TCR 705 Math 7 - 12

Mathematics
Grades 7 – 12
Amy Houser, M.Ed
Introduction
Mathematics Grades 7 – 12
This module addresses the knowledge and skills required of teachers planning to teach mathematics in grades
7 – 12. We examine each of the six domains identified by the State Board for Educator Certification (SBEC) as
necessary for the 7 – 12 Mathematics teacher: (1) Number Concepts; (2) Patterns and Algebra; (3) Geometry
and Measurement; (4) Probability and Statistics; (5) Mathematical Processes and Perspectives; and (6)
Mathematical Learning, Instruction and Assessment. We examine each domain and the competencies within
that domain and provide sample lessons, articles, and videos to support the knowledge of those
competencies. The module prepares you for teaching by addressing the following (SBEC) standards for
educators:
Domain I – Number Concepts

Competency 001: The teacher understands the real number system and its structure, operations,
algorithms and representations.
Competency 002: The teacher understands the complex number system and its structure, operations,
Competency 003: The teacher understands number theory concepts and principles and uses numbers to
model and solve problems in a variety of situations.
Domain II – Patterns and Algebra

Competency 004: The teacher uses patterns to model and solve problems and formulate conjectures.
Competency 005: The teacher understands attributes of functions, relations and their graphs.
Competency 006: The teacher understands linear and quadratic functions, analyzes their algebraic and
graphical properties and uses them to model and solve problems.
Competency 007: The teacher understands polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value and piecewise
functions, analyzes their algebraic and graphical properties and uses them to model and
solve problems.
Competency 008: The teacher understands exponential and logarithmic functions, analyses their algebraic
and graphical properties and uses them to model and solve problems.
Competency 009: The teacher understands trigonometric and circular functions, analyzes their algebraic
and graphical properties and uses them to model and solve problems.
Competency 010: The teacher understands and solves problems using differential and integral calculus.
Domain III – Geometry and Measurement

Competency 011: The teacher understands measurement as a process.
Competency 012: The teacher understands geometries, in particular Euclidian geometry, as axiomatic
systems.
Competency 013: The teacher understands the results, uses and applications of Euclidian geometry.
Competency 014: The teacher understands coordinate, transformational and vector geometry and their
connections.
Domain IV – Probability and Statistics

Competency 015: The teacher understands how to use appropriate graphical and numerical techniques to
explore data, characterize patterns and describe departures from patterns.
Competency 016: The teacher understands concepts and applications of probability.
Competency 017: The teacher understands the relationships among probability theory, sampling and
statistical inference and how statistical inference is used in making and evaluating
predictions.
Domain V – Mathematical Processes and Perspectives

Competency 018: The teacher understands mathematical reasoning and problem solving.
Competency 019: The teacher understands mathematical connections both within and outside of
mathematics and how to communicate mathematical ideas and concepts.
Domain VI – Mathematical Learning, Instruction and Assessment

Competency 020: The teacher understands how children learn mathematics and plans, organizes and
implements instruction using knowledge of students, subject matter and statewide
curriculum (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills [TEKS]).
Competency 021: The teacher understands assessment and uses a variety of formal and informal
assessment techniques to monitor and guide mathematics instruction and to evaluate
student progress.
Domain 1
Number Concepts
In this module, we will explore the foundation for students understanding of higher mathematics; number
concepts. We will begin by looking at the real number system, including subsets of the real numbers, various
representations of real numbers and operations, as well as irrational numbers. We will move into looking at
the complex number system. The set of complex numbers includes all real numbers but is expanded through
use of the factor i =√−1. Finally, we will address topics of theory, including rules of divisibility for natural
numbers, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, real-world math examples, and estimation and
reasonableness.
Competency 001: The teacher understands the real number system and its structure, operations, algorithms,
and representations.
Number Systems Bases
The standard method for writing numbers is the decimal (base 10) system, where the digits represent powers
of 10. Other bases, such as the base 2, or binary, system can be used to represent numbers. Computer
systems fundamentally operate on the binary system. Older students, with a passion for computers, might
come to school with a basic understanding of the binary system. However, the focus in secondary
mathematics focuses on the base 10 system. Here is a video, from Khan Academy, that reviews the decimal
and binary number systems.
Real Numbers
Numbers in our decimal system are classified into 5 subsets of the real number system. These subsets are:
• Natural Numbers – The counting numbers.

Example: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…
• Whole Numbers – The natural numbers together with
zero.
Example: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...
• Integers – Whole numbers plus negatives.
Example: …-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…
𝑎𝑎
• Rational Numbers – All numbers of the form , a and b
𝑏𝑏
are integers (but b cannot be zero). In decimal form,
these numbers will be either terminating or repeating
decimals.
1 2
Example: , 0.75, , -6.7…
2 3
• Irrational Numbers – Numbers that cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers. The decimal form of
these numbers neither terminate nor repeat.
Example: √2 = 1.41421356…, 𝜋𝜋 = 3.14159265…
The 6 – 8 Math TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills) require the students to classify and describe
relationships between sets of real numbers. More specifically, sixth grade students classify whole numbers,
integers, and rational numbers using a visual representation such as a Venn diagram to describe relationships
between sets of numbers. In seventh grade, students extend their knowledge to describing relationships
between sets and subsets of rational numbers. Finally in eighth grade, students understand the relationship
between the set of real numbers and the subsets that exist within the set. A real number graphic organizer can
be used to help students classify and describe relationships between sets and subsets of real numbers.
Another way to have students organize their thoughts is through a foldable. Here is a video that will help
eighth grade students study the real number system.
Representation of real numbers
Real numbers can be represented in a variety of forms: fraction, decimal, percent, square root, scientific
notation, exponents, logarithms, etc. It is important for students to be able to fluidly move between forms of
real numbers. Teachers can help students deepen their understanding of rational numbers by presenting
problems that call for flexible thinking. Flexible thinking helps students understand that there is more than
one way to solve a problem. Recently, mathematics instruction has shifted away from solely focusing on
procedural understanding, or getting the “right” answer. The goal is to now have students who can apply their
mathematical understandings in new and unique situations. Here is an article that addresses the teacher’s role
in fostering mathematical thinking. While reading the article think about how you would foster flexible
thinking in your classroom.
Using Models to Represent Operations, Algorithms, and Real Numbers
Math classrooms have always been a place where students perform math calculations. However, simply
performing calculations doesn’t demonstrate conceptual understanding of a concept, it just demonstrates that
a student can follow a set of rules. The TEKS require modeling of fractions, decimals, percents, integers, linear
equations, just to name a few. Unfortunately, textbooks rarely focus on the understanding of a concept.
Instead they mostly ask students to solve problems with “plug and chug” formulas. In the following article
from Mathematics Teacher April 2015, Dan Meyer a nationally recognized math educator, examines whether
textbooks adequately do justice to the topic of modeling. While reading this article, reflect on your own
learning experiences in math. Did you have experiences where math was used as a model for the world
around you, or did most of your classroom experiences revolve around solving standard algorithms?
The following two videos from the Teaching Channel, show two teaching modeling integer operations using
integer chips and number lines. It is important that students see a variety of models in the classroom, to help
them build their conceptual understanding of topic. In the first video, “What’s Your Sign: Integer Addition”,
consider the following questions while watching the video: How does the use of number lines help students
visualize integer operations? How does this approach support long-term conceptual understanding as
compared to rote memorization of rules? Why is it important to use both horizontal and vertical number
lines? In the second video, “Zero Pairs, Manipulatives, and a Real-World Scenario” consider the following
questions: How do manipulatives deepen understanding of integer operations even for students who find the
traditional algorithm easy? Think about what it means to “add the opposite” and how your students can
understand this using zero pairs and two-colored counters. Which method is your brain most drawn to? Using
a number line or integer chips to represent integer operations?
Plus magazine, an internet magazine which aims to introduce readers to the beauty and the practical
applications of mathematics, compiled articles that all deal with mathematical modeling onto one page. These
articles range from topics that can be worked directly into classroom activities to articles that give an overview
of a particular topic.
Use deductive reasoning to simplify and justify algebraic processes
Quite possibly the most used process in all of mathematics is deductive reasoning. When we reason
deductively, we use known facts to draw logical conclusions. This process is something that can be explicitly
taught to students by the teacher performing a think aloud as they are teaching a concept. The following
video, from Khan Academy, is an example of a teacher slowly and methodically talking through each step by
use of deductive reasoning.
Demonstrate how some problems that have no solution in the integer or rational number system have
solutions in the real numbers system.
Prior to eighth grade, students have only had experience with whole numbers, integers, and rational numbers.
In eighth grade students begin working with real numbers, in particular irrational numbers. Students are
required to: order a set of rational numbers arising from mathematical and real-world contexts; approximate
the value of an irrational number, including 𝜋𝜋 and square roots of numbers less than 225, and locate that
rational number approximation on a number line; extend previous knowledge of sets and subsets using a
visual representation to describe relationships between sets of real numbers. The following Pythagorean
Theorem lesson, provides students the opportunity to explore rational and irrational numbers by analyzing the
relationship of side lengths of special right triangles.
Competency 002: The teacher understands the complex number system and its structure, operations,
Complex Number System
The complex number system is introduced in Algebra II, when the imaginary number i is presented. Prior to
Algebra II, students worked with whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, and finally real numbers.
Complex numbers can be confusing to students, due to their abstract nature. It is important that students
make their own connections from real numbers to complex and imaginary numbers.
Take some time to explore the following introductory lessons/ online tutorials on imaginary and complex
numbers:
• The following video, from LearnZillion, walks students through classifying complex numbers as real or
imaginary.
• A Visual, Intuitive Guide to Imaginary Numbers approaches learning imaginary numbers by observing
their ancestors, the negative numbers.
• This lesson from ALEX, the Alabama Learning Exchange, helps student distinguish between strictly
complex numbers, strictly real numbers and strictly imaginary numbers while learning that real
numbers and imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers.
• In Algebra I, students solve quadratic equations having real solutions by factoring, taking square roots,
completing the square, and applying the quadratic formula. In this online tutorial, the quadratic
equation is used to help us better understand where complex numbers are coming from.
• New Yok State Regents review site - complex numbers lessons, online practice teacher resources
The following complex numbers are written as ordered pairs, (3 + 2i), (1 + 6i), (4 + 9i). Since they are written as
ordered pairs, they can be plotted graphically. Complex numbers are plotted on a Cartesian Complex Plane
where the x-axis represents the real numbers and the y-axis represents the imaginary numbers. The following
Khan Academy tutorial video introduces students to plotting complex numbers on the complex plane.
Complex numbers can also be written in Trigonometric or Polar Form, which requires a magnitude and an
angle. The following videos walk you through 3 examples of expressing a complex number in Trigonometric or
Polar Form: example 1, example 2, and example 3. As you watch these videos, think about how you could
utilize this idea of filming examples to insure that all students are successful with upper level mathematics.
Texas Instruments calculators are, for the most part, the preferred graphing calculators in public education.
The Texas Instruments site has many free lessons available for teachers to use to enhance their lessons.
Whether your school uses the TI-84 Plus family of calculators or the TI-Nspire, the TI Classroom Activities site
is one that you would want to utilize to allow students to see the math come alive. Take some time to explore
some of the classroom activities that TI has created for complex numbers.
Competency 003: The teacher understands number theory concepts and principles and uses numbers to model
and solve problems in a variety of situations.
Application of number theory
Students understanding of the divisibility rules, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, greatest common
factors, least common multiples, the Euclidean Algorithm, and modular arithmetic will allow them to see the
relationships between different sorts of numbers.
The following divisibility rules let you test if one number is divisible by another:
A number
is divisible If: Example:
by:
The last digit is an even number (0, 2, 4, 246 Yes
2
6, 8) 247 No
123 (1 + 2 + 3 = 6, and 6 ÷ 3 = 2) Yes
3 The sum of the digits is divisible by 3 1
235 (2 + 3 + 5 = 10, and 10 ÷ 3 = 3 3) No
412 (12 ÷ 4 = 3) Yes
4 The last two digits are divisible by 4
817 No
765 Yes
5 The last digit is 0 or 5
722 No
84 (it is even, and 8 + 4 = 12 and 12 ÷ 3 = 4)
Yes
6 The number is divisible by both 2 and 3 1
76 (it is even, but 7 + 6 = 13 and 13 ÷ 3 = 4 3)
No
1,808 (808 ÷ 8 = 101) Yes
8 The last three digits are divisible by 8 5
2,301 (301 ÷ 8 = 37 8) No
6,291 (6 + 2 + 9 + 1 = 18, and again, 1 + 8 = 9)
9 The sum of the digits is divisible by 9 Yes
2,015 (2 + 0 + 1 + 5 = 8) No
450 Yes
10 The last digit is 0
232 No
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that any integer greater than 1 is either a prime number, or
can be written as a unique product of prime numbers. A few examples:
• The number 55 is greater than 1 and can be written as the product of two prime numbers 5 and 11.
• The number 30 is greater than 1 and can be written as the product of 3 prime numbers: 2, 3, and 5.
• The number 12 is greater than 1 and can be written as the product of 3 prime numbers: 2, 2, and 3
which can be written as 22 × 3.
When students find equivalent fractions, they use the greatest common factor and least common multiple
when looking for common denominators. The Greatest Common Factor or GCF is the largest number that
divides evenly into a set of numbers. The Euclidean Algorithm is another method for finding the greatest
common divisor or GCD, also known as the GCF or greatest common factor. The Least Common Multiple or
LCM is the smallest number that is a multiple of the set of numbers.
Modular Arithmetic is a system for integers where numbers wrap around upon reaching a certain value – the
modulus. The most familiar use of modular arithmetic is the 12-hour clock, in which the day is divided into two
12 hour periods. In the following lesson, students will learn about modular arithmetic and how to apply it in
real world situations.
Use properties of numbers to model and solve real-world problems
The following sample lessons exhibit use of various properties of numbers to solve real-world problems.
• Ratios and Proportional Relationships

• Unit Rate
• Ratio, Proportion, and Percent
Use estimation techniques to solve problems and judge the reasonableness of the solution
Estimation uses a variety of skills, and must be developed over time. Estimation is a topic that should not be
isolated, but used in conjunction with what is being taught on a daily basis. In the elementary and middle
school TEKS, students are asked to estimate to determine solutions to mathematical and real-world problems.
In the Algebra I TEKS, student are asked to estimate graphically the solutions to systems of two linear
equations, and estimate the solutions to linear and quadratic functions. In the following study from The
Mathematics Educator, “Taking the Guesswork out of Computational Estimation”, researchers looked in to
why estimation is important and how do students of different estimation levels think about mathematics.
While reading this article, think about the following questions: What estimation strategies do you use on a
regular basis when solving problems. How do you plan on incorporating estimation strategies in to your daily
lessons with students?
Conclusion
The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) stress the importance of conceptual understanding as a key
component of mathematical proficiency. Far too many people think that if students are able to follow a set of
rules they possess deep understanding of mathematics concepts. Students with conceptual understanding are
able to learn new concepts by making connections to what they already know, and are able to remember and
retain these concepts. “Mathematicians make meaning in their world by setting up quantifiable and spatial
relationships, by noticing patterns and transformations, by proving them as generalizations, and by searching
for elegant solutions. They construct new mathematics to solve real problems or to explain or prove
interesting patterns, relationships or puzzles in mathematics itself.” Fosnet and Dolk, 2001
Resources for Domain I:
• Video - Khan Academy, “Introduction to number systems and binary” -

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/pre-algebra/applying-math-reasoning-topic/alternate-number-
bases/v/number-systems-introduction
• Irrational Number Visual - http://cdn.buzznet.com/assets/users16/ganga11/default/rational-irrational-
numbers--large-msg-134285602155.jpg
• Real Number Graphic Organizer - http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-
6pTppUj9Lh4/UByR8ZPYS0I/AAAAAAAAAJs/OJQy0qt-ykU/s1600/Real+Number+Graphic+Organizer+-
+Mine.png
• Real Number System Foldable - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVVzl7SV5f0
• Article – “Fostering Mathematical Thinking and Problem Solving: The Teacher’s Role” from Teaching
Children Mathematics 2007 -
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCIQ
FjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ps279.org%2Fdownload.axd%3Ffile%3D230e9c06-3789-4ead-a9ba-
6a7d86da1b53%26dnldType%3DResource&ei=gbeaVfCCGZXtoASchYn4BQ&usg=AFQjCNGBoTAWqthr3
PtvNv_zClRirW5dCA&bvm=bv.96952980,d.cGU
• Article – “Missing the Math” from Mathematics Teacher April 2015 -
http://www.nctm.org/Publications/mathematics-teacher/2015/Vol108/Issue8/mt2015-04-578a/
• Video – Teaching Channel, “What’ s Your Sign: Integer Addition” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/adding-integers-lesson-idea
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Zero Pairs, Manipulatives, and a Real-World Scenario” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/teaching-subtracting-integers
• Plus Magazine - Mathematical Modelling - https://plus.maths.org/content/teacher-package-
mathematical-modelling
• Video – Khan Academy, “Deductive Reasoning 3” -
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/seq_induction/deductive-and-inductive-
reasoning/v/deductive-reasoning-3
• Pythagorean Theorem Lesson -
http://www.math.uakron.edu/amc/Geometry/PythagThmSpecialRightTriangles_Nspire.DOC
• Online Tutorial – Complex Numbers - http://www.intmath.com/complex-numbers/1-basic-
definitions.php
• Complex Number Venn Diagram - http://i.stack.imgur.com/bF5mG.gif
• Video – LearnZillion, “Classify Complex Number as Real or Imaginary”
https://learnzillion.com/lessons/227-classify-complex-numbers-as-real-or-imaginary
• Better Explained – “A Visual, Intuitive Guide to Imaginary Numbers” -
http://betterexplained.com/articles/a-visual-intuitive-guide-to-imaginary-numbers/
• Alex Lesson – “Classifying Complex Numbers” - http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=11364
• Interactive Mathematics – “Complex Numbers – Basic Definitions” -
http://www.intmath.com/complex-numbers/1-basic-definitions.php
• Video – Khan Academy, “Plotting complex numbers on the complex plane” -
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/imaginary_complex_precalc/complex_num_precalc
/v/plotting-complex-numbers-on-the-complex-plane
• New Yok State Regents review site - complex numbers lessons, online practice teacher resources -
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/math/algtrig/ATO6/indexATO6.htm
• Expressing a Complex Number in Trigonometric or Polar Form
o Example 1 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6z6fzPXUbSQ
o Example 2 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tAIxdEVuTZ8
o Example 3 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIYDO_weAVA
• Texas Instruments Classroom Activities - https://education.ti.com/en/us/activity/search/subject
• Video LearnZillion, Find the greatest common factor of two numbers -
https://learnzillion.com/lessons/2821-find-the-greatest-common-factor-of-two-numbers
• Video – Euclidean Algorithm - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJn843kplDw
• Video LearnZillion, Find the least common multiple of two numbers
https://learnzillion.com/lessons/2720-find-the-least-common-multiple-of-two-numbers
• Lesson – Shodor, Modular Arithmetic -
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/lessons/ModularArithmetic/
• Lesson – Illuminations, What’s Your Rate? - http://illuminations.nctm.org/lesson.aspx?id=1660
• Lesson – Illuminations, Invest in Your Education - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2974
• Article – The Mathematics Educator – Taking the Guesswork out of Computational Estimation
http://tme.coe.uga.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/5-23.1_Cochran.pdf
Domain 2
Patterns and Algebra
Competency 004: The teacher uses patterns to model and solve problems and formulate conjectures.
“This competency reviews the use of patterns in the form of tables, graphs, sequences, and series to solve
problems using techniques such as iteration and recursion, mathematical induction and other forms of pattern
analysis.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 39
Patterns and Relationships in tables, sequences or graphs
Identifying patterns and finding relationships in the patterns allows students to generalize and find a broader
solution to a problem. Function tables represent sequences of computations that can be used repeatedly with
many numbers. The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) references patterns and relationships over
twenty times in just the middle school standards. The following document, from the Texas Education Agency
(TEA), is a Vertical Alignment Chart for Grades 5 – Algebra 2. This vertical alignment chart lets you track the
progression of algebraic skills from 5th grade to 6th grade, 6th grade to 7thgrade, 7th grade to 8thgrade, 8th grade
to Algebra I and finally Algebra I to Algebra II. Take some time to find reference to patterns and relationships
in this document. Notice the progression of these skills throughout the grade levels. We start in 5th grade from
just recognizing patterns to formulating relationships in Algebra II. Walk the Plank, is a sample lesson from the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Illuminations site. When one end of a wooden board is
placed on a bathroom scale and the other end is suspended on a textbook, students can "walk the plank" and
record the weight measurement as their distance from the scale changes. The results are unexpected— the
relationship between the weight and distance is linear, and all lines have the same x-intercept. This
investigation leads to a real world occurrence of negative slope, examples of which are often hard to find.
While reading this lesson, ponder the following questions: Would student’s level of enthusiasm/involvement
for this lesson be high or low? Would this lesson be appropriate for all students? If not, what could you do to
make it appropriate?
Recursion, Iteration and Mathematical Induction
“Recursion is the process of describing the next term in a sequence in relation to preceding terms. Recursive
formulas can model population growth patterns, the distance traveled on a trip, the interest earned on a bank
account, and other real-life events.” – Annenberg Learner Series Algebra Workshop. Read what educators
have to say about the role of recursion in developing mathematical understanding.
Iteration is the process of performing an action that generates a new value, then using that new value as the
starting point as you repeat the same actions, repeating the action as many times as needed. Folding and
kneading dough can demonstrate the iterative process. The principle of mathematical induction is used to
prove that certain results (formula, equality, inequality…) are true for all positive integer numbers, n.
Sample lessons:
• The Devil and Daniel Webster - This interdisciplinary lesson allows students to examine a recursive
sequence in a game between the Devil and Daniel Webster. Students will: use recursive or iterative
forms to represent relationships; approximate and interpret rates of change from numerical data, and
draw reasonable conclusions about a situation being modeled.
• Trout Pond Population - This investigation illustrates the use of iteration, recursion and algebra to
model and analyze a changing fish population. Graphs, equations, tables, and technological tools are
used to investigate the effect of varying parameters on the long-term population. Students will: use
iteration, recursion and algebra to model and analyze a changing fish population; and use graphs,
equations, tables, and technology to investigate the effect of varying parameters on the long-term
population.
• Eeek, Cobwebs! – Students will explore the concept of recursion and display the expressions as a
cobweb diagram.
• Towers of Hanoi/Mathematical Induction Quest – Students explore the recursive nature of this
problem and construct a mathematical induction proof to predict the minimum number of moves.
Sequences and Series

A sequence is an ordered set of numbers and a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. An arithmetic
sequence is a sequence of values that follows a pattern of adding by a constant value.
Arithmetic Constant Description

Sequence Value
Add 2 to each term to arrive at the next term, or the
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … n=2
difference between successive terms is 2.
5, 5.75, 6.5, 7.25, 8, Add 0.75 to each term to arrive at the next term, or
n = 0.75
… the difference between successive terms is 0.75.
Add -4 to each term to arrive at the next term, or the
10, 6, 2, -2, -6, … n = -4
difference between successive terms is -4.
A geometric sequence is a sequence of values that multiplies or divides by a constant number to get the next
term.
Geometric Constant Description

Sequence Value
Multiply each term by 2 to arrive at the next term, or
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … n=2
ratio between two successive terms is 2.
1
1 1 1 Multiply each term by 2 to arrive at the next term, or
20, 10, 5, 2 2, 1 4, … n=2 1
ratio between two successive terms is .
2
Multiply each term by -3 to arrive at the next term, or
3, -9, 27, -81, … n = -3
ratio between two successive terms is -3.
The Algebra I TEKS state that, students are expected to identify terms of arithmetic and geometric sequences
when the sequences are given in function form using recursive processes and write a formula for the nth term
of arithmetic and geometric sequences, given the value of several of their terms. The following lessons could
be used in an Algebra I classroom:
• Teaching Arithmetic Sequences and Series lesson - students discover the properties of arithmetic
sequences and series through the use of manipulatives, a spreadsheet, and an animated GIF file.
• Geometric Sequences – students represent geometric sequences verbally, visually, in lists/tables,
graphically, as a recursive rule/pattern, and as an explicit rule.
Students in the seventh and eighth grade calculate simple and compound interest. These calculations
prepare students for the work in sequences and series that are required in Algebra I. Simple interest is an
arithmetic sequence, while compound interest is a geometric sequence. In the following lesson, students
use the economic concepts of trade-offs and opportunity cost to decide between savings accounts with
simple interest and those with compound interest. If you are interested in finding other personal financial
literacy resources, the Texas Council on Economic Education has free eBooks available on their Smarter
Texas website.
Competency 005: The teacher understands attributes of functions, relations and their graphs.
“This section reviews the general concepts of relations and functions, the domain and range of functions and
relations, and the graphs (and associated symmetry in terms of evenness or oddness) of functions. The
discussion then covers transformations of and operations on functions as well as the use of graphs in making
conjectures about identities.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 49
Functions
Eighth grade students are expected to identify functions using sets of ordered pairs, tables, mappings, and
graphs. While the term function is first presented in the TEKS in eighth grade, students have worked with
input/output (function machines) beginning in elementary school. Even though identifying functions is
presented in eighth grade, function notation is not. Function notation appears in Algebra I.
For a relation (a set of ordered pairs that have a relation to one another) to be a function, any input (x-value)
must yield exactly one output (y-value). OnTRACK lessons, funded by the Texas Education Agency, align with
the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills in mathematics. Each lesson includes engaging content, interactive
experiences, assessment and feedback, and links to additional resources. Available in TEA’s Project Share,
OnTRACK lessons supplement classroom instruction and intervention with dynamic learning experiences that
use video, graphics, and online activities. OnTRACK lessons are intended to supplement classroom instruction
and intervention. The following OnTRACK lesson, “Determining if a Relationship is a Functional Relationship”,
practice identifying functions by using tables, graphs and mappings.
The mapping below, is an example of a one-to-one function, where given any y value, there can only be one x
value that can be paired with the given y value.
The domain of a function is the set of all x-values (independent variable). The range of a function is the set of
all y-values (dependent variable). It is important to be able to identify the domain and range of a function to
understand the meaning of the independent and dependent variables. The following OnTRACK lesson
introduces students to identifying domain and range.
There are four basic transformations that can be applied to graphs of parent functions. A function can shift
horizontally or vertically, stretch, compress, or flip. Card sorting is an activity that allows students organize
topics into categories that make sense to them. The following card sort has students matching graphs,
descriptions, and equations for function transformations of parabolic, cubic absolute value, and square root
equations. For a comprehensive look at transformations of functions, click here.
Students in Precalculus will learn that just as numbers can be combined through arithmetic operations,
functions can also be combined through a process known as composition. Through this lens, inverse functions
will be developed and extended to exponential functions in the lesson, “Compositions, Inverses & Role Play:
Extending Concepts to Exponential Functions”. Make sure to take time to watch the video of the teacher
explaining his reasoning for creating this lesson.
Competency 006: The teacher understands linear and quadratic functions, analyzes their algebraic and
“This competency reviews the concept of slope and goes on to discuss the equation of a line and the solution
of systems of linear equations, as well as the equations, graphs, and solutions of complex functions (or
equations). From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 66
Linear Functions
Rate of change, or slope, has always been considered a topic for Algebra I students. With the changes in the
TEKS, this introduction now occurs in eighth grade. Students are expected to use data from a table or graph to
determine the rate of change or slope and y-intercept in mathematical and real-world problems. In the
following article from Mathematics Teacher, “Slope, Rate of Change, and Steepness: Do Students Understand
These Concepts?” researchers focus on students’ work on an open-ended task used to gather data about their
understanding of rate of change. While reading the article consider the following questions: “Why is using
academic vocabulary important?”; “What are the areas of misconception that the students have?”; “What are
some other topics that students might have misconceptions due to vocabulary?” The following are two sample
lessons that encourages deep understanding of slope as rate of change: OnTRACK Lesson - Developing the
Concept of Slope; Slope as Rate of Change Day 1 (real-life application to help students development the
meaning of slope) and Day 2 (debrief slope as a rate of change by investigating each other’s work).
In eighth grade, students write equations in the form of y = mx + b. In Algebra I, students write linear
equations in two variables in various forms, including y = mx + b, Ax + By = C, and
y - y1 = m(x - x1), given one point and the slope and given two points. The following are some sample activities
that can be used while teaching how to write linear equations in various forms.
• Standard Form Interactive Notebook – Organized notes on standard form of a linear equation.
• Point-Slope Form Web Diagram – Web diagram summarizing notes on point-slope form
• Blockbusters – Writing Equations - Review Game for two teams for writing equations of lines. Rules
included
A System of linear equations is a collection of two or more equations. The solution to a linear system must
satisfy all of the equations. The solution set is the intersection of these lines; which is a single point, a line, or
the empty set. In Algebra I, the TEKS state that students are expected to write systems of two linear
equations, given a table of values, a graph, and a verbal description; and solve systems of two linear equations
with two variables for mathematical and real-world problems. The following video from the Teaching Channel
demonstrates a teacher modeling teaching students systems of equations. While observing the lesson:
Identify the elements that work and which do not work. Does the lesson fully align with the TEKS? If not, how
would you adjust the lesson to more fully align with the TEKS?
The TEKS for Algebra II state that students are expected to: formulate systems of equations, including systems
consisting of three linear equations in three variables and systems consisting of two equations, the first linear
and the second quadratic; solve systems of three linear equations in three variables by using Gaussian
elimination, technology with matrices, and substitution; and formulate systems of at least two linear
inequalities in two variables. Making Connection: Matrices, Graphs, and Linear Systems is a 4 or 5 day unit
lesson where students will use graphing calculators to solve systems of linear equations in two ways. They will
first solve the systems by graphing the equations and finding the point of intersection. They will then solve
systems of equations by writing related matrices and solving by using inverse matrices.
The following website gives students four different video options for online tutorial help with using matrices
to solve systems of equations.
To extend and synthesize students’ knowledge of systems of inequalities and systems of equations the
following lesson, Maximizing Profit, will give students an introduction to Linear Programming. In this lesson,
students will generate a feasible region from given constraints, create profit lines based on a given profit
amount and understand profit lines are parallel and finding the line on the edge of the feasible region will
yield maximum profit.
Quadratic functions
Quadratic functions are functions written in the form ax2 +bx + c. When graphed, quadratic functions form
parabolas. The following lesson introduces student to quadratic functions, by activating students’ prior
knowledge of functions.
In a quadratic equation, the discriminant tells you the number of real solutions to a quadratic equation. The
expression used to find the discriminant is b2 – 4ac. Now that we know how to find out how many solutions a
quadratic function has, it is time to find those solutions. There are a number of different methods for solving
quadratic equations: factoring; completing the square; the Quadratic Formula; and graphing.
Below are resources for each type of method:
Completing the Graphing
Factoring Quadratic Formula
Square
Factoring a Solving Quadratic Solving Quadratic How do you graph a
trinomial with the Equations: Equations Using the quadratic function?
leading coefficient Completing the Quadratic Formula
of 1 Square Using the
How do you solve a Discriminant
Videos
Factoring a How do you solve a quadratic equation
trinomial when the quadratic equation by using the
leading coefficient by completing the quadratic formula?
is not 1 square?
Tic Tac Toe: Hip to be The Three Graphing Quadratic

Factoring of (completing the) Musketeers: Equations - This is
Quadratic Square – This lesson Simplifying the an introductory
Trinomials - This is an introduction to Quadratic Formula lesson to graphing
lesson will guide completing the – quadratic
you through a square. Students Just like the Three equations. This
method of factoring will learn what it Musketeers, the lesson uses
quadratic means to "complete three pieces of the graphing
expressions and the square" with a quadratic formula technology to
equations using a quadratic trinomial stick together, and illustrate the
Tic Tac Toe board. expression. This work together to differences
Lessons lesson moves find solutions between quadratic
through all levels of equations and
Concrete, linear equations. In
Representational, addition, it allows
and Abstract students to identify
instruction. important parts of
the quadratic
equation and how
each piece changes
the look of the
graph.
Four Fun Ways to Completing the Math in Basketball Angry Birds – Use
Review Factoring Square Stations the GeoGebra
Trinomials Activity. Students applet to launch
rearrange puzzle your angry bird.
Activities pieces in the correct
order to a Matching Graphs
completing-the- Games
square problem.
Competency 007: The teacher understands polynomial, rational, radical, absolute value and piecewise
functions, analyzes their algebraic and graphical properties and uses them to model and solve problems.
“This competency reviews various polynomial (and similar) functions in terms of their respective
representations, domains and ranges, and asymptotes. In addition, the solution of problems and the modeling
of situations involving these functions are also discussed. From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 88
Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function is the sum of one or more terms with real number coefficients and nonnegative integer
exponents. The exponent on the term tells the degree of the polynomial. The degree gives the polynomial its
name:
Degree Examples Name

Zero-degree 5 Constant
First-degree x or 4x + 5 Linear
Second-degree 2x2, x2 - 16, or x2 – 3x + 4 Quadratic
Third-degree 4x3 or -x3 – 27 Cubic
Fourth-degree 7x4 or 3x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 8 Quartic
Fifth-degree 2x5 or x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x Quintic
The following video quickly shows how to graph a cubic function using a table of values. The domain of a
polynomial function is the set of inputs to the function that produces valid outputs. The range is the set of all
values that can be generated by the function. In general, the range for most functions whose domain is
unrestricted is the set of all real numbers.
Sample lessons:
• In the following lesson, students write equations to match graphs of cubic functions and to sketch
graphs of cubic functions based on equations. While you are reading this lesson, do you think it would
fall at the beginning, middle or end of a unit on polynomial functions?
• In The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra students will identify both real and complex zeros of
polynomials.
There are numerous ways to solve polynomial equations. The following website explores the remainder and
factor theorems.
Rational Functions
A rational function is a function that is expressed as the ratio of two polynomials. Examples of rational
functions are:
1 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 6
𝑦𝑦 = , 𝑦𝑦 = , 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 − 3
Graphing rational functions can be problematic, since we cannot have zero in the denominator. For this
reason, we have asymptotes of rational functions. An asymptote is a line or curve that approaches a given
curve as one of the variables in the equations of the curve approaches infinity. To learn more about
asymptotes and graphing rational functions, students can refer to the following site. The domains of most
rational functions must be restricted to values of x that will not make the denominator of the function equal
to zero. The range can be found by finding the inverse of the function and determining its domain.
Sample Lessons:
• “Light it Up” is a cooperative learning activity where students are presented with a real-world problem:
Given a mirror and laser pointer, determine the best position where on should stand so that a reflected
light image will hit a designated target. This investigation allows students to develop several rational
functions that models three specific forms of a rational function. Students explore the relationships
between the graph, the equation, and the problem context.
• Ahoy again! What can you see now? Building Rational Functions is a lesson that will develop a non-
linear model and formally define and apply inverse and direct variation.
• Radical Mathematical is a lesson where students will solve radical equations, showing how extraneous
solutions may arise. Students will solve radical equations that model real-world relationships.
• Speed dating – simplifying rational expressions
Radical Functions
Radical functions involve the square root of the independent variable. Examples of radical functions are:
5
𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 2, 𝑦𝑦 = 2√2𝑥𝑥 + 9
Graphing radical functions follows similar processes as plotting other functions. Students can create a table of
values and use those values to plot the graph. When finding the domain and range for a radical function, one
must first decide of the index of the radical is an odd or an even number. If the index is an odd number, for
example cube root, then the domain and range would be all real numbers. If the index is an even number, for
example square root, then the domain for the expression inside the radical must be greater than or equal to
zero, because we are working with positive roots. The range is all of the points of the y-axis that relates to the
given values of the domain.
The following lesson, “Graphs of Radical Functions” students will describe how different parameters affect the
graphs of radical functions and create designs with these graphs by changing the parameters.
Absolute Value Functions

Absolute value functions are functions that contain an algebraic expression within absolute value symbols.
Examples of absolute value functions are:
𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 |, 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 + 2|, 𝑦𝑦 = −2|𝑥𝑥 + 3|
The following video demonstrates how to graph and find the domain and range of absolute value functions.
Desmos, a dynamic free online graphing calculator, has the capability to graph absolute value equations. Take
a minute to explore the absolute value transformations calculator.
In the lesson Absolute Value Functions: Transformations Day 1, students will using graphing technology to
explore and write their own explanations of transformations of absolute value equations.
In this interactive game, students practice solving absolute value equations.
Piecewise Functions
A piecewise function is a function which is defined to be more than one function. To see an example of a
piecewise functions visit this site.
Below are some sample activities to use when teaching piecewise functions:
• How should I Move? – This lesson is intended as an introduction to various function types, including
linear, exponential and piecewise. Students use a motion detector to understand graphs and
equations.
• Desmos Piecewise Project – Students create a picture or logo using desmos.com
• Dicey Functions – Working in teams, students explore piecewise functions in this self-paced activity.
Competency 008: The teacher understands exponential and logarithmic functions, analyses their algebraic and
“Exponential and logarithmic functions are closely related. This competency reviews the concepts and
applications of exponential and logarithmic functions. The discussion covers the graphs and properties of
these functions, the solution of problems, and the application of the functions to logarithmic scales and
financial mathematics.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 114
Exponential Functions
The Algebra I TEKS require students to: interpret the meaning of the values of a and b in exponential functions
of the form f(x) = abx in real-world problems; graph exponential functions that model growth and decay and
identify key features, including y-intercept and asymptote, mathematical and real-world problems. An
exponential function is defined by the equation 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 where 𝑏𝑏 > 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, and 𝑥𝑥 is any real number. In
the following image, you can compare a linear function, a cubic function and an exponential function.
If you notice, the exponential graph is extremely close to the x-axis on the left side and as it progresses to the
right it grows faster and faster. When 𝑏𝑏 > 1, the graph increases. When 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, the graph decreases.
The following lesson has students graphing exponential functions showing intercepts and end behaviors, key
features of a graph, as well as a review of function notation to evaluate functions for inputs in their domains.
Exponential growth and decay represent amounts which grow or decay by a fixed percent at regular time
intervals.
Sample Exponential Growth and Decay Lessons:
• Too Hot to Handle, Too Cold to Enjoy, has students predicting the right time to take that first sip of any
hot beverage. Unfortunately, the temperature of hot coffee does not decrease steadily (linearly) over
time. If so, it would be easy to predict when to take that first sip. Which function best represents the
rate at which coffee cools: linear, quadratic, square root, absolute value, exponential or logarithmic?
• Students observe a model of exponential decay, and how kidneys filter their blood in Drug Filtering.
They will calculate the amount of a drug in the body over a period of time. Then they will make and
analyze the graphical representation of this exponential function.
• The Math of a Zombie Apocalypse gives resources that show how many ways a zombie apocalypse
scenario can be changed, giving students the chance to figure out exponential growth.
• Making Money and Spreading the Flu has students using exponential functions to model exponential
growth in several real-life situations: spread of flu in a school, bacteria growth and the continuously
compounded interest.
Logarithmic Functions
What are logarithms, and why are they useful? Watch Logarithms, explained to find out.
A logarithmic function is defined by the equation f(x) = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥, where b is any number such that
𝑏𝑏 > 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, and 𝑥𝑥 > 0. The function f(x) = log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 .
Most logarithmic functions have the same shape. The graph is extremely close to the y-axis and it increases as
it moves to the right. When 𝑏𝑏 > 1, the graph increases. When 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, the graph decreases.
In Algebra II, students extend their knowledge of exponential functions from Algebra and graph the functions
f(x)=√x, f(x)=1/x, f(x)=x3, f(x)= 3√x, f(x)=bx, f(x)=|x|, and f(x)=logb(x) where b is 2, 10, and e, and, when
applicable, analyze the key attributes such as domain, range, intercepts, symmetries, asymptotic behavior,
and maximum and minimum given an interval. An understanding of the relationship between exponential and
logarithmic functions is developed in the following lesson by analyzing graphs and identifying the domain,
range, intercepts, asymptotes and end behavior of exponential and logarithmic functions.
Just like subtraction is the inverse operation of addition and division is the inverse operation of multiplication,
logarithms are the inverse operation of exponentials. The relationship for logarithmic and exponential
functions is:
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑦𝑦 is equivalent to log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦
The function defined by 𝑦𝑦 = log 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 is called the natural logarithmic function. 𝑒𝑒 is an irrational
number, approximately 2.71828133. This function is a version of log 𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦.
The following lessons explore a variety of methods for using the laws and properties of exponents and
logarithms to simplify expressions and solve problems:
• In this lesson, students will be able to define logarithmic functions based on their knowledge of
inverses and exponential functions. They will also establish strong connections between exponential
and logarithmic functions
• This interactive resource uses the scenario of a paleontological dig to allow the user to explore the
laws of exponents.
Logarithms can be used to describe natural phenomena. The following are examples of measurement scales
that use logarithms:
• The Richter Scale defines the magnitude of an earthquake.

• Decibels provide a relative measure of sound intensity.
• The pH scale that measures acidity and alkalinity.
Competency 009: The teacher understands trigonometric and circular functions, analyzes their algebraic and
“Trigonometry can be used to systematically describe the relationship between circles, circular functions,
right triangles, and trigonometric functions. This discussion reviews trigonometry in light of the unit circle,
trigonometric functions and their inverses, and the solution of various problems involving these various
concepts. From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 131
Trigonometric Functions
The unit circle is a circle with a radius of one centered at the origin. This circle can be used to find special
trigonometric ratios.
In the Precalculus TEKS, the students are expected to: determine the relationship between the unit circle and
the definition of a periodic function to evaluate trigonometric functions in mathematical and real-world
problems; and describe the relationship between degree and radian measure on the unit circle. There are a
variety of ways to teach the unit circle, the examples below represent just a sampling of lessons and activities
to teach the unit circle:
• Graphs from the Unit Circle – In this lesson, students use uncooked spaghetti to transfer lengths from
the unit circle to a function graph on large butcher paper. In the process, they discover the key
features of sine and cosine graphs. The activity is presented for students working in degrees, but
another version of the handouts is provided for students working in radians.
• Life on the Unit Circle – Board Game for Trig Functions – How to turn the unit circle into a board game
as a practice activity.
• Serving Unit Circle Trigonometry on a Paper Plate – Instructions for students to create their own unit
circle on a paper plate.
While studying Trigonometric functions, students discover that the values repeat at regular intervals, which
makes them periodic functions. The following are critical properties of periodic functions: period (the
horizontal length of one complete cycle), amplitude (is one-half of the positive distance between the
maximum and minimum values of a function), and phase shift (the amount of horizontal shift of function. The
following sample lessons explore graphing trigonometric functions and their inverses:
• Trigonometric Graphing – Students explore amplitude, period, and phase shift by examining the graphs
of various trigonometric functions.
• Ferris Wheel – In this lesson, a traditional textbook problem receives a makeover and is turned into a
dynamic lesson that has students creating and analyzing a sinusoidal graph.
• Desmos Kong – online activity where students explore graphs of trigonometric functions
Trigonometric identities are important relationships that show equivalence. Students can use this site, which
lists some of the more important trigonometric identities and shows examples of using these identities to
simplify expressions, to review these relationships. In the following lesson, students use a calculator to prove
and explore trigonometric identities symbolically, numerically, and graphically. Using a graphing calculator
allows students to quickly see graphs and explore parameters changes without the monotony of having to
physically produce a graph. However, entering a lot of information into a graphing calculator can sometimes
be time consuming, turning students off to the learning. Using an online dynamic graphing calculator can take
an ordinary graphing calculator lesson to a whole new level.
Competency 010: The teacher understands and solves problems using differential and integral calculus.
“This competency reviews limits, the relationship of limits and continuity as well as the fundamental concepts
of differential and integral calculus. The modeling and solving of world problems (including through the use of
technology) using differential and integral calculus is also discussed.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 146
Technology in the classroom has received quite a bit of attention recently, especially in calculus. In the
following article, researches focused on the use of technology in teaching calculus and its role in helping
learners understand the topics presented. While reading this article, think about the following: What
technology resources have you used in your math career? Have these resources helped solidify your
understanding of the math content? How do you hope technology plays a role in your teaching and what
obstacles might you have to overcome?
Differential Calculus
What is differential calculus and why do I need to study it? The following video will give students an
understanding as to the importance of what they are studying.
In differential calculus students study limits, the value that a function approaches as the input approaches a
value. It is important to look at graphical representations when studying limits. The following video gives a
unique perspective on graphing limits. Below are some sample lessons that showcase instruction of limits in a
high school calculus class.
• Introducing Limits – The big idea of this lesson is for students to see that limits, when rooted in
meaningful contexts, are not that complicated.
• Limits and L’Hospital – Students will be able to evaluate one- and two-sided limits algebraically,
evaluate limits of indeterminate form using L’Hospital’s rule in this lesson.
• To Be Continued… - In this lesson, students explore the need for continuity.
The difference quotient is the ratio of the difference in output values to the difference in input values for a
functions. These expressions are used to compute average velocity and the average rate of change over an
interval. The derivative of a function gives the slope of a line tangent to the function. The derivatives of
many functions are well established. These rules help you work out the derivatives of more complicated
functions.
Sample lessons/activities/videos:
• Using the Difference Quotient – Students practice using the difference quotient algebraically and
assess the correctness of their results graphically.
• Interactive Calculus Tool – Master calculus concepts in an interactive environment. Explore graphs
of polynomial functions. Approximate tangent lines, derivative cures, and area. Then see the actual
result of each. Modify graphs and parameters as you work to see if you can improve
approximations.
• The Chain Rule – Students will compute derivatives algebraically involving the chain rule.
• Derivative as slope of a tangent line – Khan Academy video
• Desmos - First Derivative Test – Interactive graphing tool that allows the user to change parameters
of the graph and see the results instantaneously.
The first derivative of a function is the slope of the tangent line to the function. The second derivative of the
function is the derivative of the derivative of that function. In the lesson, The First and Second Derivative
Tests, students identify and classify extrema using the first and second derivative tests. In the following lesson
from Texas Instruments, using the TI Nspire calculator, students identify critical points and local Extrema (the
minimum and maximum values of a function).
Integral Calculus
Integral calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on the properties, and application of integrals. How do
you calculate the integral? Watch the following video and find out. There was a time when we didn’t know
how to do integrals, and we could only use approximation methods. The following video approximates
integrals using Desmos.
Motion, Position, Definite Integral, and Bears is a problem that focuses on definite integrals. Definite integrals
are integrals with upper and lower limits. In this problem you will use definite integrals to answer questions
about the motion of a grizzly bear as it stalks its prey.
In the following video some of techniques used in solving integrals including u-substitution, integration by
parts, and partial fractions will be shown.
The following lessons use the techniques used in the video.
• U-Substitution (Part 1 of 2) and (Part 2 of 2) – Students will integrate basic functions using u-
substitution to account for the chain rule
• Integration by parts – In this activity students will investigate the product rule of differentiation and
integration by parts.
• Partial Fraction Decomposition – Students will write rational expressions as a sum of partial fractions.
Conclusion
Although algebra is abstract in nature, algebraic thinking begins very early when children notice something
that consistently changes and they describe what is happening. Algebra takes what the child notices and
allows them to make generalizations to the world around them. "Algebra is the intellectual instrument which
has been created for rendering clear the quantitative aspects of the world." -Alfred North Whitehead
Resources:
• Vertical Alignment Chart for Grades 5 – Algebra 2 -
http://jukebox.esc13.net/PSgateway/vertical_alignment/docs/Gateway5A1VAChart.pdf
• Lesson - Illuminations – “Walk the Plank” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2347
• Annenberg Learner – Algebra Workshop 5 – Understanding Basic Recursion -
http://www.learner.org/workshops/algebra/workshop5/index2.html#3
• Annenberg Learning – Folding and Kneading Dough -
http://www.learner.org/courses/mathilluminated/units/13/textbook/05.php#folding
• Lesson – Illuminations – The Devil and Daniel Webster -
http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=1135
• Lesson – Illuminations – Trout Pond Population - http://illuminations.nctm.org/lesson.aspx?id=1549
• Lesson – Eeek, Cobwebs! -
http://www.colorado.edu/education/DMP/activities/iteration_recursion/lsact06.html
• Coolmath – Mathematical Induction - http://www.public.asu.edu/~royal/TOH-lesson.htm
• Towers of Hanoi Lesson - http://www.public.asu.edu/~royal/TOH-lesson.htm
• An Introduction to Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences -
http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci399TSMsu02/students/mckechni/LessonPlans/Final_Lesson_Project/
IntroPage.html
• Betterlesson – Geometric Sequences - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/461892/geometric-sequences
• M&M Interesting - http://ecedweb.unomaha.edu/lessons/M&M6-8.pdf
• Shodor – Number Cruncher - http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/NumberCruncher/
• OnTRACK – Determining if a Relationship is Functional Relationship -
http://projectsharetexas.org/resource/determining-if-relationship-functional-relationshipontrack-
algebra-1-module-1-lesson-3
• One-to-One mapping - http://www.mathwarehouse.com/algebra/relation/images2/one-to-one-
functions/one-to-one-function-with-arrow-chart-vs-regular-function-arrow-chart.png
• OnTRACK – Domain and Range - http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/domain-and-range-
%E2%80%93-numerical-representations-ontrack-algebra-2-module-1-lesson-1
• Transformation card sort - https://partiallyderivative.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/card-matching-
game.docx
• Parent function transformations - http://www.shelovesmath.com/algebra/advanced-algebra/parent-
graphs-and-transformations/
• Betterlesson – “Compositions, Inverses & Role Play: Extending Concepts to Exponential Functions” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/434774/compositions-inverses-role-play-extending-concepts-to-
exponential-functions
• Article – Mathematics Teacher, “Slope, Rate of Change, and Steepness: Do Students Understand These
Concepts?” -
http://www.hoodriver.k12.or.us/cms/lib06/OR01000849/Centricity/Domain/860/Slope%20Rate%20of
%20Change%20and%20Steepness%20Do%20Students%20Understand%20These%20Concepts.pdf
• Betterlesson – Slope as Rate of Change – Day 1 - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/460599/slope-as-a-
rate-of-change-day-1-of-2
• Betterlesson – Slope as Rate of Change – Day 2 - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/466976/slope-as-a-
rate-of-change-day-2-of-2
• OnTRACK Lesson - Developing the Concept of Slope -
http://projectsharetexas.org/resource/developing-concept-slope-0
• Review Game - Blockbusters – Writing Equations -
http://www.ilovemath.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=224
• Bull's Eye worksheet - find the slope between the points, to write the point-slope form of the line, and
to write the standard form of the line -
http://www.ilovemath.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=44
• Slope-Intercept Form Battleship - http://iisanumber.blogspot.com/2013/02/slope-intercept-form-
battleship.html
• Standard Form Interactive Notebook - http://mathequalslove.blogspot.com/2012/12/standard-form-
of-linear-equation.html
• Point-Slope Form notes - https://www.scribd.com/doc/113159550/Summary-Web-for-Point-Slope-
Form
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Recognizing linear functions” Model Lesson -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/recognizing-linear-functions-core-challenge
• Using Matrices to Solve a System of Equations or Simultaneous Equations -
http://www.onlinemathlearning.com/simultaneous-equations-matrices.html
• Lesson - Making Connection: Matrices, Graphs, and Linear Systems -
https://www.nsa.gov/academia/_files/collected_learning/high_school/algebra/making_connections.p
df
• Virtual Nerd – What is the discriminant? - http://www.virtualnerd.com/tutorials/?id=Alg1_12_02_0008
• LearnZillion – Solve a quadratic equation: using a graph - https://learnzillion.com/lessons/279-solve-a-
quadratic-equation-using-a-graph
• Video - Factoring a trinomial with the leading coefficient of 1 - http://www.virtualnerd.com/algebra-
2/quadratics/solve-equations-by-factoring/factoring-strategies/trinomial-factorization-example
• Lesson – Tic Tac Toe: Factoring of Quadratic Trinomials -
http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResource/Preview/46380
• Activities – Four Fun Ways to Review Factoring Trinomials -
http://www.teachforever.com/2009/03/four-fun-ways-to-review-factoring.html
Video – Shmoop, “Factoring Trianomials of the Type ax2 + bx + c” -
http://www.shmoop.com/video/factoring-trinomials-ax2-bx-c/
• Video – Shmoop, “Solving Quadratic Equations: Completing the Square” -
http://www.shmoop.com/video/solving-quadratic-equations-completing-the-squares
• Video - Virtual Nerd, “How do you solve a quadratic equation by completing the square?” -
http://www.virtualnerd.com/tutorials/?id=Alg1_12_01_0008
• Lesson - Hip to be (completing the) Square –
• http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResource/Preview/48564
• Completing the Square Stations Activity -
https://mrsreillyblog.wordpress.com/2013/03/17/completing-the-square-activity/
• Video – Shmoop, “Solving Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula” -
http://www.shmoop.com/video/solving-quadratic-equations-using-quadratic-formula
• Video – Virtual Nerd, “How do you solve a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula? -
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “The Three Musketeers: Simplifying the Quadratic Formula” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/440225/the-three-musketeers-simplifying-the-quadratic-formula
• Video – Virtual Nerd, ”How do you graph a quadratic function?” -
• Video – Shmoop, “Using the Discriminant” - http://www.shmoop.com/video/using-the-discriminant/
• Lesson – Graphing Quadratic Equation -
• Angry Birds - http://www.teachmathematics.net/page/11419/angry-birds-1
• Matching Graphs Game -
http://makingmathfun.wikispaces.com/file/view/Quadratic%20Matching.pdf/92409664/Quadratic%20
Matching.pdf
• Video – Graphing a cubic function - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFI5PL8iwXs
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “More Cubic Function Graphs” - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/545789/more-
cubic-function-graphs
• Lesson – Betterlesson – The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/443034/the-fundamental-theorem-of-algebra
• Remainder and factor theorem - http://www.intmath.com/equations-of-higher-degree/2-factor-
remainder-theorems.php
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Light it Up” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=1968
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Graphs of Radical Functions” - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/443167/graphs-
of-radical-functions
• Desmos – How to graph absolute values - http://support.desmos.com/hc/en-us/articles/202528889-
Absolute-Values
• Lesson – Radical Mathematical - http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResource/Preview/48675
• Simplifying rational expressions - http://function-of-time.blogspot.com/2009/10/speed-dating.html
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Solving Rational Equations” – http://betterlesson.com/lesson/488204/solving-
rational-equations
• Desmos – Absolute Value Transformations calculator - https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rarxiatpip
• Lesson – Betterlesson – Absolute Value Functions: Transformations Day 1 -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/455910/absolute-value-functions-transformations-day-1
• Absolute Value Equations Millionaire Game - http://www.math-play.com/Absolute-Value-
Equations/Absolute-Value-Equations.html
• Desmos scavenger hunt -
http://web.cerritos.edu/imccance/SitePages/worksheets%20and%20syllabus/Precalc/Scavenger_Hunt
_Ian%20McCance_%20graphing.docx
• Lesson – Illuminations, “How should I Move?” – http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2792
• Piecewise Art Project – http://secondarymissrudolph.blogspot.com/2013/11/piecewise-art.html?m=1
• Desmos Piecewise Project – http://mrshester.blogspot.com/2013/11/desmos-piecewise-
project.html?m=1
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Dicey Functions” – http://betterlesson.com/lesson/433237/dicey-functions-
day-1-piecewise-functions-are-basic-functions-just-cut-up
• Lesson = Betterlesson, “Graphing Exponential Functions” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/443580/graphing-exponential-functions
• Exponential growth and decay -
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algebra/AE7/ExpDecayL.htm
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Too Hot to Handle, Too Cold to Enjoy” -
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Drug Filtering” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/lesson.aspx?id=3081
• The Math of a Zombie Apocalypse - http://www.teq.com/blog/2013/03/the-math-of-a-zombie-
apocalypse/#.VZ71ivlVhBf
• Lesson – ”Making Money and Spreading the Flu” -
https://www.nsa.gov/academia/_files/collected_learning/high_school/algebra/making_money_spread
ing_flu.pdf
• Video – “What Logarithms, explained – Steve Kelly” - http://ed.ted.com/lessons/steve-kelly-
logarithms-explained
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “The graphs of logarithmic and exponential functions” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/458477/the-graphs-of-logarithmic-and-exponential-functions
• Laws and Properties of Exponents and Logarithms - http://faculty.wlc.edu/buelow/PRC/nt4-3.htm
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Exponential Functions and Logarithms – Connecting the Dots” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/434775/exponential-functions-and-logarithms-connecting-the-dots
• Interactive resource - explore the laws of exponents -
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/mejhm/index.html?l=0&ID1=AB.MATH.JR.NUMB&ID2=AB.MATH.
JR.NUMB.EXPO&lesson=html/object_interactives/exponent_laws/use_it.html
• Richter Scale - http://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/Insight/Insight17.pdf
• Decibel Scale - http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/dB.htm
• pH Scale - http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-
projects/project_ideas/Chem_AcidsBasespHScale.shtml
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Graphs from the Unit Circle” –
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Unit Circle Cake Walk” – http://betterlesson.com/lesson/576045/unit-circle-
cake-walk-and-other-fun-unit-circle-activities
• Life on the Unit Circle – Board Game for Trig Functions –
http://cheesemonkeysf.blogspot.com/2014/07/life-on-unit-circle-board-game-for-trig.html
• Serving Unit Circle Trigonometry on a Paper Plate –
http://www.lcsd.logan.k12.ut.us/curriculum/mathematics/paper_plate_unit_circle.pdf
• Lesson - Illuminations – “Trigonometric Graphing” –
http://illuminations.nctm.org/Activity.aspx?id=3589
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Tides and Temperatures –http://betterlesson.com/lesson/526115/tides-and-
temperatures-trig-graphs-in-action
• Lesson – Dan Meyer, “Ferris Wheel” – http://blog.mrmeyer.com/2013/makeover-ferris-wheel/
• Desmos Kong – online activity where students explore graphs of trigonometric functions
• Showcase Teaching Unit on Inverse Trigonometric Functions –
https://prezi.com/nlz_qknbacfu/showcase-teaching-unit-inverse-trigonometric-functions/
• Trigonometric Identities - http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/algtrig/att9/morepythag.htm
• Lesson – Prove and apply trigonometric identities-
http://betterlesson.com/community/lesson/443693/prove-and-apply-trigonometric-identities-part-1
• Sine of the Times - http://sine-of-the-times.blogspot.com/2014/11/trigonometric-regressions-with-
desmos.html
• Article – Technology and Calculus - https://homepages.warwick.ac.uk/staff/David.Tall/pdfs/dot2008f-
piez-smith-tall-calculus.pdf
• Video – Real Life Application of Differential Calculus -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0sApcfs0gBg
• Video – Graphing and Visualizing Limits - http://www.shmoop.com/video/graphing-and-visualizing-
limits
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Introducing Limits” –http://betterlesson.com/lesson/463652/introducing-limits
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Limits and L’Hospital” –http://betterlesson.com/lesson/576435/limits-and-l-
hospital
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “To Be Continued…” - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/465897/to-be-continued
• Texas Instruments - Difference quotient -
https://education.ti.com/html/t3_free_courses/calculus84_online/mod09/mod09_lesson3.html
• Derivative Rules - https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/derivatives-rules.html
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Using the Difference Quotient” –
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/474523/using-the-difference-quotient
• Interactive Calculus Tool –http://illuminations.nctm.org/Activity.aspx?id=3570
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “The Chain Rule” –http://betterlesson.com/lesson/507210/the-chain-rule
• Video – Khan Academy, “Derivative as slope of a tangent line” –
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-calculus/taking-
derivatives/derivative_intro/v/calculus-derivatives-1-new-hd-version
• Desmos - First Derivative Test – https://www.desmos.com/calculator/dlbxpkrypf
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “The First and Second Derivative Tests” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/522241/the-first-and-second-derivative-tests
• Lesson – Texas Instruments – Calculus: Critical Points and Local Extrema -
https://education.ti.com/en/timathnspired/us/detail?id=5DFE1945DCAC46B1B54F116AB362BC9D&t=
E990A0CFBE4A4B2CAF83A1416EA537B8
• Video – Integrals - Calculus https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjLkuYtxCrc
• Video – Approximating Integrals with Desmos - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITV8o_f8NHg
• Problem – “Motion, Position, Definite Integral, and Bears” - http://www.calculus-help.com/15-a-
grizzly-motion-problem/
• Video – Solving Integrals -https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcCWWBBaz2w
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “U-Substitution (Part 1 of 2)”- http://betterlesson.com/lesson/541331/u-
substitution-part-1-of-2
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “U-Substitution (Part 2 of 2)” – http://betterlesson.com/lesson/541535/u-
substitution-part-2-of-2
• Lesson - Integration by parts –
https://education.ti.com/en/us/activity/detail?id=4A698863425A45889059A7859242251E
• Lesson – Betterlesson, “Partial Fraction Decomposition” –
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/566081/partial-fraction-decomposition
Domain 3
Geometry and Measurement
Competency 011: The teacher understands measurement as a process.

“This discussion reviews measurement in the context of unit analysis, various parameters of two- and three-
dimensional figures, the Pythagorean theorem, and right triangle trigonometry. The section concludes with a
review of Riemann sums as applied to the area under a curve.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 185
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis, also known as the factor-label method or unit-factor method, is a technique used to
convert between units using ratios between different unit systems. In the seventh grade Texas Essential
Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), students are expected to convert between measurement systems, including the
use of proportions and the use of unit rates. Previously students converted within a measurement system
using proportions and unit rates, but this is the first time they are expected to convert between systems.
This process can be confusing to students, because they sometimes try to memorize what operation to
perform instead of understanding the process. With dimensional analysis, it is important to walk students
through the process of several easy conversions before having them solve difficult multi-step conversions. This
will allow them to understand the process, and apply their learning to more difficult and unique situation. The
following video, “convert units using dimensional analysis” will demonstrate such a process. When you are
watching the video focus your attention on how the teacher scaffolds student understanding to allow them to
solve the more difficult problem introduced at the beginning of the video.
Perimeter, Area, Surface Area and Volume

The TEKS are very methodical in their progression of perimeter, area, surface area, and volume of geometric
figures and shapes. The following document, from TEA, is a Vertical Alignment Chart for Grades 5 – 8 to
Geometry. This vertical alignment chart lets you track the progression of geometry skills from 5th to 6th, 6th to
7th, 7th to 8th, and finally 8th to Geometry. If we take a look at pages 18 and 19 of the document, we can see the
progression of perimeter, area and volume. In 5th grade, students use concrete objects and pictorial models to
develop the formulas for the volume of a rectangular prism, and represent and solve problems related to
perimeter and/or area and related to volume. 5th grade students also recognize a cube with side length of one
unit as a unit cube having one cubic unit of volume and the volume of a three-dimensional figure as the
number of unit cubes need to fill it with no gaps or overlaps, and determine the volume of a rectangular prism
relating the number of layers multiplied by the number of unit cubes in the area of the base. In 6th grade
students model area formulas for parallelograms, trapezoids, and triangles by decomposing and rearranging
parts of the shapes. Students also write equations that represent and determine solutions for problems
related to area of rectangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, and triangles and volume of right rectangular prisms.
7th grade students model relationships between the volume of a rectangular prism and a rectangular pyramid
to connect that relationship to the formulas. Students are also expected to explain verbally and symbolically
the relationship between the volume of a triangular prism and a triangular pyramid and connect that
relationship to the formulas. 7th grade is the first time students explore circles, particularly using models to
determine the approximate formulas for the circumference and area of a circle and connect the models to the
actual formulas, as well as determining the actual circumference and area of circles. 8th grade builds on the
knowledge of 7th grade by describing the volume formula of a cylinder in terms of its base area and height; as
well as modeling the relationship between the volume of a cylinder and a cone and connect that relationship
to the formulas. Once students make these connections, they can use formulas to solve problems involving
the volume of cylinders, cones, and spheres. When students reach Geometry they will apply the formulas for
the volume of three-dimensional figures, including prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders, spheres, and composite
figures, to solve problems using appropriate units of measure.
Take a few minutes to look on page 20 to explore the topic of surface area and its’ progression through the
years. Which grade level introduces surface area? How does this grade level teach surface area (through
discovery of formula, modeling formula, applying formula, etc.)? Which grade level are students working
strictly with formulas for lateral and total surface area?
Below are some sample online resources for application of formulas from Project share, an interactive and
engaging learning environment open for all Texas public and open enrollment charter schools. As you look
through these lessons, consider how you would use these in your classroom. Would you use this for whole
group instruction, guided practice, independent practice, group work, etc.?
7th Grade:
Estimating and Solving for Volume of Prisms
Estimating and Solving for Volume of Pyramids
Estimating Measurements: Area
Determining Area of Composite Figures
Finding Lateral and Total Surface Area
8th Grade:
Using Models to Connect to and Understand Volume Formulas
Estimating Measurements and Using Formulas: Volume
Estimating Measurements and Using Models and Formulas: 3-Dimensional Figures
Estimating Measurements and Using Formulas: Surface Area
Pythagorean Theorem
Let’s go back and take a look at the Vertical Alignment Chart for Grades 5 – 8 to Geometry. This time we are
going to look at when the Pythagorean Theorem is first introduced to students. On page 22 you will see that
the Pythagorean Theorem is first introduced in 8th grade. Students are expected to use models and diagrams
to explain the Pythagorean Theorem, use the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse to solve problems, and
use the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the distance between two points. It is important to have students
discover the Pythagorean Theorem rather than just giving them the formula. When students discover a
formula, then conceptualize why the formula works. If students have a strong foundational understanding of
Pythagorean Theorem, no matter how the question is posed, they can manipulate the equation to find the
answer to the problem posed.
Below are two different methods where students discover the Pythagorean Theorem. When watching these
videos consider the following questions: What strategies does the teacher use to prepare students for the
challenges posed? How does the teacher guide students to discover vs. memorizing the Pythagorean
Theorem? Which more closely represents what the TEKS are asking students to do? How could you extend the
lesson, to incorporate the TEKS?
Video 1 - Challenging Students to Discover Pythagoras
Video 2 - Inquiry in the Pythagorean Theorem
Students extend their learning of the Pythagorean Theorem when they enter Geometry to apply the
relationships in special right triangles 30°-60°-90° and 45°-45°-90° and the Pythagorean Theorem, including
Pythagorean triples, to solve problems. The goal of the following lesson plan from LearnZillion, “Develop an
understanding of and apply special right triangle rules by finding missing side lengths of right triangles”, is to
allow students to see the pattern that occurs with the side lengths of special right triangles. Students will
then create their own "rule" to use in finding unknown side lengths of these special triangles. This should
allow them the opportunity to understand why the rule works and will make it more personal since they
developed the rule. As you are reading through this lesson, pay special attention to the Teacher’s notes on the
right hand side of the screen. These notes will guide you through the lesson from the teacher’s point of view.
Integral Calculus and Riemann Sums

Finding the area under a curve, can be difficult due to its odd shape. There are two ways to calculate the area
under a curve. You can either estimate the area using basic geometric calculations, or you can find the exact
area using integrals.
Let’s first look at estimating the area using basic geometric calculations. Before integration was developed,
we could only approximate the area under a curve by dividing the space into rectangles and adding the areas
of those rectangles, known as finding the Riemann Sum. Below are three different takes on Riemann Sums,
using different modalities. The first is a notes page that walks through the process of solving Riemann Sums,
the second is a video showing how to solve Riemann Sums, and third is an interactive lesson about Riemann
Sums. Think about which modality you preferred. Do you see importance to having lessons based on these 3
modalities?
• Notes - Approximating area under a curve with rectangles

• Video – Riemann Sums – Right, Left, and Midpoint
• Interactive Lesson – The Area Under a Curve
The integral of a function models the area underneath the graph of a function. An integral is sometimes called
the anti-derivative, because it is a function of which a given function is the derivative (in other words, which
yields that function when differentiated). The following video explains the connection between Riemann Sums
and finding the exact area under a curve.
Competency 012: The teacher understands geometries, in particular Euclidian geometry, as axiomatic systems.
“Euclidean geometry is the study of the properties of two-dimensional (planar) and three-dimensional (sold)
figures. It (like other axiomatic systems) is based on certain undefined terms (or concepts) and a set of self-
evident statements or axioms. Starting from these building blocks, deductive reasoning is used to prove a set
of propositions or theorems. Euclidean geometry is based on the undefined terms of point, line, and plane,
which, along with certain axioms, can be used to derive the properties of different geometric figures. The
axioms and theorems and the process of formal proof provide a consistent logical framework that can be used
to derive further results. The following review of geometric concepts provides a basic overview of proof
relating to geometry, as well as the characteristics of various types of polygons, circles, compound shapes, and
three-dimensional figures.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 200-201
Euclidean Geometry as an Axiomatic System
One of the major goals of a Geometry classroom is to think and reason well. This is the true purpose of solving
proofs. “A geometric proof involves writing reasoned, logical explanations that use definitions, axioms,
postulates, and previously proved theorems to arrive at a conclusion about a geometric statement. A good
proof has an argument that is clearly developed with each step supported by:
• Theorems: statements that can be proved to be true

• Postulates: statements that are assumed to be true without proof (for example, an angle has only one
bisector)
• Axioms: self-evident truths or the basic facts that are accepted without any proof (for example, a
straight line can be drawn between any two points)
Proofs are commonly written in two columns, where the statements are listed in one column and the reasons
for each statement's truth are listed in another column.” http://www.chegg.com/homework-
help/definitions/geometric-proof-63
Euclidean Geometry is the study of flat, two-dimensional space. An Axiomatic system is a set of axioms used to
define theorems. An axiom is a statement that is considered true and does not need a proof. In Euclidian
geometry there are just 5 axioms:
1. A straight line can be drawn from any one point to any other point.
2. A line segment can be extended infinitely in both directions.
3. A circle can be described with a center and a radius.
4. All right angles are equal to each other.
5. If a line intersecting two lines forms interior angles less than 90 degrees, then the two lines will
intersect on the same side as the angles that are less than 90 degrees. (also known as the Parallel
Postulate)
The following is a partial listing of the more popular theorems, postulates and properties
needed when working with Euclidean proofs.
The following are some quick definitions of the basic properties of points, lines, planes, angles, lengths, and
distances will help students as they solve various geometric problems.
Point • Undefined
• A point has no size, no
dimension.
• It is a location in space.
• Points are named using capital
letters.
Line • Undefined
• A line is made up of an infinite
number of points that go on
without end in both directions.
• A line has one dimension, length.
• A line can be named with a single
lowercase script letter or by two
points on the line.
Ray • Part of a line
• A ray has a definite starting point
and extends without end in one
direction.
• A ray is named using the
endpoint first, then another
point on the ray.
Line Segment • A line segment is part of a line
containing two endpoints and all
points between them.
• A line segment is named using
the endpoints.
Collinear • Points that lie on the same line.
Non-collinear • Points that do not all lie on the

same line.
Plane • Undefined
• A flat surface that extends
without end in all directions.
• It has two dimensions, length and
width.
• A plane can be named by three
non-collinear points or by a
single uppercase script letter.
• A parallelogram is used to model
a plane.
Coplanar • Points that lie in the same plane.
Non-coplanar • Points that do not lie in the same

plane.
Parallel lines • Lines in the same plane that are
always the same distance apart.
• They do not intersect.
Perpendicular • Lines that form a 90° angle at

lines their intersection
Skew lines • Lines that are not in the same

plane and do not intersect.
Properties of Parallel Lines

Euclid’s’ Parallel Postulate states that if a line intersecting two lines forms interior angles less than 90 degrees,
then the two lines will intersect on the same side as the angles that are less than 90 degrees. In the video
from TedEd “Euclid’s Puzzling Parallel Postulate”, Jeff Dekofsky shows how mathematical minds have put the
postulate to the test and led to larger questions of how we understand mathematical principles. In the
following lesson, “Looking More Carefully at Parallel Lines”, students learn how to prove the alternate interior
angles theorem using the parallel postulate. The TEKS require eight grade students to use informal arguments
to establish facts about the angle sum and exterior angle of triangles, the angles created when parallel lines
are cut by a transversal, and the angle-angle criterion for similarity of triangles. The following is a lesson that
can be used for Proving the Alternate Interior Angles Theorem. Pay careful attention to the
misconception/error section of this lesson, which will give insight in to where students struggle the most with
this topic.
The three angles inside a triangle are known as the interior angles of the triangle. The sum of the measures of
the interior angles of a triangle is 180°. The following lesson has eighth grade students presenting informal
arguments to draw conclusions about the angle sum of a triangle.
Congruence and Similarity
Congruent figures are known to have corresponding angles and sides that are equal in measure. When looking
at triangles we would need to show that all pairs of corresponding angles are congruent and that all pairs of
corresponding sides are congruent to prove that they are congruent. Fortunately, we do not have to show all
six of these congruent parts each time we want to show that triangles are congruent. There are 6 methods
that will allow us to quickly prove that two triangles are congruent. They are:
• Side Side Side (SSS) Postulate – if three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of another
triangle, then the two triangles are congruent
• Side Angle Side (SAS) Postulate – if two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to
two sides and the included angle of another triangle, then these two triangles are congruent
• Angle Side Angle (ASA) Postulate – If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to
the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent
• Angle Angle Side (AAS) Postulate – two angles and the non-included side of one triangle are congruent
to two angles and the non-included angle of another triangle, then these two triangles are congruent
• Hypotenuse Leg (HL) Theorem – any two right triangles that have a congruent hypotenuse and a
corresponding, congruent leg are congruent triangles
• CPCTC – corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent
The following video is a tutorial on using SSS, SAS, ASA to prove triangle congruency using 2 column proofs. A
tutorial of this nature, would provide students who struggle while doing their homework an opportunity to
review the lesson again at their own pace.
When two figures are similar, the ratios of the lengths of their corresponding sides are equal. Just as we had
for congruence, there are 3 methods that we can use to easily prove that two triangles are similar. They are:
• Angle Angle (AA) Similarity Postulate – if two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of
another triangle, the triangles are similar.
• SSS Similarity Theorem – if the three sets of corresponding sides of two triangles are in proportion, the
triangles are similar
• SAS Similarity Theorem – If an angle of one triangle is congruent to the corresponding angle of another
triangle and the lengths of the sides including these angles are in proportion, the triangles are similar.
The following lesson, “Proving that Triangles are Similar”, is from Betterlesson a free online lesson resource for
teachers.
Geometric Constructions and Technology

Compass-and-straightedge construction, also known as classical construction, is the accurate construction of
shapes, angles or lines. The only tools needed to make these constructions are a compass, a straightedge and
a pencil. Geometric constructions allow students to get hands-on experience in drawing the shapes that they
have been analyzing. The best way to learn about geometric construction is to roll up your sleeves, grab your
tools and start constructing. Students tend to find this process daunting, because they watch the teacher at
the front of the room construct a shape on the board, and they need to emulate the same actions at their
desks. It was often difficult to see, and the manipulation of the compass is sometimes tricky. The following site
animates geometric constructions so teachers and students can see exactly how to make each figure. Take
some time to browse through the constructions. Is this something that you see more useful for students to
use during class or outside of class time? In the following video “Using Technology for Hard-to-Teach
Concepts”, students use geometry software to construct figures with given information. While watching the
video consider the following questions: How does the geometry software increase efficiency and allow more
time to address reasoning skills? How does the teacher differentiate her lesson for 3 different groups?
Competency 013: The teacher understands the results, uses and applications of Euclidian geometry.
“Various aspects of Euclidean geometry are covered in this section, including the properties of polygons and
circles, cross sections and nets, and using various views of three-dimensional figures to facilitate accurate and
complete representations of these figures.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 219
Properties of Polygons
A closed plane figure composed of line segments that are joined together is a polygon. Click on the following
link to explore the different types, formulas, parts, special polygons, and names of polygons. The following
lessons on properties of polygons are from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
Illuminations website. “Sorting Polygons” has students identifying and classifying polygons according to
various attributes. They then sort the polygons in Venn Diagrams, according to these attributes. In “Polygon
Capture” students classify polygons according to more than one property at a time. In the context of a game,
students move from a simple description of shapes to an analysis of how properties are related. Instead of
considering the diagonals within a quadrilateral, “Diagonals to Quadrilaterals” provides a unique opportunity:
students start with the diagonals and deduce the type of quadrilateral that surrounds them. Using an applet,
students explore certain characteristics of diagonals and the quadrilaterals that are associated with them.
Properties of Circles
In seventh grade, students work with the properties of circles for the first time. They are expected to use
models to approximate the formulas for the circumference and area of a circle and connect the models to the
actual formulas; as well as determine the circumference and area of circles using the formulas. Using a circle
that has been divided into congruent sectors, students will discover the area formula by using their knowledge
of parallelograms in the lesson “Discovering the Area Formula for Circles”. Students will then calculate the
area of various flat circular objects that they have brought to school. Finally, students will investigate various
strategies for estimating the area of circles.
In Geometry, students use the mathematical process standards to understand geometric relationships and
apply theorems and equations about circles. The student is expected to:
• (A) apply theorems about circles, including relationships among angles, radii, chords, tangents, and
secants, to solve non-contextual problems;
• (B) apply the proportional relationship between the measure of an arc length of a circle and the
circumference of the circle to solve problems;
• (C) apply the proportional relationship between the measure of the area of a sector of a circle and the
area of the circle to solve problems;
• (D) describe radian measure of an angle as the ratio of the length of an arc intercepted by a central
angle and the radius of the circle; and
• (E) show that the equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius r is x2 + y2 = r2 and determine
the equation for the graph of a circle with radius r and center (h, k), (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 =r2.
In the following lesson, “Arc Lengths and Sector Areas” students will work in cooperative groups to discover
the relationships between arc length, central angle measure, and circumference. They will also discover the
relationship between circle area, central angle measures, and sector area. Students will share their
discoveries and create formulas for calculating arc length and sector area. Then they will practice these skills
in a journal entry and solving a real-life extension.
Cross Sections, Nets and Three-Dimensional Views
The teacher in the following video, “Visualizing Geometry,” has students using manipulatives to build and
draw representations of three-dimensional figures from the front, top, and side view perspectives, as well as
visualizing and analyzing cross-sectional views of three-dimensional figures. As you watch this video, pay
particular attention to the students and their behavior during this lesson. Is the teacher meeting the majority
of the students learning styles?
• Cross Sections – Upon completion of this lesson, students will: understand the concept of cross-
sections; gain experience manipulating polygons, ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas; learn the
difference between ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas, and circles as they relate to conic sections; gain an
intuitive understanding of the relationship between cross sections of three-dimensional objects and
two-dimensional figures; and discover the relationships between the number of faces of a three-
dimensional figure and its two-dimensional cross-sections. Make sure to take time to play with the
interactive cross section flyer when reading through this activity.
• Euler’s Theorem – In this lesson, students will learn about a property of polyhedra known as Euler's
Theorem. Euler's Theorem says that there is a relationship among the faces (F), vertices (V), and edges
(E) that is true for every polyhedron. Students will discover the formula using the animation to help
them count the faces, vertices and edges, looking for patterns in the table.
• Building Using the Front-Right-Top View - Students explore drawing the front-right-top view when
given a three dimensional figure built from cubes. Students also explore building a three dimensional
figure when given the front-right-top view.
Competency 014: The teacher understands coordinate, transformational and vector geometry and their
connections.
“This section reviews various aspects of transformational, coordinate, and vector geometry. Different types of
transformations and symmetries are discussed, followed by coordinate geometry (including the use of vectors
and matrices for representing transformations) and conic sections.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 234
Transformational Geometry
Transformational Geometry is an approach that involves the movement of an object through rotations,
reflections and translations to produce an image. In the following video, “Carousel Activity: Rotating through
Geometry Stations”, the teacher has students in collaborative groups rotating through learning stations to
learn geometric transformations. While watching this video consider the following questions: How can this
strategy increase student engagement and productivity? What must be in place for stations to work smoothly
in the classroom?
The following lessons introduce students to translations, rotations, and reflections. Both use simulations to
explore these topics. How do simulations in the classroom enhance and/or hinder learning?
• Flip-n-Slide: Exploring Transformations through Modeling and Computer Games - In this lesson,
students will explore reflections, translations and rotations. Students participate in a modeling activity
where they will learn the rules for translations and reflections. Then students will practice using these
transformations, as well as explore the rules for rotations, in the game “Flip-n-Slide” on Calculation
Nation.
• Shodor – Translations, Reflections, and Rotations – In this lesson, students will practice translations,
reflections, and rotations of two-dimensional objects on the coordinate plane.
Dilation and Symmetry
A dilation is where a shape expands or contracts to form a similar shape. This is like hitting the zoom feature
when looking at a picture. The following sample middle school lesson uses GeoGebra, a multi-platform
mathematics software that give students the chance to link between geometry and algebra in an entirely new,
visual way. Take time to explore GeoGebra, browsing lessons for dilations.
A figure has symmetry when there is another figure made up of exactly similar parts facing each other or
around an axis. Reflectional symmetry is a type of symmetry where one half of the object is the mirror image
of the other. An object has rotational symmetry if there is a center point around which the object is turned a
certain number of degrees and the object looks the same. Translational symmetry occurs from moving a figure
a certain distance in a certain direction by a vector. Tessellations are an example of translational symmetry.
Coordinate Geometry Proofs
Proofs that involve midpoints, slope, and distance are called coordinate proofs. Coordinate proofs rely on the
properties of geometry plus the following properties from algebra:
Distance Formula 𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2

𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1
Slope Formula 𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
Midpoint Formula (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ( , )
2 2
The slope of a
𝑚𝑚 = 0
horizontal line
The slope of a
𝑚𝑚 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
vertical line
Parallel lines 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2
Perpendicular −1
If the slope of line 1 is 𝑚𝑚, then the slope of the perpendicular line is
lines 𝑚𝑚
Sample Lesson: “On the Plane – Coordinate Geometry Proofs” students use coordinate geometry to prove
properties of triangles and line.
In the following article from Mathematics Teacher, “Reinforcing Geometric Properties with Shapedoku”,
geometry teacher Jennifer Nickell used Shapedoku in her classroom as a supplemental activity to reinforce the
properties of polygons, specifically special quadrilaterals. She incorporated it for three days after the
coordinate geometry chapter in her honors geometry classes. The students had spent three weeks studying
the distance formula, midpoint, slope, vectors, and coordinate geometry proofs. As you read this article,
consider how you would take Nickell’s idea and adapt it for use in your classroom.
Conic Sections and Vectors
The TEKS for Precalculus require students to determine the conic section formed when a plane intersects a
double-napped cone; make connections between the locus definition of conic sections and their equations in
rectangular coordinates; use the characteristics of an ellipse to write the equation of an ellipse with center
(h, k); and use the characteristics of a hyperbola to write the equation of a hyperbola with center (h, k). “A
conic section is a special class of curves. The curves are best illustrated with the use of a plane and a two
napped cone. When a plane intersects a two-napped cone, conic sections are formed.” The following sample
lessons use interactive tools for students to use to explore conic sections.
• Conic Flyer Equations - This lesson utilizes the geometric interpretations of the various conic sections
to explain their equations.
• Cutting Conics - Students explore and discover conic sections by cutting a cone with a plane. Circles,
ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas are examined using the Conic Section Explorer tool. Physical
manipulatives such as dough can optionally be used as well.
• Conic Sections: Playing with Parabolas - Through a mixture of online exploration, and teacher
instruction, students will discover how parabolas are formed and will be able to use the key
components from a graph to generate the equation of a graph.
• Conic Sections: Playing with Hyperbolas - Through a mixture of online exploration, and teacher
instruction, students will discover how Hyperbolas are formed and will be able to use the key
components to generate the equation of a graph.
Precalculus students are also required to use vectors to model situations involving magnitude and direction;
represent the addition of vectors and the multiplication of a vector by a scalar geometrically and symbolically;
and apply vector addition and multiplication of a vector by a scalar in mathematical and real-world problems.
Quizlet is a study tool resource with flashcards and study games that help reinforce topics learned in class.
Take a moment to explore the Precalculus Vector flashcards. 3D Vectors and the Dot Product is a lesson where
students work with 3D vectors and define the dot product.
Conclusion:
Geometry and measurement is a topic that students see on a daily basis in their environment, but are not
always realized by students. Giving students the opportunity to experience math with hands-on activities
and/or interactive simulations allows them to make connections between themselves and the world that
surrounds them.
Resources:
• Video – LearnZillion, “convert units using dimensional analysis” -
https://learnzillion.com/lessons/2782-convert-units-using-dimensional-analysis
• Vertical Alignment Chart Grades 5-8, Geometry - http://projectsharetexas.org/resource/vertical-
alignment-charts-revised-mathematics-teks?qt-view__resource_content__panel_pane_1=4#qt-
view__resource_content__panel_pane_1
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating and Solving for Volume of Prisms” -
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-and-solving-volume-
prisms?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating and Solving for Volume of Pyramids”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-and-solving-volume-
pyramids?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating Measurements: Area”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-measurements-
area?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Determining Area of Composite Figures”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/determining-area-composite-
figures?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Finding Lateral and Total Surface Area”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/finding-lateral-and-total-surface-
• Lesson – Project Share, “Using Models to Connect to and Understand Volume Formulas”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/using-models-connect-and-understand-volume-
formulas?external_1=23&external_2=517&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating Measurements and Using Formulas: Volume”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-measurements-and-using-formulas-volume-
ontrack-grade-8-math-module-4-lesson-4?external_1=23&external_2=517&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating Measurements and Using Models and Formulas: 3-Dimensional
Figures” http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-measurements-and-using-models-
and-formulas-3-dimensional-figures?external_1=23&external_2=517&external_3=All
• Lesson – Project Share, “Estimating Measurements and Using Formulas: Surface Area”
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/estimating-measurements-and-using-formulas-surface-
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Challenging Students to Discover Pythagoras” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/pythagorean-theorem-lesson
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Inquiry in the Pythagorean Theorem” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/teaching-pythagorean-theorem
• Lesson – LearnZillion, “Develop an understanding of and apply special right triangle rules by finding
missing side lengths of right triangles” - https://learnzillion.com/lesson_plans/229#fndtn-lesson
• Approximating Area Under a Curve with Rectangles Notes -
https://www3.nd.edu/~apilking/Math10550/Lectures/24.%20Areas%20and%20Distances.pdf
• Video – Riemann Sums – Right, Left, and Midpoint - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jJsE-IAMgUI
• Interactive Lesson – Interactive Mathematics, The Area Under a Curve -
http://www.intmath.com/integration/3-area-under-curve.php
• Video – “Integrals – Calculus” - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjLkuYtxCrc
• Theorems and Postulates for Geometry -
http://regentsprep.org/regents/math/geometry/gpb/theorems.htm
• TedEd “Euclid’s puzzling parallel postulate” - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPET_HhN0VM
• Lesson – Looking More Carefully at Parallel Lines -
https://www.engageny.org/file/57386/download/geometry-m1-topic-c-lesson-18-
teacher.pdf?token=9KQPzMSLF3xWWhfyI6IN74eflDTXp-wGG_d_K_NYFc4
• Proving the Alternate Interior Angles Theorem -
• Lesson – EngageNY, “Angle Sum of a Triangle” -
https://www.engageny.org/file/46766/download/math-g8-m2-topic-c-lesson-13-
teacher.pdf?token=u_wBQ-2IffAgrit4pC4ClICxiyDuYzzyoxMFXy576w4
• Side Side Side (SSS) Postulate – http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/side-
side-side-postulate.php
• Side Angle Side (SAS) Postulate –
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/side-angle-side-postulate.php
• Angle Side Angle (ASA) Postulate –
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/angle-side-angle-postulate.php
• Angle Angle Side (AAS) Postulate –
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/angle-angle-side-postulate.php
• Hypotneuse Leg (HL) Theorem –
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/hypotenuse-leg-theorem.php
• CPCTC – http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/congruent_triangles/congruent-parts-CPCTC.php
• Video – “SSS, SAS, ASA to prove triangle congruency (2 column proofs) -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDygthVFJjI
• Angle Angle (AA) Similarity Postulate – http://trianglesimilarities.tripod.com/geometryproject/id1.html
• SSS Similarity Theorem – http://trianglesimilarities.tripod.com/geometryproject/id3.html
• SAS Similarity Theorem – http://trianglesimilarities.tripod.com/geometryproject/id2.html
• Lesson – BetterLesson , “Proving that Triangles are Similar” -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/434998/proving-that-triangles-are-similar
• Mathisfun – Animated Geometric Constructions -
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/constructions.html
• Video – TeachingChannel, “Using Technology for Hard-to-Teach Concepts” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/technology-and-geometry
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Sorting Polygons” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=1072
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Polygon Capture” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/lesson.aspx?id=665
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Diagonals to Quadrilaterals” -
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Discovering the Area Formula for Circles” -
• Lesson – Alex, “Arc Lengths and Sector Areas” - http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=26412
• Video – TeachingChanel, “Visualizing Geometry” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/visualizing-geometry-lesson
• Lesson – Shodor, “Cross Sections” - https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/visualizing-geometry-
lesson
• Lesson – Discover Euler’s Formula - http://www.learner.org/interactives/geometry/euler.html
• Math is Fun – Interactive Rotation – http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/rotation.html
• Math is Fun – Interactive Reflection - http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/reflection.html
• Math is Fun – Interactive Translation - http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/translation.html
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Carousel Activity: Rotating through Geometry Stations” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/carousel-activity-math-lesson
• Dilation Sample Lesson - http://www.mathedpage.org/middle-school/pdf/dilations.pdf
• GeoGebra - https://www.geogebra.org/
• Math is Fun – Reflection Symmetry - https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/symmetry-
reflection.html
• Math is Fun – Rotational Symmetry - http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/symmetry-rotational.html
• Math is Fun - Translational Symmetry (Tessellations) -
http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/tessellation.html
• BetterLesson – On the Plane – Coordinate Geometry Proofs -
http://betterlesson.com/lesson/466170/on-the-plane-coordinate-geometry-proofs
• Article – Mathematics Teacher, “Reinforcing Geometric Properties with Shapedoku” -
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCM
QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nctm.org%2FPublications%2Fmathematics-
teacher%2F2013%2FVol107%2FIssue3%2Fmt2013-10-
188a_pdf%2F&ei=pTSdVZfYMoGyoQSfjIWoBg&usg=AFQjCNHmLzbmMSTlRYkIP2dErTzgTzHuTw
• Mathguide – Conic Sections - http://www.mathguide.com/lessons/ConicSections.html
• Shodor – Conic Flyer Equations - http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/lessons/ConicFlyer/
• Illuminations – Cutting Conics - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2907
• Alex Lesson – Conic Sections: Playing with Parabolas -
http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=32175
• Alex Lesson – Conic Sections: Playing with Hyperbolas -
http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=32207
• Math is fun Vectors - https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/vectors.html
• Quizlet – Vector Flashcards - https://quizlet.com/15722433/precalculus-vectors-flash-cards/
• Betterlesson – 3D Vectors and the Dot Product - http://betterlesson.com/lesson/616127/3d-vectors-
and-the-dot-product
Domain 4
Probability and Statistics
Competency 015: The teacher understands how to use appropriate graphical and numerical techniques to
explore data, characterize patterns and describe departures from patterns.
“This competency reviews basic statistical concepts for analyzing and appropriately describing data
distributions. Measurement scales are discussed, followed by methods of displaying data, quantitative
measure of central tendency and dispersion, linear transformations of data, and other considerations focusing
on the use and applications of statistics.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 265
Merriam-Webster defines statistics as
1: a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of
masses of numerical data
2: a collection of quantitative data
This conjures up images of spreadsheets, charts, graphs, pages spread out with columns of numbers, endless
questions and surveys. Statistics is more than just numbers and how they are organized and presented.
Statistics is also about the process used to find answers through the use of data.
Question – The following are NOT my words. I got them from the following site. Can I quote them?
https://www.learner.org/courses/learningmath/data/session1/part_a/index.html
Four things make a problem statistical: the way in which you ask the question, the role and nature of the data,
the particular ways in which you examine the data, and the types of interpretations you make from the
investigation. A statistics problem typically contains four components:
Asking a question gets the process started. It's important to ask a question carefully, with an understanding of
the data you will use to find your answer.
Collecting data to help answer the question is an important step in the process. You obtain data by measuring
something, so your measurement methods must be chosen with care. Sampling is one way to collect data;
experimentation is another.
Data must be organized, summarized, and represented properly in order to provide good answers to statistical
questions. Also, the data you collect usually vary (i.e., they are not all the same), and you will need to account
for the sources of this variation.
After you analyze your data, you must interpret it in order to provide an answer -- or answers -- to the original
question.
This four-step process for solving statistical problems is the foundation of all the activities in this course. You
will become increasingly familiar with this process as you investigate different statistical problems.
In this video segment, group members use the data they collected to answer their statistical question. The
entire class then discusses related questions suggested by the collected data.
Question: Can we use the previous video? Here is the FAQ from Annenberg Learner: (Course and Video
Licensing Free vs. License Any streamed video from Learner.org may be used in a K-12 classroom or
professional development setting at no charge to the school. Use of video from Annenberg Learner in an
educational setting where tuition is charged, be it a credit or non-credit class, a distance education, or face-to-
face class may require a license. Educators can consult our Distance Learning FAQ and can
contactdistancelearning@learner.org for further information. Full Collection License Schools and universities
may purchase a license to use any video in the entire Annenberg Learner video collection.)
Sample Lesson Plans

In the above video, a frequency table and pie chart were used to organize and represent the group member’s
data. Another tool that we frequently use in middle math is the box plot (also known as the box-and-whisker
plot). A box plot allows you to graphically see the spread of numerical data points through their quartiles. It
also shows you, through the whiskers, the outliers in the data. The following lesson from the Alabama
Learning Exchange, has students constructing a human box plot prior to creating and analyzing them
individually. This is a unique lesson, because we rarely ask students to become the data points, allowing them
to visibly see the different quartiles and medians of the data collected.
Once students understand the concept of organizing and representing data in a visual representation, they can
begin to understand and apply the measures of central tendency and dispersion. Students are often taught
processes for solving problems, instead of guiding them through an exploration of topics. “A MEANingful
Discussion about Central Tendency” is a discovery lesson, from CPALMS. CPALMS is an online toolbox of
information, vetted resources, and interactive tools that helps educators effectively implement teaching
standards. This lesson poses relevant scenarios that student must examine and explore to deepen their
understanding of central tendency. Students will explore salary negotiations for the Los Angeles Lakers and
the use of a see-saw to physically model what the algorithm for an average truly finds. This will lead students
to understand the pairing of the measures of central tendency and spread dictated by the shape of the
distribution.
In the final sample statistics lesson you will explore, students will use Microsoft Excel to breakdown the
formula for calculating the standard deviation of a data set by calculating the formula in a step-by-step
manner. Students will also calculate the standard deviation using the built-in function in Excel. The primary
goal of this activity is for students to analyze the equation for standard deviation so that they understand why
it is a measure of the dispersion of data.
Competency 016: The teacher understands concepts and applications of probability.
“Many phenomena in social sciences can be modeled using probability theory. The results of an experiment
or a set of experiments, whether in the scientific realm, the political realm, or a range of other areas, can be
analyzed using statistics and associated methods of data analysis. This review covers first the elements of
probability theory, including sample spaces, combinations and experiments. The fundamental counting
principles are also discussed, along with probability distributions and simulations of probability.” From TExES
Mathematics 7-12 page 283
When the word probability is heard by many people, one of the first things that come to mind is a game of
chance: rolling the dice, picking a random card from a deck or even playing the lottery. All of these illustrate
the principles of probability.
Probability is one of those topics that you can have a lot of fun with in your classroom with, but can be difficult
for students to learn.
In Texas, the first time probability is introduced to students is in 7th grade. Students are expected to:
• represent sample spaces for simple and compound events using lists and tree diagrams
• select and use different simulations to represent simple and compound events with and without
technology
• make predictions and determine solutions using experimental data for simple and compound events
• find the probabilities of a simple event and its complement and describe the relationship between the
two
• use data from a random sample to make inferences about a population
• solve problems using qualitative and quantitative predictions and comparisons from simple
experiments
• determine experimental and theoretical probabilities related to simple and compound events using
data and sample spaces”
With 7th grade being the first time all of these topics are introduced, students must experience these
situations in real-life to understand the highly abstract concepts of theoretical probabilities. The following
video shows a masterclass with students from across London delving into probability concepts, with hands on
experience that challenge their thinking to make connections to the abstract nature of probability.
The following resources from the NCTM’s Illuminations website give sample lessons that will bring probability
to life in your classroom:
The Game of Skunk – In this lesson, students practice decision-making skill leading to better understanding of
choice versus chance and building the foundation of mathematical probability
Stick or Switch? – This lesson plan presents a classic game-show scenario. A student picks one of three doors
in the hopes of winning the prize. The host, who knows the door behind which the prize is hidden, opens one
of the two remaining doors. When no prize is revealed, the host asks if the student wishes to "stick or switch."
Which choice gives you the best chance to win? The approach in this activity runs from guesses to experiments
to computer simulations to theoretical models.
What Are My Chances? - Students will conduct five experiments through stations to compare theoretical and
experimental probability. The class data will be combined to compare with previously established theoretical
probability.
Probably Graphing - Students will conduct a coin tossing experiment for 30 trials. Their results will be graphed
and shows a line graph that progresses toward the theoretical probability. The graph will also allow for a
representation of heads or tails throughout the experiment.
After 7th grade, the next course that will explore probability is Geometry. For the majority of students, this will
be 2 school years before revisiting this topic again. Geometry teachers will want to scaffold in the 7th grade
skills before the following concepts are taught:
• develop strategies to use permutations and combinations to solve contextual problems

• determine probabilities based on area to solve contextual problems
• identify whether two events are independent and compute the probability of the two events occurring
together with or without replacement
• apply conditional probability to contextual problems
• apply independence in contextual problems
The following video from Shmoop, a digital publishing company that balances teen-friendly approachable style
with academically rigorous materials, could be used to introduce your students to Geometric Probability.
A simple way to bring real-life in to your Geometry classroom is to have the students find the probability using
ratios of areas of geometric regions. Students begin by finding the area of the entire board, the inner and
outer rings, the inner and whole bulls-eye, and each of the numbered sections of the board. They then find
the probability of hitting particular parts of the board, then move in to hitting one of several parts in a given
throw, to finally finding the probability of hitting the same numbered section on three consecutive throws.
You can find more information about dartboard Geometry at the following blog.
The following is one teacher’s interesting look at teaching upper level probability concepts using games. He
began by using the game Timeline with his students to teach the four “levels of measurement”: nominal
measurements, ordinal measurements, interval measurements, and ratio measurements. He then used the
dice game Can’t Stop to teach relative frequency and histograms. For conditional probability and the
multiplication rule, he made a version of the game No Thanks. He used the game Coin Age to teach binomial
trials and distributions. The fifth game was a game that was popular among soldiers in World War 2 named
Gops. This game gave the students a feeling of some control over the outcome at the start of the game, only
to have that confidence challenged by unpredictable actions from other players. The final game was based on
a children’s game of guessing beads in a container, Igloo Pop. Each container had an identification number on
the top, and an unknown number of peppercorns inside. Everyone made a guess as to how many peppercorns
were inside each container. Each group had one container and data sheet to use for statistical calculations.
The jars are passed around between groups to gather as many independent data entries as possible, but each
group was in charge of one jar’s data table, as shown below. These datum were then used to construct
confidence intervals about the true number of peppercorns in the jar.
Competency 017: The teacher understands the relationships among probability theory, sampling and statistical
inference and how statistical inference is used in making and evaluating predictions.
“This section reviews the application of statistics in surveys and sampling, bivariate data analysis, nonlinear
data analysis, hypothesis testing, and other areas.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 300
Some students might struggle with understanding the difference between probability and statistics, due to the
fact that it is sometimes used interchangeably in the popular culture. It might be valuable to pose a similar
discussions with your students.
One of the major goals of math education is to produce competent problem solvers and thinkers. Being able
to analyze statistical information and recognize whether the information is misleading or valid is imperative in
this day and age of data overload on the internet. The following lesson will have students identifying and
analyzing misleading data displays, explaining the misleading comparisons, and revising the data displays to
eliminate the misleading representations or conclusions.
The fundamental theorems of probability are the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem. The
central limit theorem states that the sampling distribution of the sampling means approaches a normal
distribution as the sample size gets larger, regardless of the shape of the population distribution.
In the following lesson, students will discover the Central Limit Theorem and come to understand that it
describes the predictable pattern they have seen when generating empirical distributions of sample means.
Students will also learn to describe this pattern in terms of its shape, center and spread and how it allows us to
estimate percentages or probabilities for a particular sample statistic.
Conclusion
The GAISE (Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education) Report says, “Our lives are
governed by numbers. Every high school graduate should be able to use sound statistical reasoning to
intelligently cope with the requirements of citizenship, employment, and family and to be prepared for a
healthy, happy, and productive life.” Arthur Benjamin, a professor of math at Harvey Mudd College, believes in
a bold new look in to math education in the digital age that focuses on acquiring statistical knowledge rather
than calculus knowledge.
The GAISE report also says, “Probability is an important part of any mathematical education. It is a part of
mathematics that enriches the subject as a whole by its interactions with other uses of mathematics.
Probability is an essential tool in applied mathematics and mathematical modeling. It is also an essential tool
in statistics.” Students who are well rounded in probability and statistics typically have a better understanding
of their world. Finding engaging and interesting ways to cover the scope of probability and statistics is key to a
successful experience for students.
Resources
• Video – Annenberg Learning - https://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=2774

• Lesson – Box-and-Whisker with a bed sheet - http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=24049
• Lesson - A MEANingful Discussion about Central Tendency -
• Lesson – Understanding Standard Deviations -
http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/spreadsheets/examples/46175.html
• Video – Probability: Can You Beat the Odds? - https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/teaching-
probability-odds
• Lesson – Illuminations, “The Game of SKUNK” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=956
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Stick or Switch?” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=1399
• Lesson – Illuminations, “What Are My Chances?” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2895
• Lesson – Illuminations, “Probably Graphing” - http://illuminations.nctm.org/Lesson.aspx?id=2898
• Video – Shmoop, “Geometric Probability by Shmoop” -
http://www.schooltube.com/video/95a4845c9a2c4585a6cb/Geometric%20Probability%20by%20Shm
oop
• Lesson – Dartboard Geometry - http://www.teachforever.com/2010/04/use-dartboard-to-review-
geometry-and.html
• Teaching Probability with Games - http://boardgamegeek.com/geeklist/168871/some-games-teaching-
college-level-probability-conc
• Probability vs. Statistics - http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/discussions/ProbabilityVsStatis/
• Lesson – Misleading Statistics - http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Middle-School-Math-Grade-
7/section/11.6/
• Lesson – Seeing and Describing the Predictable Pattern: The Central Limit Theorem -
http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/conjecture/examples/cltactivity.html
• GAISE (Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education) Report -
http://www.amstat.org/education/gaise/GAISEPreK-12_Full.pdf
• Video - TED Talk, “Teach statistics before calculus!” -
http://www.ted.com/talks/arthur_benjamin_s_formula_for_changing_math_education?language=en
Domain 5
Mathematical Processes and Perspectives
In this module, we will discuss different facets of mathematical thinking. We will begin by looking at the
concept of proof; including deductive and inductive reasoning as well as formal and informal reasoning
strategies. Following proofs, we will discuss multiple representations for mathematical ideas and applications
of math in other disciplines.
Competency 018: The teacher understands mathematical reasoning and problem solving.
“This competency discusses the application of different aspects of reasoning to mathematics. Concepts of
proof, deduction and induction, correct mathematical inference, formal and informal reasoning, problem-
solving strategies, and validity of mathematical models.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 317
Proofs
Proofs provide a solid foundation for mathematicians to build and test their theories on.
Euclid revolutionized the way that mathematics is written, presented or thought about, and introduced the
concept of mathematical proofs. Let’s discover what it takes to move from a loose theory or idea to a
universally convincing proof.
Geometric proofs can be a difficult topic for students, because they are different from any mathematics they
have done in the past. Up until now, the math usually has a set of processes on how to get from the problem
to the answer. With geometric proofs, it is more about the journey, than it is about the destination; because
you are most often given the destination, told what the answer is, and now we want to know how you get to
the answer. In geometric proofs you start with a given, and you are told what you are trying to prove. Let’s
explore two different methods for solving proofs: flow proof example and statement reason (two column)
proofs. Do you have a preferred method for solving proofs? If so, why do you think you prefer one over the
other?
The proof we looked at above is called a direct proof, because they show that the proposition is true.
However, there are times when showing that the opposite of the proposition is false, this is called an indirect
proof. Here is a possible introductory activity before beginning indirect proofs. Students will need practice in
constructing proofs. The following webpages can be used by students as extra practice after working with
indirect proofs in class. The first webpage gives an example of indirect proof, while the second page gives 4
examples that the students work through on their own and then check their answers.
Making indirect Reasoning Accessible: A Problem-Based Learning Approach states, “Indirect reasoning is
fundamental for doing mathematics at all levels. It is also an important idea and approach for conducting
research in subject areas such as engineering and science. In many cases, use of an indirect proof can provide
much more effective mathematical arguments and communications than the use of a direct proof. However,
research shows that a majority of the high school students and preservice teachers do not understand the
meaning of indirect proof.” The purpose of the article is to discuss a problem-based learning approach to
make an indirect proof meaningful to preservice secondary mathematics teachers.
Inductive and deductive reasoning are two central forms of reasoning for mathematicians. Inductive reasoning
is reaching a conclusion based off of a series of observations. Inductive reasoning is the starting point of proof
writing as it gives you a hypothesis to test out. Deductive reasoning is the process by which conclusions are
made in geometric proofs.
In the following series of lessons, “Logic and Proof Writing”, students will use the traditional column proof in
high school geometry as a context to learn formal logic, and deductive and inductive reasoning. Part 1
(Material for Part 1) introduces students to logical thinking by covering if-then statements, an introduction to
deductive and inductive thinking, and analyzing real world arguments in newspaper articles. Part 2 is the Two
Column Proof Game, where students see deductive reasoning used to prove the zero product principle, play
the “proof game,” practice logical flow and backwards reasoning, and analyze incorrect proofs. The following
links access the materials needed for Part 2: Material 1 and Material 2. In part 3, students will construct
proofs of congruency using a game similar to the one used in lesson 2, but this time with pieces that have
geometric relationships. The following links access the materials needed for Part 3: Material 1, Material 2
The new Texas Mathematical Process Standards for Grades Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 12 have become
a central part of the TEKS for mathematics. For the first time we have consistent standards that span all grade
levels in mathematics. The new process standards promote students thinking so that they can formalize their
strategies to develop success in problem solving. Students are now expected to:
A. apply mathematics to problems arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace
B. use a problem-solving model that incorporates analyzing given information, formulating a plan
or strategy, determining a solution, justifying the solution, and evaluating the problem-solving
process and the reasonableness of the solution
C. select tools, including real objects, manipulatives, paper and pencil, and technology as
appropriate, and techniques, including mental math, estimation, and number sense as
appropriate, to solve problems
D. communicate mathematical ideas, reasoning, and their implications using multiple
representations, including symbols, diagrams, graphs, and language as appropriate
E. create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas
F. analyze mathematical relationships to connect and communicate mathematical ideas
G. display, explain, and justify mathematical ideas and arguments using precise mathematical
language in written or oral communication
Let’s take a few minutes to explore standard B – “use a problem-solving model that incorporates analyzing
given information, formulating a plan or strategy, determining a solution, justifying the solution, and
evaluating the problem-solving process and the reasonableness of the solution” and standard G – “display,
explain, and justify mathematical ideas and arguments using precise mathematical language in written or oral
communication.” These topics (as well as A, C, D, E, and F) are expected to be taught beginning in
Prekindergarten all the way through Grade 12. However, these topics will not look the same in all grade levels.
We have already looked at formal justification in Geometry with proofs, but how would that look in 7th grade?
Texas Education Agency’s OnTRACK for College Readiness project is a good resource to find examples of these
type of lessons. OnTRACK materials are aligned to the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) and State
of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR). Courses include engaging content, interactive
activities, assessment and feedback, and links to additional resources. Let’s see how we would use a problem
solving process in 8th grade with the lesson Evaluating Solutions for Reasonableness (TEKS 8.1B) and what
justifying mathematical ideas looks like in 7th grade by Predicting, Finding, and Justifying Data from a Table
(TEKS 7.1G)
Competency 019: The teacher understands mathematical connections both within and outside of mathematics
and how to communicate mathematical ideas and concepts.
“This competency discusses various representations of mathematical ideas and concepts as well as the
application of mathematics to other fields. In addition, the proper use of mathematical terminology is briefly
reviewed. Many of the themes presented in this section” have be discussed throughout the other modules,
“rather than being discussed here at length.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 325
Multiple Representations
Significant emphasis has been placed on representing mathematical information in multiple representations,
specifically: symbolic, graphical, numeric and in words. The Rule of Four is another way of referring to multiple
representations. Student’s understandings deepen seeing multiple ways to solve problems and the
connections between solutions. Our TEKS support this type of thinking for students. In 7th grade the TEKS ask
students to represent constant rates of change in mathematical and real-world problems given pictorial,
tabular, verbal, numeric, graphical, and algebraic representations. In 8th grade students are expected to
represent linear non-proportional situations with tables, graphs, and equations in the form of y = mx +b,
where b ≠ 0. Algebra I expects students to write linear equations, inequalities, and system of two linear
equations given a table of values, a graph, and a verbal description. The following lesson demonstrates using
multiple representations to make predictions by modeling functions in multiple representations of y = mx + b.
Connection to Other Disciplines
It is not only important to show students the connections across concepts and topics in math, but it is also
important to show students how math connections to other disciples. This type of connections allows students
to see the relevancy of the math they are working on in class. The following lessons should generate
excitement from students by bringing the real world in to the math class (pay special attention to the amount
of academic vocabulary that the students are using during these lessons):
• The Barbie Bungee Jump - Middle school Algebra I students applies knowledge of the line of best fit
when designing bungee jumps.
• 12 O’Quad High: Trigonometry in Flight - This thematic learning activity focuses on the laws of sines,
cosines, and graphing trig functions. Students will use math, science and engineering knowledge to
research, model, build and fly a four-bladed “quadcopter” drone.
• Statistical Analysis to Rank Baseball Players - High school students create a baseball dream team for
their fantasy baseball team by filling the last spot with a great homerun hitter, using graphs and
statistics to support their choice. Rank the top four players and describe rationale for ranking.
I hope that you were able to see not only the student’s excitement in learning, but the amount of academic
vocabulary they were using not only with their teachers, but with each other. Bringing relevancy into the
classroom allows the students to experience the value of using mathematics to discover and describe their
findings.
Conclusion
In this module we looked at ways that students justify and communicate their mathematical knowledge.
Communication of mathematics helps students clarify, deepen and solidify their own understanding of
mathematics. Students became active participants in their own knowledge acquisition, which should be the
goal of every math classroom.
References
• Video – TED Talk, “How to Prove a Mathematical Theory” - http://ed.ted.com/lessons/scott-kennedy-

how-to-prove-a-mathematical-theory
• Tutorial – “Introduction to Geometric Proof” - http://www.sophia.org/tutorials/introduction-to-
geometric-proof
• Activity – “Indirect Proof Warm-Up” -
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/geometry/gp3b/indirectteacher.htm
• Extra Practice – “Indirect Proof” -
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/geometry/GP3b/indirectlesson.htm
• Extra Practice – “Writing Indirect Proofs” -
http://www.regentsprep.org/regents/math/geometry/GP3b/indirectpractice.htm
• Article – “Making Indirect Reasoning Accessible: A Problem-Based Learning -
http://www.hkame.org.hk/html/modules/tinyd2/content/Edumath/v17/02CaiJinfa_learning.pdf
• Lesson – “Logic and Proof Writing” - http://math.sfsu.edu/cm2/papers/addie.pdf
o “Analyzing Logic in Newspapers” - http://math.sfsu.edu/cm2/papers/addieA.pdf
• Lesson – OnTrack, “Evaluating Solutions for Reasonableness” -
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/evaluating-solutions-
reasonableness?external_1=23&external_2=517&external_3=All
• Lesson – OnTrack, “Predicting, Finding, and Justifying Data from a Table” -
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/predicting-finding-and-justifying-data-
table?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• “Rule of Four” - http://www.sfusdmath.org/rule-of-four.html
• Lesson – LearnZillion, “Make predictions by modeling functions in multiple representations of y = mx +
b” - https://learnzillion.com/lesson_plans/171-make-predictions-by-modeling-functions-in-multiple-
representations-of-y-mx-b#fndtn-lesson
• Video – The Teaching Channel, “Experimenting with STEM: The Barbie Bungee Jump” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/stem-lesson-ideas-bungee-jump
• Video – The Teaching Channel, “12 O’Quad High: Trigonometry in Flight” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/laws-of-sines-cosines-lesson
• Video – The Teaching Channel, “Statistical Analysis to Rank Baseball Players” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/statistical-analysis-lesson
Domain 6
Mathematical Learning, Instruction and Assessment
This module focuses on the skills that are needed to prepare high quality lessons that are appropriate to the
level of the students, by relating the lessons to student’s prior knowledge, using a variety of mathematical
tools and the TEKS. Informal and formal assessment strategies monitor and guide the mathematics instruction
for the student. We will look at various assessment techniques for monitor student success.
Competency 020: The teacher understands how children learn mathematics and plans, organizes and
implements instruction using knowledge of students, subject matter and statewide curriculum (Texas Essential
Knowledge and Skills [TEKS]).
“This competency reviews the skills that a teacher needs to prepare mathematics lessons appropriate to the
skill level of the students, to illustrate mathematical principles using manipulatives or other tools, to relate
lessons to the real world, and to help students learn the skills required by the TEKS.” From TExES Mathematics
7-12 page 335
Planning Instruction
“To being with the end in mind means to start with a clear understanding of your destination. It means to
know where you’re going so that you better understand where you are now and so that the steps you take are
always in the right direction.” Stephen R. Covey
Teaching a successful lesson does not materialize by happenstance. Planning is the key to an effective lesson.
Many educators confuse the materials they are given by their school or district with the state math
curriculum. However, those materials are only the vehicle for teaching the curriculum of the state of Texas
which is the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills, or TEKS. All teachers need to begin by studying and knowing
their TEKS. The TEKS are written in four parts:
• Introduction
• Strands
• Knowledge and Skills Statements
• Student Expectations
The Introduction provides key contextual information and a brief overview of the essential knowledge and skill
for a grade or course. The Strands are organizers for the Knowledge and Skills statements. The Knowledge and
Skills Statements are the concepts and skills that the students are to learn. The Students Expectations are how
the students are to demonstrate the concepts and skills learned. Take time to look at the TEKS.
**It is important to note that the current TEKS are the ones that say “Adopted 2012” after the grade or
course.
The following video series and resources were developed by PARCC (Partnership for Assessment of Readiness
for College and Careers) to give a set of tools and processes for carefully analyzing how standards, evidence,
and tasks interact, and apply these understandings to inform instructional decisions. These tools and
processes can help you make instructional choices that match the rigor and richness of the standards and
assessments. Even though we do not teach in a Common Core state, the reflective process used in the
materials and videos could easily be adapted to our state standards. Notice that no one is planning alone in
any of these situations. The collaborative nature of these planning sessions helps to bring out ideas and
strategies that we can gloss over when we are planning alone.
• Math Performance-Based Assessment Tasks Flowchart – PARCC
• Introduction Video – Planning Math Instruction with PARCC Tools
• Video 1 – Developing Worthwhile Math Problems
• Video 2 – Aligning to Math Standards
• Video 3 – Determining Instructional Approaches for Math
An effective lesson gets students thinking and allows them to actively interact with the material, tap into their
background knowledge, and build new skills while working collaboratively with others. The Center for
Research on Learning and Teaching discusses six steps to effective lesson planning. However, there is not one
planning method that suits every teacher, just as there is not one lesson that suits every student. Below you
will find a few resources to help with your lesson planning:
• Writing Effective Lesson Plans
• The Basics of Lesson Planning
• Five Common Mistakes in Writing Lesson Plans (and how to avoid them)
• Using Questioning to Stimulate Mathematical Thinking
Moving from the Concrete to the Abstract
“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” - Confucius

Being successful in mathematics goes beyond procedural knowledge to include analytical reasoning and
conceptual understanding. Teaching from the concrete to the pictorial (representational) to the abstract is a
sequence of instruction that promotes thorough understanding of math concepts/skills, and is based on
research by psychologist Jerome Bruner. Students who are given opportunities to develop a concrete
understanding of math concepts/skills are more likely to develop a deep level of understanding at the abstract
level. This approach is one of the key learning principles behind the Singapore math approach. In the following
video, Dr. Yeap Ban Har explains the principles of the Concrete Pictorial Abstract approach.
The following lesson from OnTrack for college readiness has students using concrete and pictorial models to
solve equations and use symbols to record their actions. Is this similar or different to how you were taught to
solve equations? What are the advantages of teaching students by modeling? What are the disadvantages?
Manipulatives, however, are not just for the elementary and middle school classrooms. High School students
can benefit from using manipulatives, especially if they are struggling with the abstract nature of upper level
mathematics. The National Library of Virtual Manipulatives has online Java based manipulatives that cover
number and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis and probability, and is an excellent
free resource for you and your students.
Another resource that teachers can use to help students think critically and prepare for world outside of
school is technology. In the classroom, technology used to be all about how teachers presented information to
students. Now technology is used for students to access information, interact with the learning, collaborate
with peers in and out of the school setting, share ideas, create, etc. The following are some resources that you
can use to enhance your lessons with technology:
• Texas Instruments – classroom activities based on their different calculator productions

• Desmos – a free online graphing calculator that allows students and teachers to demonstrate function
transformations
• GeoGebra – a dynamic free mathematics software for all levels of education that brings together
geometry, algebra, spreadsheets graphing, statistics and calculus in one easy-to-use package
Support for Special Populations
The average classroom is composed of students who are high achievers, low achievers, average achievers,
Gifted and Talented identified (GT), Special Education identified (SpEd), English Language Learners (ELL), come
from low socio-economic homes, come from high socio-economic homes, love math, hate math, tolerate
math, etc. The one size fits all approach to teaching will not meet the needs of all the children in your
classroom. Creating an environment where all children can achieve success at high levels is imperative for
building productive adults. Understanding how to differentiate for the different needs in the classroom will
not only help the students that are struggling be successful, but will allow the students who are being
successful to extend their learning to make new connections to other areas of mathematics or the real-world.
One population of particular interest is the ELL population. To support the academic success of ELL students in
math there should be plentiful and assorted opportunities for speaking, listening, reading and writing. This is
not only good practice for our ELL students, but it is a requirement of the Process Standards in the TEKS. The
following resource from Stanford University’s Graduate School of Education gives examples of how to support
math instruction and language development for ELL’s at the elementary, middle and high school level. Take
some time to explore the middle and high school sections.
Competency 021: The teacher understands assessment and uses a variety of formal and informal assessment
techniques to monitor and guide mathematics instruction and to evaluate student progress.
“Assessment is an important part of mathematics instruction, both for the purposes of allowing the teacher to
gauge student performance and of allowing the students to judge her own progress in the subject. This
competency briefly reviews the development, purpose, and use of various assessment techniques as well as
how to apply them in a manner that is both fair and accurate.” From TExES Mathematics 7-12 page 343
Assessment
Assessment can be broken into two different categories: formative and summative. Take a minute to think
about what the term formative assessment means to you. “When data are used by teachers to make decisions
about next steps for a student or group of students, to plan instruction, and to improve their own practice,
they help inform as well as form practice; this is formative assessment. When data are collected at certain
planned intervals, and are used to show what students have achieved to date, they provide a summary of
progress and are summative assessment.” (Carlson, Humphrey, & Reinhardt, 2003, p. 4) People tend to think
all teacher assessment must come from the standard homework, quizzes and tests. However, grades on tests
and quizzes should never be a surprise for a teacher. Formatively assessing students throughout a lesson/unit
of study will provide information that will allow the teacher and student to adjust the learning to
improvement achievement. This definition of formative assessment reflects the research literature and
statement articulated by the Council of Chief State School Officers: Formative assessment is a process used by
teachers and students during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to
improve students’ achievement of intended instructional outcomes. Key features of the formative assessment
process are: links goal-oriented assessment and instruction, promotes learning as well as informs instruction,
used continuously - before and throughout instruction, and encourages students to become more aware of
their own learning (metacognition) and the ideas of others. Below are a few examples of formative
assessment in a math classroom:
• Making it Click: Assessment with Technology
• My favorite No: Learning from Mistakes
• Formative Assessment Using the U-P-S Strategy
• Classroom Challenges lessons support teachers in formative assessment. Some lessons are focused on
developing math concepts, while others focus on solving non-routine problems.
Selecting and developing assessments that are consistent with what is taught and how it is taught is a skill that
needs to be honed and developed. One of the best ways to hone this skill is by working on a collaborative
team designing, using, and responding to common formative assessments. By doing so, you become more
knowledgeable about your own standards, more assessment literate, and are able to develop more strategies
for helping all students learn. In the following video, you will see a team of 7th grade math teachers
developing, analyzing, and acting on common formative assessment results. The team begins by looking at the
assessments that came with their textbook, having conversations about what to modify, enhance or remove.
From there they analyze sets of data from three to four different classes to look for trends among the classes,
and gain knowledge in different strategies that their colleagues are using. Finally the teachers act on the
results from their common formative assessment by making observations of students work, brainstorm what
misconceptions the students are having, and deciding what changes need to be made to their teaching. The
teachers found that working together as a team has provided them with unique strategies for improving
student learning that they never could have achieved if they were working by themselves.
Conclusion
The Education Alliance (2006) looked at a variety of research studies, and identified a list of instructional
strategies that could be considered to be best practices in mathematics education:
• Focus lessons on specific concept/skills that are standards-based
• Differentiate instruction through flexible grouping, individualizing lessons, compacting, using tiered
assignments, and varying question levels
• Ensure that instructional activities are learner-centered and emphasize inquiry/problem-solving
• Use experience and prior knowledge as a basis for building new knowledge
• Use cooperative learning strategies and make real-life connections
• Use scaffolding to make connections to concepts, procedures, and understanding
• Ask probing questions which require students to justify their responses
• Emphasize the development of basic computational skills
The National Center for Educational Achievement (NCEA, 2009) examined higher performing schools in five
states (California, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Texas) and determined that in terms of instructional
strategies, higher performing middle and high schools use mathematical instructional strategies that include
classroom activities which:
• Have a high level of student engagement
• Demand higher-order thinking
• Follow an inquiry-based model of instruction – including a combination of cooperative learning, direct
instruction, labs or hands-on investigations, and manipulatives
• Connect to students’ prior knowledge to make meaningful real-world applications
• Integrate literacy activities into the courses – including content-based reading strategies and academic
vocabulary development
“The role of the learner is not to passively receive information, but to actively participate in the construction
of new meaning.” (Shapiro, 1994, p. 8) Keeping these practices in mind, will allow you to do what is best for
the well-being of the students in your classroom.
Resources:
• Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) -
http://ritter.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter111/index.html
• PARCC - Math Performance-Based Assessment Tasks Flowchart –
https://dqam6mam97sh3.cloudfront.net/resources/uploaded_document/resource/764/ELAPerforman
ceBasedAssessmentTasksFlowchart.pdf
• Introduction Video – Teaching Channel, “Planning Math Instruction with PARCC Tools” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/planning-math-instruction-parcc
• Video 1 – Teaching Channel, “Developing Worthwhile Math Problems” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/develop-worthwhile-math-problems-parcc
• Video 2 – Teaching Channel, “Aligning to Math Standards” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/align-math-tasks-to-common-core-parcc
• Video 3 – Teaching Channel, “Determining Instructional Approaches for Math” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/design-math-instruction-to-meet-standards-parcc
• Effective Lesson Planning - http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/p2_5
• Writing Effective Lesson Plans - http://www.prometheanplanet.com/en-us/professional-
development/best-practice/lesson-plans/
• The Basics of Lesson Planning - http://www.teachers-media.com/nqt/effective-lesson-planning
• Five Common Mistakes in Writing Lesson Plans
(and how to avoid them) -
http://www.educationoasis.com/instruction/bt/five_common_mistakes.htm
• Using Questioning to Stimulate Mathematical Thinking - http://nrich.maths.org/2473
• Video – Concrete Pictorial Abstract - https://www.youtube.com/watch?t=66&v=2Ss8xAXs_ns
• Lesson – OnTrack, “Using Models to Solve Equations” -
http://www.projectsharetexas.org/resource/using-models-solve-
equations?external_1=23&external_2=452&external_3=All
• National Library of Vitural Manipulatives - http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/category_g_4_t_1.html
• Texas Instruments - https://education.ti.com/en/us/activity/search/subject
• Desmos –https://teacher.desmos.com/
• GeoGebra –https://www.geogebra.org/
• Stanford University, “Supporting ELLs in Mathematics” -
http://ell.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/math_archives/Full%20set_UL%20Math%20Resources%201
0-28-13%20updated.pdf
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Making it Click: Assessment with Technology” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/using-clickers-in-classroom
• Video – Teaching Channel, “My favorite No: Learning from Mistakes” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/class-warm-up-routine
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Formative Assessment Using the U-P-S Strategy” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/ups-strategy-as-assessment-tool
• Lessons - Classroom Challenge - http://map.mathshell.org/lessons.php
• Video – Teaching Channel, “Guiding Instruction Through CFA’s” -
https://www.teachingchannel.org/videos/guide-instruction-with-cfas

TCR 705 Math 7 - 12

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Mathematics

Amy Houser, M.Ed

Domain I – Number Concepts

Domain II – Patterns and Algebra

Domain III – Geometry and Measurement

Domain IV – Probability and Statistics

Competency 016: The teacher understands concepts and applications of probability.

Domain V – Mathematical Processes and Perspectives

Domain VI – Mathematical Learning, Instruction and Assessment

• Natural Numbers – The counting numbers.

• Ratios and Proportional Relationships

• Video - Khan Academy, “Introduction to number systems and binary” -

Recursion, Iteration and Mathematical Induction

Sequences and Series

Arithmetic Constant Description

Geometric Constant Description

Tic Tac Toe: Hip to be The Three Graphing Quadratic

Degree Examples Name

Absolute Value Functions

• The Richter Scale defines the magnitude of an earthquake.

Competency 011: The teacher understands measurement as a process.

Perimeter, Area, Surface Area and Volume

Integral Calculus and Riemann Sums

• Notes - Approximating area under a curve with rectangles

• Theorems: statements that can be proved to be true

Non-collinear • Points that do not all lie on the

Non-coplanar • Points that do not lie in the same

Perpendicular • Lines that form a 90° angle at

Skew lines • Lines that are not in the same

Properties of Parallel Lines

Geometric Constructions and Technology

Distance Formula 𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2

Sample Lesson Plans

• develop strategies to use permutations and combinations to solve contextual problems

• Video – Annenberg Learning - https://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=2774

• Video – TED Talk, “How to Prove a Mathematical Theory” - http://ed.ted.com/lessons/scott-kennedy-

Moving from the Concrete to the Abstract

“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” - Confucius

• Texas Instruments – classroom activities based on their different calculator productions

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