q.K.; Writing—original draft, J.T.;
Supervision,
Writing—review & editing, Q.K.
References
Funding: This research was funded by the National key research and development program (2016YFB1102601),
1.
National NaturalBari, S.; Hassan,
Science T. Anatomy of
Foundation of coupled
China constitutive
(11572265), models
thefor ratcheting Youth
Excellent simulation. Int. J. Plast.
Found 2000, 16, Province
of Sichuan
(2017JQ0019) and381–409.
Exploration Project of Traction Power State Key Laboratory (2017TPLT04) are acknowledged.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Bari, S.; Hassan, T. Anatomy of coupled constitutive models for ratcheting simulation. Int. J. Plast. 2000, 16,
381–409. [CrossRef]
2. Bari, S.; Hassan, T. Kinematic hardening rules in uncoupled modeling for multiaxial ratcheting simulation.
Int. J. Plast. 2001, 17, 885–905. [CrossRef]
3. Kang, G. Ratchetting: Recent progresses in phenomenon observation, constitutive modeling and application.
Int. J. Fatigue 2008, 30, 1448–1472. [CrossRef]
Metals 2018, 8, 955 15 of 15

4. Chen, X.H.; Chen, X.; Yu, D.; Gao, B.J. Recent progresses in experimental investigation and finite element
analysis of ratcheting in pressurized piping. Int. J. Press. Vessels Pip. 2013, 101, 113–142. [CrossRef]
5. Chaboche, J.L. Time-independent constitutive theories for cyclic plasticity. Int. J. Plast. 1986, 2, 149–188.
[CrossRef]
6. Giannella, V.; Citarella, R.; Fellinger, J.; Esposito, R. LCF assessment on heat shield components of nuclear
fusion experiment “Wendelstein 7-X” by critical plane criteria. Procedia Struct. Integr. 2018, 8, 318–331.
[CrossRef]
7. Kalnins, A.; Rudolph, J.; Willuweit, A. Using the Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Material Model of
Chaboche for Elastic-Plastic Ratcheting Analysis. J. Press. Vessel Technol. Trans. ASME 2015, 137, 10.
[CrossRef]
8. Ohno, N.; Wang, J.D. Kinematic hardening rules with critical state of dynamic recovery, part I: Formulation
and basic features for ratchetting behavior. Int. J. Plast. 1993, 9, 375–390. [CrossRef]
9. Ohno, N.; Wang, J.D. Kinematic hardening rules with critical state of dynamic recovery, part II: Application
to experiments of ratchetting behavior. Int. J. Plast. 1993, 9, 391–403. [CrossRef]
10. Lin, Y.C.; Liu, Z.H.; Chen, X.M.; Long, Z.L. Cyclic Plasticity Constitutive Model for Uniaxial Ratcheting
Behavior of AZ31B Magnesium Alloy. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2015, 24, 1820–1833. [CrossRef]
11. Agius, D.; Kourousis, K.I.; Wallbrink, C.; Hu, W.; Wang, C.H.; Dafalias, Y.F. Aluminum Alloy 7075 Ratcheting
and Plastic Shakedown Evaluation with the Multiplicative Armstrong–Frederick Model. AIAA J. 2017, 55,
2461–2470. [CrossRef]
12. Chen, W.; Kitamura, T.; Feng, M. Creep and fatigue behavior of 316L stainless steel at room temperature:
Experiments and a revisit of a unified viscoplasticity model. Int. J. Fatigue 2018, 112, 70–77. [CrossRef]
13. Blaizot, J.; Chaise, T.; Nélias, D.; Perez, M.; Cazottes, S.; Chaudet, P. Constitutive model for nickel alloy 690 (
Inconel 690 ) at various strain rates and temperatures. Int. J. Plast. 2016, 80, 139–153. [CrossRef]
14. Kang, G.; Liu, Y. Uniaxial ratchetting and low-cycle fatigue failure of the steel with cyclic stabilizing or
softening feature. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008, 472, 258–268. [CrossRef]
15. Yaguchi, M.; Takahashi, Y. Ratchetting of viscoplastic material with cyclic softening, part 2: Application of
constitutive models. Int. J. Plast. 2005, 21, 835–860. [CrossRef]
16. Abdel-Karim, M.; Ohno, N. Kinematic hardening model suitable for ratchetting with steady-state. Int. J.
Plast. 2000, 16, 225–240. [CrossRef]
17. Halama, R.; Markopoulos, A.; Jančo, R.; Bartecký, M. Implementation of MAKOC cyclic plasticity model
with memory. Adv. Eng. Softw. 2017, 113, 34–46. [CrossRef]
18. Bonora, N.; Majzoobi, G.H.; Khademi, E. Numerical implementation of a new coupled cyclic plasticity and
continum damage model. Comput. Mater. Sci. 2014, 81, 538–547. [CrossRef]
19. Dalla Palma, M. Modelling of cyclic plasticity for austenitic stainless steels 304L, 316L, 316L(N)-IG. Fusion
Eng. Des. 2016, 109–111, 20–25. [CrossRef]
20. Agius, D.; Kajtaz, M.; Kourousis, K.I.; Wallbrink, C.; Wang, C.H.; Hu, W.; Silva, J. Sensitivity and optimisation
of the Chaboche plasticity model parameters in strain-life fatigue predictions. Mater. Des. 2017, 118, 107–121.
[CrossRef]
21. Frederick, C.O.; Armstrong, P.J. A Mathematical Representation of the Multiaxial Bauscinger Effect. Mater.
High Temp. 1998, 24, 1–26.
22. Kobayashi, M.; Ohno, N. Implementation of cyclic plasticity models based on a general form of kinematic
hardening. Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 2002, 53, 2217–2238. [CrossRef]
23. Liu, J.; Wang, L.; Yang, Y.; Cui, J. Fracture toughness and behavior of SA508-III steel under different loading
rates. Heat Treat. Met. 2017, 42, 42–46.
24. Tomlinson, S.M.; Lopez-Anido, R.A. Scale and manufacturing effects on tensile strength of marine grade
sandwich composite panel joints. J. Sandwich Struct. Mater. 2018. [CrossRef]
25. Krahmer, D.M.; Polvorosa, R.; López de Lacalle, L.N.; Alonso-Pinillos, U.; Abate, G.; Riu, F. Alternatives for
Specimen Manufacturing in Tensile Testing of Steel Plates. Exp. Tech. 2016, 40, 1555–1565. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).