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~BRIEF CONTENTS
1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1
2 Standards for Measurement 14
3 Elements and Compounds 48
4 Properties of Matter 68
5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 86
6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 102
7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 123
8 Chemical Equations 147
9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 175
10 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 196
11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 218
12 The Gaseous State of Matter 253
13 Liquids 288
14 Solutions 312
15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 343
16 Chemical Equilibrium 368
17 Oxidation- Reduction 397
18 Nuclear Chemistry 423
19 Introduction to Organic Chemistry (online only) 447
20 Introduction to Biochemistry (online only) 491

Appendices A1
Glossary G1
Index 11
.. -··---- -·- - - - -- ------- --~- --------- - - - - - --- -- - - -- - - - - -··----
~CONTENTS
1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises
Challenge Exercises 41
Answers to Practice Exercises 47
1.1 The Nature of Chemistry 2
Thinking Like a Chemist 2
1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3 3 Elements and Compounds 48
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Egyptians, the First 3.1 Elements 49
Medicinal Chemists 4
Natural States of the Elements 49
The Scientific Method 4 Distribution of Elements 50
1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 5 Names of the Elements 51
Physical States of Matter 6 Symbols of the Elements 51
1.4 Classifying Matter 7 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Naming Elements 52
Distinguishing Mixtures from
Pure Substances 9 3.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 53
Review 10 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 54
Review Questions Diatomic Elements 55

11
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 11 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Smartphone Elements 56
Answers to Practice Exercises 13 3.3 Compounds and Formulas 56
Molecular and Ionic Compounds 57
2 Standards for Measurement 14 Writing Formulas of Compounds

Composition of Compounds 60
58
2.1 Scientific Notation 15 Review 62

2.2 Measurement and Uncertainty 16 Review Questions, Paired Exercises,
Additional Exercises Challenge Exercises 63
2.3 Significant Figures 17
Rounding Off Numbers 18
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 19
Multiplication or Division
Addition or Subtraction 20
19 4 Properties of Matter 68
4.1 Properties of Substances 69
2.5 The Metric System 22
Measurement of Length 23 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Making Money 70
Unit Conversions 24 4.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 71
Measurement of Mass 2S 4.3 Learning to Solve Problems 74
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Keeping Track of Units 26 4.4 Energy 74
Energy in Chemical Changes 75
Measurement of Volume 26
Conservation of Energy 76
2.6 Dimensional Analysis: A Problem-
Solving Method 27 4.5 Heat: Quantitative Measurement 76
2.7 Percent 31 4.6 Energy in the Real World 78
2.8 Measurement of Temperature 34 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Popping Popcorn 79
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Setting Standards 35 Review 81
Review Questions 82
2.9 Density 37 Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises
Review 40 Challenge Exercises 82
Review Questions 41 Answers to Practice Exercises 85
5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 86
7.3 Percent Composition of Compounds
Percent Composition from Formula 132
131
5.1 Dalton's Model ofthe Atom 87 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Feeling

5.2 Electric Charge 88 the Molecular Heat? 134
Discovery of Ions 88 Percent Composition from
5.3 Subatomic Parts of the Atom 89 Experimental Data 134
5.4 The Nuclear Atom 91 7.4 Calculating Empirical Formulas 135
General Arrangement of Subatomic 7.5 Calculating the Molecular Formula from
Particles 92 the Empirical Formula 138
Atomic Numbers of the Elements 93 Review 141
5.5 Isotopes of the Elements 93 Review Questions 142
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Isotope Detectives 95 Challenge Exercises 142
5.6 Atomic Mass 95
Review 97
Review Questions
98 8 Chemical Equations 147
Challenge Exercises 98 8.1 The Chemical Equation 148
Answers to Practice Exercises 101 Conservation of Mass 149
8.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 149
6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 102 Information in a Chemical Equation
8.3 Why Do Chemical Reactions Occur?
154
155
6.1 Common and Systematic Names 103 8.4 Types of Chemical Equations 155
6 .2 Elements and Ions 103 Synthesis (Combination) Reaction 155
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION What's in a Name? 105 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION CO Poisoning-

A Silent Killer 156
6.3 Writing Formulas from Names of
Ionic Compounds 107 Combustion Reaction 157
6.4 Naming Binary Compounds 109 Decomposition Reaction 157
Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal Single-Displacement Reaction 158
Forming Only One Type of Cation 109 Double-Displacement Reaction 159
Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal 8.5 Heat in Chemical Reactions 161
That Can Form Two or More Types of Cations 110
8.6 Climate Change: The Greenhouse Effect 164
Binary Compounds Containing
Two Nonmetals 112 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Decreasing Carbon
6.5 Naming Compounds Containing
Footprints 166
Polyatomic Ions 113 Review 167
6.6 Acids 115 Review Questions 169
Binary Acids 115 Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises
Challenge Exercise 169
Naming Oxy-Acids 116
Answers to
Review 118
Practice Exercises 174
Review Questions 119
Challenge Exercise
Answers to Practice Exercises
120
122
9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 175
9.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 176
7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 123

A Short Review 176
9.2 Mole-Mole Calculations 178
7.1 The Mole 124 9.3 Mole-Mass Calculations 181
7.2 Molar Mass of Compounds 128 9.4 Mass-Mass Calculations 182
9.5 Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations 184 11.10 Molecular Shape 241
The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION A Shrinking Technology 185
(VSEPR) Model 241
Review 190 Review 245
Review Questions 191 Review Questions 247
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Paired Exe rcises, Additional Exercises
Challenge Exercises 191 Challenge Exercises 247
Answers to Practice Exercises 195 Answers to Practice Exercises 252
10 Modern Atomic Theory and 12 The Gaseous State of Matter 253

the Periodic Table 196
12.1 Properties of Gases 254
10.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 197 Measuring the Pressure of a Gas 254
Electromagnetic Radiation 197 Pressure Dependence on the Number of Molecules
and the Temperature 256
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION You Light Up My Life 198
10.2 The Bohr Atom 198 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION What the Nose Knows 257
10.3 Energy Levels of Electrons 200 12.2 Boyle's Law 258
12.3 Charles' Law 261
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Atomic Clocks 202
12.4 Avogadro's Law 264
10.4 Atomic Structures ofthe First 18 Elements 203 12.5 Combined Gas Laws 266
10.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 206 Mole-Mass-Volume
207 Relationships of Gases 268
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Collecting the Elements
12.6 Ideal Gas Law 269
Review 212
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory 271
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Real Gases 272
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Air Quality 273
12.7 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 272
12.8 Density of Gases 275
11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation 12.9 Gas Stoichiometry 276
of Compounds from Atoms 218 Mole-Volume and Mass-Volume Calculations 276
Volume-Volume Calculations 278
11.1 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 219
Metals and Nonmetals 219
Review 280
Atomic Radius 220
Ionization Energy 220 Challenge Exercises 282
11.2 Lewis Structures of Atoms 222 Answers to Practice Exercises 287
11.3 The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from
One Atom to Another 223
11.4 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds 228 13 Liquids 288
11.5 The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons 230 13.1 States of Matter: A Review 289
11.6 Electronegativity 232 13.2 Properties of Liquids 289
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Trans-forming Fats 234 Surface Tension 289
Evaporation 290
11.7 Lewis Structures of Compounds 235
Vapor Pressure 291
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Strong Enough
13.3 Boiling Point and Melting Point 292
to Stop a Bullet? 238
11.8 Complex Lewis Structures 239 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Chemical Eye Candy 294
11.9 Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 240 13.4 Changes of State 294
13.5 Intermolecular Forces 296 Acid Reactions 348
Dipole-Dipole Attractions 296 Base Reactions 348
The Hydrogen Bond 297 15.2 Salts 348
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION How Sweet It Is! 299 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION A Cool Fizz 349
London Dispersion Forces 300 15.3 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 350
13.6 Hydrates 301 Dissociation and Ionization of Electrolytes 350
13.7 Water, a Unique Liquid 303 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 352
Physical Properties of Water 303 Ionization of Water 354
15.4 Introduction to pH 355
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Reverse Osmosis? 304
15.5 Neutralization 357
Structure of the Water Molecule 304 15.6 Writing Net Ionic Equations 360
Sources of Water for a Thirsty World 305
Review 306 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Ocean Corals Threatened
Review Questions 307 by Increasing Atmospheric C0 2 Levels 362
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Review 363
Challenge Exercises 311 Review Questions 364
Answers to Practice Exercises 311 Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises
14 Solutions 312
14.1 General Properties of Solutions
14.2 Solubility
313
314
16 Chemical Equilibrium 368
The Nature of the Solute and Solvent 315

16.1 Rates of Reaction 369
The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 316 16.2 Chemical Equilibrium 370
The Effect of Pressure on Solubility 317 Reversible Reactions 370
Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated 16.3 Le Chatelier's Principle 372
Solutions 317 Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium 372
14.3 Rate of Dissolving Solids 318 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION New Ways in Fighting
14.4 Concentration of Solutions 319 Cavities and Avoiding the Drill 374
Dilute and Concentrated Solutions 320 Effect of Volume on Equilibrium 375
Mass Percent Solution320 Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium 377
MassNolume Percent (m/v) 322 Effect of Catalysts on Equilibrium 378
Volume Percent 322
16.4 Equilibrium Constants 378
Molarity 322
16.5 ion Product Constant for Water 380
Dilution Problems 326
16.6 Ionization Constants 382
14.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 327
16.7 Solubility Product Constant 384
14.6 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 332
16.8 Buffer Solutions: The Control of pH 387
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION The Scoop on Ice Cream 331
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Exchange of Oxygen
Review 334 and Carbon Dioxide in the Blood 388
Review Questions 335 Review 390
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Review Questions 391
Answers to Practice Exercises 342 Challenge Exercises 392
15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 343
15.1 Acids and Bases 344
17 Oxidation- Reduction 397
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Drug Delivery: 17.1 Oxidation Number 398

An Acid-Base Problem 347 Oxidation-Reduction 401
17.2 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations 402 19.2 Why Carbon? 448
17.3 Balancing Ionic Redox Equations 406 Hydrocarbons 450
17.4 Activity Series of Metals 409 19.3 Alkanes 451
17.5 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 411 Structural Formulas and Isomerism 451
Review 415 Naming Alkanes 454
Review Questions 417 19.4 Alkenes and Alkynes 458
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 458
Challenge Exercises 418 Reactions of Alkenes 461
Answers to Practice Exercises 422 Addition 461
19.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 462
18 Nuclear Chemistry 423 Naming Aromatic Compounds
Monosubstituted Benzenes 463
463
18.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 424 Disubstituted Benzenes 463

Natural Radioactivity 425 Tri- and Polysubstituted Benzenes 464
18.2 Alpha Particles, Beta Particles, and Gamma Rays 427 19.6 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 465
Alpha Particles 427 Alkyl Halides 466
Beta Particles 428 19.7 Alcohols 467
Gamma Rays 428 Methanol 468
18.3 Radioactive Disintegration Series 430 Ethanol 469
Transmutation of Elements 431 Naming Alcohols 470
Artificial Radioactivity 432 19.8 Ethers 471
Transuranium Elements 432 Naming Ethers 472
18.4 Measurement of Radioactivity 432 19.9 Aldehydes and Ketones 473
18.5 Nuclear energy 434 Naming Aldehydes 474
Nuclear Fission 434 Naming Ketones 474
19.10 Carboxylic Acids 476
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Does Your Food
434 19.11 Esters 478
Glow in the Dark?
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Getting Clothes
Nuclear Power 436
C0 2 Clean! 479
The Atomic Bomb 437
Nuclear Fusion 438 19.12 Polymers-Macromolecules 480
18.6 Mass-Energy Relationship in Review 482
Nuclear Reactions 439 Review Questions 484
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 485
18.7 Biological Effects of Radiation 440
Acute Radiation Damage 440
Long-Term Radiation Damage 440
Genetic Effects 440
CHEMISTRY IN ACTION A Window into 20 Introduction to Biochemistry 491
Living Organisms 441 (online only)
Review 442
20.1 Chemistry in Living Organisms 492
Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 20.2 Carbohydrates 492
Challenge Exercises 444 Monosaccharides 492
Answers to Practice Exercises 446 Disaccharides 494
Polysaccharides 496
20.3 Lipids 497
19 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 447 20.4 Amino Acids and Proteins 501
(online only) CHEMISTRY IN ACTION The Taste of Umami 505
19.1 The Beginnings of Organic Chemistry 448 20.5 Enzymes 506

20.6 Nucleic Acids, DNA, and Genetics 508 3 Vapor Pressure of Water at Various
DNA and Genetics 512 Temperatures All
Review 514 4 Solubility Table Al2
Review Questions and Exercises 515 5 Answers to Selected Exercises Al3
GLOSSARY G1
APPENDICES A1 INDEX 11
Mathematical and Review Al

2 Units of Measurement AlO EULA
- -- --- ----- --------------- --------- ------------- - --- -- -------------- ----- ----- -
I. PREFACE
This new Fifteenth Edition of Foundations of College Chemistry presents chemistry as

a modern, vital subject and is designed to make introductory chemistry accessible to all
beginning students. The central focus is the same as it has been from the first edition: to
make chemistry interesting and understandable to students and teach them the problem-
solving skills they will need. In preparing this new edition, we considered the comments
and suggestions of students and instructors to design a revision that builds on the strengths
of previous editions including clear explanations and step-by-step problem solving. We
have especially tried to relate chemistry to the real lives of our students as we develop the
principles that form the foundation for the further study of chemistry, and to provide them
with problem-solving skills and practice needed in their future studies. We have focused on
using electronic materials to enhance the student experience. To that end we have authored
and added new interactive features ourselves and enhanced our existing electronic materi-
als to draw the students into direct involvement in an active learning experience.
Foundations of College Chemistry , 15th Edition, is intended for students who have never
taken a chemistry course or those who have had a significant interruption in their studies
but plan to continue with the general chemistry sequence. Since its inception, this book has
helped define the preparatory chemistry course and has developed a much wider audience. In
addition to preparatory chemistry, our text is used extensively in one-semester general-pur-
pose courses (such as those for applied health fields) and in courses for nonscience majors.
Development of Problem-Solving Skills

We all want our students to develop real skills in solving problems. We believe that a key
to the success of this text is the fact that our problem-solving approach works for students.
It is a step-by-step process that teaches the use of units and shows the change from one
unit to the next. We have used this problem-solving approach in our examples throughout
the text to encourage students to think their way through each problem. In this edition we
continue to use examples to incorporate fundamental mathematical skills, scientific nota-
tion, and significant figures. We have added Problem-Solving Strategy boxes in the text to
highlight the steps needed to solve chemistry problems. Painstaking care has been taken
to show each step in the problem-solving process and to use these steps in solving example
problems. We continue to use four significant figures for atomic and molar masses for con-
sistency and for rounding off answers appropriately. We have been meticulous in providing
answers, correctly rounded, for students who have difficulty with mathematics.
FOSTERING STUDENT SKILLS Attitude plays a critical role in problem solving. We encour-
age students to Jearn that a systematic approach to solving problems is better than simple
memorization. Throughout the book we emphasize the use of our approach to problem
solving to encourage students to think through each problem. Once we have laid the foun-
dations of concepts, we highlight the steps so students can locate them easily. Important
rules and equations are highlighted for emphasis and ready reference.
STUDENT PRACTICE Practice problems follow the examples in the text, with answers pro-
vided at the end of the chapter. The end of each chapter begins with a Chapter Review and
Review Questions section, which help students review key terms and concepts, as well as
material presented in tables and figures. This is followed by Paired Exercises, covering con-
cepts and numerical exercises, where two similar exercises are presented side by side. The
section titled Additional Exercises includes further practice problems presented in a more
random order. The final section of exercises is titled Challenge Exercises and contains
problems designed to stretch the student's understanding of concepts and to integrate
XV
xvi Preface
concepts from other chapters. In our new edition we have changed a number of exercises
per chapter, In addition we have expanded the electronic Enhanced Examples to a total of
178 throughout the chapters and developed two new electronic practice methods.
PRACTICE 7 . 7
Calculate the percent composition of Ca(N0 3)z.
PRACTICE 7 . 8
Calculate the percent composition of K 2Cr0 4 .
Practice Problems
For Calculating Percent Composition from Formula
1. Calculate the molar mass (Section 7.2).

2. Divide the total mass of each element in the formula by the molar mass and multiply
by 100. This gives the percent composition:
total mass of the element
X 100 = percent of the element
mo Iar mass
Problem-solving Strategy
Organization
We continue to emphasize the Jess theoretical aspects of chemistry early in the book, leav-
ing the more abstract theory for later. This sequence seems especially appropriate in a
course where students are encountering chemistry for the very first time. Atoms, molecules,
and reactions are all an integral part of the chemical nature of matter. A sound under-
standing of these topics allows the student to develop a basic understanding of chemical
properties and vocabulary.
Chapters 1 through 3 present the basic mathematics and the language of chemistry,
including an explanation of the metric system and significant figures. We added a new
section in Chapter 2 (2.7) on Percents to assist students in understanding how the concept
is applied in chemistry. In Chapter 4 we present chemical properties- the ability of a sub-
stance to form new substances. Then, in Chapter 5, students encounter the history and
language of basic atomic theory. In Chapter 8 we added a new section 8.3 "Why Reactions
Occur" and revised the section discussing types of reactions extensively to better reflect
the level and needs of our students.
We continue to present new material at a level appropriate for the beginning student by
emphasizing nomenclature, composition of compounds, and reactions in Chapters 6 through 9
before moving into the details of modern atomic theory. Some applications of the Peri-
odic Table are shown in early chapters and discussed in detail in Chapters 10 and 11.
Students gain confidence in their own ability to identify and work with chemicals in the
laboratory before tackling the molecular models of matter. As practicing chemists we
have little difficulty connecting molecular models and chemical properties. Students, espe-
cially those with no prior chemistry background, may not share this ability to connect the
molecular models and the macroscopic properties of matter. Those instructors who feel
it is essential to teach atomic theory and bonding early in the course can cover Chapters
10 and 11 immediately following Chapter 5.
New to This Edition

In the Fifteenth Edition we have tried to build on the strengths of the previous editions. We
have added a new author, Cary Willard, from Grossmont College in California. Cary revised
the end-of-chapter materials and added exercises, including many applications in fields of
interest for our students. She has focused on expanding and developing important and
Preface xvii
meaningful media assets for the Wiley PLUS course. Her focus has created deeper synergies
between the content in print format and the electronic resources in our Wiley PLUS course.
We continually strive to keep the material at the same level so that students can easily
read and use the text and supplemental material to learn chemistry. With a focus on problem
solving, student engagement, and clarity, some of the specific changes are highlighted below:
• Chemistry In Action boxes have been updated, and new boxes have been added to include CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
different applications of the concepts in the text. 7.6 Molecules and Formula
Units
• Some of the older industrial chemistry applications have been removed and newer -.. WileyPLUS
applications added as appropriate throughout the text.
• 229 Check Your Understanding Questions appear throughout the text to provide an
opportunity for the students to determine their level of understanding of concepts.
These are highlighted in the margins and refer the student to Wiley Plus for completion.
• 178 Enhanced Examples are also located in Wiley Plus and provide a more
i@i:t.p!3§·1¥MMQ!ti.W W ileyPLUS
interactive experience and practice. Students receive immediate feedback on How many oxygen atoms are present in 1.00 mol of oxygen molecules?
their answers and proceed stepwise through the example to its conclusion. SOLUTION
• 131 new Online Learning Modules movies provide a one-on-one learning Plan . o,ygen isadi,Hmniemolee.. lewith thefonnuhtO,. Thmfo"·" molecule
of oxygen contains 2 oxygen atoms: ~ :~: ~~e
1 1
1 0
experience that mimics the assistance an instructor provides in a help ses- 02 .

Solution ma p: moles 0 2~
molecules 0 :! ----} ato ms 0
sion. The modules are paired with in-text examples to provide an alternative The conversion factors needed are
6.022 X I 0 23 molecules 0~ 2atoms0
way to learn problem solving. l mole0 and I molecule0
1
•
2
• Each chapter is complemented by ORION, an adaptive learning module, c alculate . rroomeJ.en(6022 x i~)C ~)
available within WileyPLUS. These can be used individually for student = 1.20 X 1024 atoms 0
review or can be assigned by instructors as a specific review assignment ~-~-~-~~;~- ~--; -_-; -----------------------------------------------------
tailored to the chapters and sections on an exam. What is tbe mass of 2.50 mol of helium (He)?
• Chapters 19 and 20 (Introduction to Organic Chemistry and Introduction ~:wAn~.::~~"~';:""""';" 002 smolofimn'
to Biochemistry) are now available online only. This provides an option for
those desiring a shorter version of the text and for those wishing to cover this material
in their course.
ONLINE LEARNING MODULE
• The Putting It Together sections have been removed in order to provide a more flex-
ible review source for students and instructors. This new resource is called Orion and Finding Molecules in Moles
of a Diatomic Substance
is found on Wiley Plus. -.. W ileyPLUS
• New, modern design. The entire text has been redesigned to foster greater accessibility
and increase student engagement. New icons and notes direct students to Wiley Plus for
more individual direct interaction with the material.
• Appendix II: Using a Scientific Calculator has been removed because most students
begin using calculators in elementary school and there are so many kinds of calcula-
tors that specific instruction on their use is no longer possible.
Learning Aids
To help the beginning student gain the confidence necessary to master technical material,
we have refined and enhanced a series of learning aids:
• Learning Objectives highlight the concept being taught in each section. These objec-
tives are tied to Example, Practice Problems, Review Exercises, and Exercises to assist
the student in mastering each concept module and objective.
• Important terms are set off in bold type where they are defined and are listed in gray
at the beginning of each section. All Key Terms listed in the Chapter Review are also
defined in the Glossary.
• Worked examples show students the how of problem solving using Problem-Solving
Strategies and Solution Maps before they are asked to tackle problems on their own.
• Practice problems permit immediate reinforcement of a skill shown in the example
problems. Answers are provided at the end of the chapter to encourage students to
check their problem solving immediately.
xviii Preface
• Marginal notations help students understand basic concepts and problem-solving

techniques. These are printed in blue to clearly distinguish them from text and
vocabulary terms.
LEARNING AIDS: MATH SKILLS For students who may need help with the mathematical
aspects of chemistry, the following learning aids are available:
• A Review of Mathematics, covering the basic functions, is provided in Appendix I.

• Math Survival Guide: Tips and Tricks for Science Students, 2nd Edition, by Jeffrey R.
Appling and Jean C. Richardson, a brief paperback summary of basic skills that can
be packaged with the text, provides an excellent resource for students who need help
with the mathematical aspects of chemistry.
Supplements Package
FOR THE STUDENT Study Guide by Rachael Henriques Porter is a self-study guide for
students. For each chapter, the Study Guide includes a self-evaluation section with student
exercises, a summary of chapter concepts, one or more "challenge problems," and answers
and solutions to all Study Guide exercises.
Math Survival Guide: Tips and Tricks for Science Students, 2nd Edition, by Jeffrey
Appling and Jean Richardson, is a paperback summary of basic skills, with practice
exercises in every chapter.
Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, 14th Edition, by Morris Hein, Judith
N. Peisen, and Robert L. Miner includes 28 experiments for a laboratory program that
may accompany the lecture course. Featuring updated information on waste disposal
and emphasizing safe laboratory procedures, the lab manual also includes study aids and
exercises.
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Test Bank, by Harpreet Malhotra, includes chapter tests with
additional test questions and answers to all test questions.
Computerized Test Bank. The test bank contains true-false, multiple-choice, and open-
ended questions and is available in two formats.
Digital Image Library: Images from the text are available online in JPEG format.
Instructors may use these to customize their presentations and to provide additional
visual support for quizzes and exams.
Power Point Lecture Slides: Updated for this version by William Douglas Urban, these
slides contain lecture outlines and key topics from each chapter of the text, along with
supporting artwork and figures from the text.
WileyPLUS
WileyPLUS is an innovative, research-based online environment for effective teaching
and learning.
WileyP LUS builds students' confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by
providing students with a clear roadmap: what to do, how to do it, if they did it right. This
interactive approach focuses on:
CONFIDENCE: Research shows that students experience a great deal of anxiety studying.
That's why we provide a structured learning environment that helps students focus on
what to do, along with the support of immediate resources.
MOTIVATION: To increase and sustain motivation throughout the semester, WileyPLUS
helps students learn how to do it at a pace that's right for them. Our integrated resources-
available 24/7- function like a personal tutor, directly addressing each student's demon-
strated needs with specific problem-solving techniques.
Preface xix
WileyPLUS is now equipped with an adaptive learning module called ORION.
WileyPLUS with ORION is:
A personalized study guide that helps students understand both strengths

and areas where they need to invest more time, especially in preparation
BEGIN for quizzes and exams.
For each topic, students can either Study or Practice. Study directs the
student to the specific topic they choose in WileyPLUS, where they can
read from thee-textbook, or use the variety of relevant resources available
PRACTICE there. Students can also practice, using questions and feedback powered by
ORION's adaptive learning engine.
ORION includes a number of reports and ongoing recommendations for
students to help them maintain their proficiency over time for each topic.
MAINTAIN
Students can easily access ORION from within WileyPLUS. It does not require any
additional registration, and there is no additional charge for students using this adaptive
learning system.
What Do Students Receive with WileyPLUS?

• The complete digital textbook, saving students up to 50% off the cost of a printed text.
• Math Skills module provides a comprehensive review of topics including: ratios, scien-
tific notation, significant figures, and graphing.
• The Check Your Understanding Questions, Enhanced Examples, and Online Learning
Modules outlined above are available by default to students for self-study, no instruc-
tor set-up is required.
• Visualizations of key concepts with audio narration.
OsmoSIS
·..
··..
After a while. lhe volume of fluid in lhe tube. B.

has increased visibly. Osmosis has taken place.
xx Preface
What Do Instructors Receive with WileyPLUS?

• All end-of-chapter questions are available for assignment and automatic grading.
• Every assignable question has been enhanced with additional content such as hints,
solutions, and guided tutorials which can be made available to students at the instruc-
tor's discretion.
Step ! : Problem 12.10. Step 1 - Guide question 12-10a
If 3.56L of an unknown gas measured at STP has a mass of 32.0g, wh at is the density of the gas in
g/L?
Density of the gas • •99 L

The number of significant dig1ts is set to 3; the tolerance Is +/·1 in the 3rd significant digit
St e p 1 : Problem ll. J O. Step 2- Guide Question J 2- 10b
What conversion facto r is needed to convert density into molar mass?
(.' molar volume
r molar density
r volume
r mass
Step ;l : Problem 12.10. Step 3- Guide question 12- 10c
Wh at is the molar me of a gas at STP?

Molar volume ~ 2.4 mol
The number of Significant digits Is set to 3; the tolerance Is +/-1 In the 3rd significant digit
Now that you know how to solve the problem, go back and try again on your own.
• Pre-built assignments with two options per chapter that can be assigned with a single click.
• Prelecture checkpoint questions
• The complete instructor ancillary package can be accessed directly from WileyPLUS
including: Lecture PowerPoints, Solutions Manual, Classroom Response System
(Clickers) questions and Test Bank.
• WileyPL US can be integrated with many popular Learning Management Systems
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Acknowledgments
Books are the result of a collaborative effort of many talented and dedicated people. We
particularly want to thank our editor, Nick Ferrari, who guided the project through revision
with the challenge of creating several new electronic features. We are grateful to Mary Ann
Preface xxi
Price, Senior Photo Editor, for finding new and interesting photos that add so much to the
pages of our text. We also want to thank Elizabeth Swain, Senior Production Editor, who
kept us on track and production running smoothly. Sofia Buono, Project Manager/Copy
Editor, in Italy was amazing and turned our revisions into the beautiful text in our 15th edi-
tion. We also especially appreciate the work of Sean Hickey, Product Designer, who helped
us with the Online Learning Modules and incorporating new Check Your Understanding
questions into WileyP!us. Thanks to others who provided valuable assistance on this revi-
sion, including Senior Marketing Manager, Kristine Ruff, Senior Designer, Maureen Eide,
and Mallory Frye, Senior Market Solutions Assistant, who was always ready to find an
answer to anything we needed. We are grateful for the many helpful comments from col-
leagues and students who, over the years, have made this book possible. We hope they will
continue to share their ideas for change with us, either directly or through our publisher.
We are especially thankful for the help and support of Tom Martin, our developmental
editor. His positive attitude, attention to detail, efficiency, good humor, and willingness to
help in any way were indispensable in this revision.
Our sincere appreciation goes to the following reviewers who were kind enough to read
and give their professional comments.
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An
Introduction
to Chemistry
o you know how the beautiful, intricate fireworks
D displays are created? Have you ever wondered

how a tiny seedling can grow into a cornstalk
taller than you in just one season? Perhaps you have been
mesmerized by the flames in your fireplace on a romantic
evening as they change color and form. The spectacular colors of the aurora borealis shown above
are the result of chemistry in our atmosphere. And think of your relief when you dropped a container
and found that it was plastic, not glass. These phenomena are the result of chemistry that occurs all
around us, all the time. Chemical changes bring us beautiful colors, warmth, light, and products to
make our lives function more smoothly. Understanding, explaining, and using the diversity of materi-
als we find around us is what chemistry is all about.
2 CHAPTER 1 • An Introduction to Chemistry
1.1 The Nature of Chemistry

Q LEARNING OBJECTIVE State the definition of chemistry and why the study of chemistry is important.
KEY TERM A knowledge of chemistry is useful to virtually everyone- we see chemistry occurring
Chemistry around us every day. An understanding of chemistry is useful to engineers, teachers,
health care professionals, attorneys, homemakers, businesspeople, firefighters, and en-
vironmentalists, just to name a few. Even if you're not planning to work in any of these
fields, chemistry is important and is used by people every day. Learning about the benefits
and risks associated with chemicals will help you to be an informed citizen, able to make
intelligent choices concerning the world around you. Studying chemistry teaches you to
Key terms are highlighted in solve problems and communicate with others in an organized and logical manner. These
bold to alert you to new terms skills will be helpful in college and throughout your career.
defined in the text. What is chemistry? One dictionary gives this definition: "Chemistry is the science of
the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and
molecular systems." A somewhat simpler definition is "Chemistry is the science dealing
with the composition of matter and the changes in composition that maller undergoes."
Neither of these definitions is entirely adequate. Chemistry and physics form a fundamen-
tal branch of knowledge. Chemistry is also closely related to biology, not only because
living organisms are made of material substances but also because life itself is essentially
a complicated system of interrelated chemical processes.
The scope of chemistry is extremely broad. It includes the whole universe and every-
thing, animate and inanimate, in it. Chemistry is concerned with the composition and
changes in the composition of matter and also with the energy and energy changes asso-
ciated with matter. Through chemistry we seek to learn and to understand the general
principles that govern the behavior of all matter.
The chemist, like other scientists, observes nature and attempts to understand its
secrets: What makes a tulip red? Why is sugar sweet? What is occurring when iron rusts?
Why is carbon monoxide poisonous? Problems such as these- some of which have been
solved, some of which are still to be solved- are all part of what we call chemistry.
A chemist may interpret natural phenomena, devise experiments that reveal the com-
position and structure of complex substances, study methods for improving natural pro-
cesses, or synthesize substances. Ultimately, the efforts of successful chemists advance the
frontiers of knowledge and at the same time contribute to the well-being of humanity.
A health care professional needs
to understand chemistry in order Thinking Like a Chemist
to administer the correct dose of
medication. Chemists take a special view of things in order to understand the nature of the chemi-
cal changes taking place. Chemists "look inside" everyday objects to see how the basic
components are behaving. To understand this approach,
let's consider a lake. When we view the lake from a distance,
we get an overall picture of the water and shoreline. This
overall view is called the macroscopic picture.
As we approach the lake we begin to see more details-
rocks, sandy beach , plants submerged in the water, and
aquatic life. We get more and more curious. What makes
the rocks and sand? What kind of organisms live in
the water? How do plants survive underwater?
What lies hidden in the water? We can use a
microscope to learn the answers to some of
these questions. Within the water and the
plants, we can see single cells and inside
them organelles working to keep the organ-
isms alive. For answers to other questions,
we need to go even further inside the lake. A
drop of lake water can itself become a mys-
Inside a drop of lake water we find terious and fascinating microscopic picture full
water molecules and some dissolved substances. of molecules and motion. (FIGURE 1 .1) A chemist
1.2 • A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3
looks into the world of atoms and molecules and their motions. Chemistry makes the
connection between the microscopic world of molecules and the macroscopic world of
everyday objects.
Think about the water in the lake. On the surface it has beauty and colors, and it
gently laps the shore of the lake. What is the microscopic nature of water? It is composed
of tiny molecules represented as
H H
\./
0
In this case H represents a hydrogen atom and 0 an oxygen atom. The water molecule
is represented by H 20 since it is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
ENHANCED EXAMPLE 1.1 ,.CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

WileyPLUS
1.1 Making Methane Molecules 1
You are given eight oxygen atoms and fifteen hydrogen atoms. How many water
1.2 Making Methane Molecules 2
molecules can you make from them?
'- WileyPLUS
SOLUTION
From the model shown above for a water molecule you can see that one molecule of
water contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. Using this model as
reference, you can make eight water molecules from eight oxygen atoms. But you can ONLINE LEARNING MODULE
make only seven water molecules from fifteen hydrogen atoms with one H atom and Molecules and Atoms
one 0 atom left over. The answer is seven water molecules. • WileyPLUS
PRACTICE 1.1
You are given ten hydrogen atoms and eight oxygen atoms. How many water
molecules can you make from them?
1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving

-~-~-s~:i_~~-~-~~-~t~~s__i_n_~~!~~~--~~-~-~-~-~~-i-~~~-i~i-~--~~~~-~~------------ _________________________________________ ~-~-~-~ ~~-~-~---~-~~-~-~-! _1_~-~-_9
One of the most common and important things we do every day is to solve problems. KEY TERMS
For example, scientific method
hypothesis
• You have two exams and a laboratory report due on Monday. How should you theory
divide your time? scientific laws
• You leave for school and learn from the radio that there is a big accident on the free-
way. What is your fastest alternate route to avoid the traffic problem?
• You need to buy groceries, mail some packages, attend your child's soccer game, and
pick up the dry cleaning. What is the most efficient sequence of events?
We all face these kinds of problems and decisions. A logical approach can be useful for
solving daily problems:
1. Define the problem. We first need to recognize we have a problem and state it
clearly, including all the known information. When we do this in science, we call it
making an observation.
2. Propose possible solutions to the problem. In science this is called making a hypothesis.
3. Decide which is the best way to proceed or solve the problem. In daily life we use
our memory of past experiences to help us. In the world of science we perform an
experiment.
Using a scientific approach to problem solving is worthwhile. It helps in all parts of your
life whether you plan to be a scientist, doctor, businessperson, or writer.
Egyptians, the First Medicinal Chemists

in nature but must be synthesized. The synthesis of
L ook at any im-
ages of the ancient
Egyptians and notice
these lead salts is complicated and the products are not
lustrous. This led chemists to question why the Egyp-
tians would add these compounds to their eyeliner. The
the black eyeliner answer was revealed after reading some of the ancient
commonly worn at manuscripts from that time. Lead salts were synthesized
that time. As chemists for use in treating eye ailments, scars, and discolorations.
analyzed the composi- So even if the lead salts were not the best ingredients
tion of a sample of for beauty, they were added for the perceived health
this eyeliner in the benefits.
antiquities collection
at the Louvre Museum Since we now know that lead compounds are very toxic,
in Paris, they were Christ ian Amatore, an analytical chemist at the Ecole
appalled to discover Normale Superieure in Paris, wondered if the lead com-
the high concentration pounds in Egyptian eyeliner could have actually conferred
of lead in the samples. any health benefits. He introduced lead salts into samples
Today lead is routinely of human tissue growing in the laboratory and observed
removed from most that the cells began forming compounds that trigger an
Te rra-cotta sculpture of Nefertiti. consumer products immune response. Perhaps the ancient Egyptians did
because it is very toxic know something about medicinal chemistry after all. So
even in low concentrations. It is toxic to many organs and should we follow the Egyptians' examp le and add lead to
can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, dementia, our cosmetics? This is probably not a good idea because
anemia, seizures, and even death. It turns out the lead the risks associated with prolonged lead exposure out-
compounds found in the Egyptian eyeliner are not found weigh the benefits.
The Scientific Method

Chemists work together and also with other scientists to solve problems. As scientists
conduct studies they ask many questions, and their questions often lead in directions that
are not part of the original problem. The amazing developments from chemistry and
technology usually involve what we call the scientific method, which can generally be
described as follows:
1. Collect the facts or data that are relevant to the problem or question at hand. This
is usually done by planned experimentation. The data are then analyzed to find
trends or regularities that are pertinent to the problem.
2. Formulate a hypothesis that will account for the data and that can be tested by further
experimentation.
3. Plan and do additional experiments to test the hypothesis.
4. Modify the hypothesis as necessary so that it is compatible with all the pertinent data.
Confusion sometimes arises regarding the exact meanings of the words hypothesis, theory,
and law. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of certain facts that provides a basis for
further experimentation. A well-established hypothesis is often called a theory or model.
Scientists employ the scientific
method every day in their Thus, a theory is an explanation of the general principles of certain phenomena with
laboratory work. considerable evidence or facts to support it. Hypotheses and theories explain natural phe-
nomena, whereas scientific laws are simple statements of natural phenomena to which
no exceptions are known under the given conditions.
These four steps are a broad outline of the general procedure that is followed in most sci-
entific work, but they are not a "recipe" for doing chemistry or any other science (FIGURE 1.2).
Chemistry is an experimental science, however, and much of its progress has been due to
application of the scientific method through systematic research.
We study many theories and laws in chemistry; this makes our task as students easier
because theories and laws summarize important aspects of the sciences. Certain theories
and models advanced by great scientists in the past have since been substantially altered and
1.3 • The Particulate Nature of Matter 5
Observations -----or----- Laws
(analysis) (explanation)
Hypothesis
Experiment
!(analysis)
Theory FIGURE 1.2 The scientific

(model)
method.
modified. Such changes do not mean that the discoveries of the past are any less significant.
Modification of existing theories and models in the light of new experimental evidence is
essential to the growth and evolution of scientific knowledge. Science is dynamic.
1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter
The entire universe consists of matter and energy. Every day we come into contact KEY TERMS
with countless kinds of matter. Air, food, water, rocks, soil, glass, and this book are matter
all different types of matter. Broadly defined, matter is anything that has mass and solid
occupies space. amorphous
liquid
Matter may be quite invisible. For example, if an apparently empty test tube is sub-
gas
merged mouth downward in a beaker of water, the water rises only slightly into the tube. The
water cannot rise further because the tube is filled with invisible matter: air (FIGURE 1.3).
To the macroscopic eye, matter appears to be continuous and unbroken. We are
impressed by the great diversity of matter. Given its many forms, it is difficult to
believe that on a microscopic level all of matter is composed of discrete, tiny, fun-
damental particles called atoms ( FIGURE 1.4). It is truly amazing to understand that
the fundamental particles in ice cream are very similar to the particles in air that we
breathe. Matter is actually discontinuous and is composed of discrete, tiny particles
called atoms.
FIGURE 1.3 An apparently empty

test tube is submerged, mouth
downward, in water. Only a small
volume of water rises into the
tube, which is actually filled with
invisible matter: air.
FIGURE 1.4 Silicon atoms on a silicon chip

produced this image using a scanning tunneling
microscope.
FIGURE 1.5 The three states of

0
matter. (a) Solid-water molecules ]
are held together rigidly and are .§"
0
v;
very close to each other. "§
(b) Liquid-water molecules are m
0
u
close together but are free to ~
c
ro
move around and slide over each u
@
other. (c) Gas-water molecules
are far apart and move freely and
randomly.
Solid (Ice) Liquid (Water) Gas (Steam)

(a) (b) (c)
Physical States of Matter

Matter exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas ( FIGURE 1.5) . A solid has a
definite shape and volume, with particles that cling rigidly to one another. The shape of
a solid can be independent of its container. In Figure 1.5a we see water in its solid form .
Another example, a crystal of sulfur, has the same shape and volume whether it is placed
in a beaker or simply laid on a glass plate.
Crystalline solid Most commonly occurring solids, such as salt, sugar, quartz, and metals, are crystalline.
The particles that form crystalline materials exist in regular, repeating, three-dimensional,
geometric patterns (FIGURE 1.6). Some solids such as plastics, glass, and gels do not have any
regular, internal geometric pattern. Such solids are called amorphous solids. (Amorphous
means "without shape or form.")
A liquid has a definite volume but not a definite shape, with particles that stick firmly
but not rigidly. Although the particles are held together by strong attractive forces and are
in close contact with one another, they are able to move freely. Particle mobility gives a
liquid fluidity and causes it to take the shape of the container in which it is stored. Note
Amorphous solid how water looks as a liquid in Figure 1.5b.
A gas has indefinite volume and no fixed shape, with particles that move indepen-
dently of one another. Particles in the gaseous state have gained enough energy to over-
come the attractive forces that held them together as liquids or solids.
A gas presses continuously in all directions on the walls of any container.
Because of this quality, a gas completely fills a container. The particles
of a gas are relatively far apart compared with those of solids and liq-
uids. The actual volume of the gas particles is very small compared with
the volume of the space occupied by the gas. Observe the large space
between the water molecules in Figure 1.5c compared to ice and liquid
water. A gas therefore may be compressed into a very
small volume or expanded almost indefinitely.
Liquids cannot be compressed to any
great extent, and solids are even less
compressible than liquids.
If a bottle of ammonia solu-
tion is opened in one corner of
the laboratory, we can soon smell
its familiar odor in all parts of the
FIGURE 1.6 A large crystal of table salt. A salt
room . The ammonia gas escaping
crystal is composed of a three-dimensional array of
from the solution demonstrates that
particles .
gaseous particles move freely and
rapidly and tend to permeate the entire
area into which they are released .
1.4 • Classifying Matter 7
Although matter is discontinuous, attractive forces exist that hold the particles together
and give matter its appearance of continuity. These attractive forces are strongest in solids,
giving them rigidity; they are weaker in liquids but still strong enough to hold liquids to
definite volumes. In gases, the attractive forces are so weak that the particles of a gas are
practically independent of one another. TABLE 1.1 lists common materials that exist as
solids, liquids, and gases. TABLE 1.2 compares the properties of solids, liquids, and gases.
.·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·.
i TABLE 1.1 I Common Materials in the Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous States of Matter i
Solids Liquids Gases
Aluminum Alcohol Acetylene
Copper Blood Air
Gold Gasoline Butane
l Polyethylene Honey Carbon dioxide
l Salt Mercury Chlorine
l Sand Oil Helium
l Steel Syrup Methane
l Sugar Vinegar Nitrogen
[_~~~:~~--------------------------------------------------~~~~-~ ------------------------------------------------?~~~-~~--------------------:
·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·
! TABLE 1.2 I Physical Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
j State Shape Volume Particles Compressibility

l Solid Definite Definite Rigidly clinging; tightly packed Very slight
l Liquid Indefinite Definite Mobile; adhering Slight
l_ :~~-- - - - - - I~~~~~~t~-- - - - -~~~~~-nit-~- - - -~~~~~~e}_~-~-~~~~f~~~~~;~;-~~-- - - - - - ~i~~-- - - - - - - - - -

1.4 Classifying Matter
Distinguish among a pure substance, a homogeneous mixture, and a heterogeneous LEARNING OBJECTIVE Q
mixture.
The term matter refers to all materials that make up the universe. Many thousands of dis- KEY TERMS
tinct kinds of matter exist. A substance is a particular kind of matter with a definite, fixed substance
composition. Sometimes known as pure substances, substances are either elements or com- homogeneous
pounds. Familiar examples of elements are copper, gold, and oxygen. Familiar compounds heterogeneous
phase
are salt, sugar, and water. We'll discuss elements and compounds in more detail in Chapter 3.
system
We classify a sample of matter as either homogeneous or heterogeneous by examining it. mixture
Homogeneous matter is uniform in appearance and has the same properties throughout.
Matter consisting of two or more physically distinct phases is heterogeneous. A phase
is a homogeneous part of a system separated from other parts by physical boundaries.
A system is simply the body of matter under consideration. Whenever we have a system
in which visible boundaries exist between the parts or components, that system has more
than one phase and is heterogeneous. It does not matter whether these components are in
the solid, liquid, or gaseous states.
A pure substance may exist as different phases in a heterogeneous system. Ice floating
in water, for example, is a two-phase system made up of solid water and liquid water. The
water in each phase is homogeneous in composition, but because two phases are present,
the system is heterogeneous.
A mixture is a material containing two or more substances and can be either hetero-
geneous or homogeneous. Mixtures are variable in composition. If we add a spoonful of
sugar to a glass of water, a heterogeneous mixture is formed immediately. The two phases
are a solid (sugar) and a liquid (water). But upon stirring, the sugar dissolves to form a
homogeneous mixture or solution. Both substances are still present: All parts of the solu-
tion are sweet and wet. The proportions of sugar and water can be varied simply by add-
ing more sugar and stirring to dissolve. Solutions do not have to be liquid. For example,
air is a homogeneous mixture of gases. Solid solutions also exist. Brass is a homogeneous
solution of copper and zinc.
-" -"
~ ~
0, 0,
0 0
~ ~
~ ~
"'~ "'~
i
~"'
i
"'"'
2
1
&
1
&
(a) (b)
(a) Water is the liquid in the beaker, and the white solid in the spoon is
sugar. (b) Sugar can be dissolved in the water to produce a solution .
Many substances do not form homogeneous mixtures. If we mix sugar and fine white
sand, a heterogeneous mixture is formed . Careful examination may be needed to decide
that the mixture is heterogeneous because the two phases (sugar and sand) are both white
solids. Ordinary matter exists mostly as mixtures. If we examine soil, granite, iron ore, or
other naturally occurring mineral deposits, we find them to be heterogeneous mixtures.
FIGURE 1. 7 illustrates the relationships of substances and mixtures.
Flowcharts can help you to

Matter
visualize the connections
between concepts . !
Pure substances
l
Mixtures of two
(homogeneous composition)
Elements Compounds Solutions Heterogeneous

(homogeneous mixtures
composition- (two or more
one phase) phases)
FIGURE 1.7 Classification of matter. A pure substance is always

homogeneous in composition, whereas a mixture always contains two or
more substances and may be either homogeneous or heterogeneous .
1.4 • Classifying Matter 9
Distinguishing Mixtures from Pure Substances

Single substances- elements or compounds- seldom occur naturally in a pure state. Air
is a mixture of gases; seawater is a mixture of a variety of dissolved minerals; ordinary
soil is a complex mixture of minerals and various organic materials.
Mixture Pure Substance

1. A mixture always contains two or 1. A pure substance (element or
more substances that can be present compound) always has a definite
in varying amounts. composition by mass.
2. The components of a mixture do 2. The elements in a compound lose
not lose their identities and may be their identities and may be separated
separated by physical means. only by chemical means.
PRACTICE 1 . 2
Which of the following is a mixture and which is a pure substance?
Explain your answer.
(a) vinegar (4% acetic acid and 96% water)
(b) sodium chloride (salt) solution
(c) gold
(d) milk
How is a mixture distinguished from a pure substance? A mixture always contains

two or more substances that can be present in varying concentrations. Let's consider
two examples.
Homogeneous Mixture Homogeneous mixtures (solutions) containing either 5%
or 10% salt in water can be prepared simply by mixing the correct amounts of salt
and water. These mixtures can be separated by boiling away the water, leaving the
salt as a residue.
Heterogeneous Mixture The composition of a heterogeneous mixture of sulfur
crystals and iron filings can be varied by merely blending in either more sulfur or
more iron filings. This mixture can be separated physically by using a magnet to
attract the iron.
Q_
Q_
,2 ,2
c c
~
~
(a) " "

(b)
(a) When iron and sulfur exist as pure substances, only the iron is attracted
to a magnet. (b) A mixture of iron and sulfur can be separated by using the
difference in magnetic attraction.
1.1 The Nature of Chemistry
KEY TERM • Chemistry is important to everyone because chemistry occurs all around us in our daily lives.
chemistry • Chemistry is the science dealing with matter and the changes in composition that matter undergoes.
• Chemists seek to understand the general principles governing the behavior of all matter.
• Chemistry "looks inside" ordinary objects to study how their components behave.
• Chemistry connects the macroscopic and microscopic worlds.
1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving

KEY TERMS • Scientific thinking helps us solve problems Laws
scientific method in our daily lives.
hypothesis • General steps for solving problems include:
theory • Defining the problem
scientific laws 1----~ Hypothesis
• Proposing possible solutions
• Solving the problem
• The scientific method is a procedure for ~---- Experiment
processing information in which we:
• Collect the facts
• Formulate a hypothesis
!(analysis)
Theory
• Plan and do experiments
(model)
• Modify the hypothesis if necessary
1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter

KEY TERMS • Matter is anything with the following two characteristics:
matter • Has mass
solid • Occupies space
amorphous • On the macroscopic level matter appears continuous.
liquid • On the microscopic level matter is discontinuous and composed of atoms.
gas • Solid- rigid substance with a definite shape
• Liquid- fluid substance with a definite volume that takes the shape of its container
• Gas- takes the shape and volume of its container
1.4 Classifying Matter

KEY TERMS • Matter can be classified as a pure substance or a mixture.
substance • A mixture has variable composition:
homogeneous • Homogeneous mixtures have the same properties throughout.
heterogeneous • Heterogeneous mixtures have different properties in different parts of the system.
phase • A pure substance always has the same composition. There are two types of pure substances:
system • Elements
mixture • Compounds
Matter
!
Pure substances
l
Mixtures of two
(homogeneous composition) or more substances
Elements Compo unds Solutions Heterogeneous

(homogeneous mixtures
composition- (two or more
one phase) phases)
Paired Exercises 11
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between 5. Define a phase.
(a) a hypothesis and a theory 6. How many phases are present in the
(b) a theory and a scientific law graduated cylinder shown here?
2. Consider each of the following statements and determine 7. What is another name for a homoge-
whether it represents an observation, a hypothesis, a theory, or neous mixture?
a scientific law: 8. Which liquids listed in Table 1.1 are not
(a) The battery in my watch must be dead since it is no longer mixtures?
keeping time. 9. Which of the gases listed in Table 1.1
(b) My computer must have a virus since it is not working properly. are not pure substances?
(c) The air feels cool. 10. When the stopper is removed from a partly filled bottle contain-
(d) The candle burns more brightly in pure oxygen than in air ing solid and liquid acetic acid at 16. 7°C, a strong vinegar-like
because oxygen supports combustion. odor is noticeable immediately. How many acetic acid phases
(e) My sister wears red quite often. must be present in the bottle? Explain.
(f) A pure substance has a definite, fixed composition. 11. Is the system enclosed in the bottle in Question I 0 homoge-
3. Determine whether each of the following statements refers to a neous or heterogeneous? Explain.
solid, a liquid, or a gas: 12. Is a system that contains only one substance necessarily
(a) It has a definite volume but not a definite shape. homogeneous? Explain.
(b) It has an indefinite volume and high compressibility. 13. Is a system that contains two or more substances necessarily
(c) It has a definite shape. heterogeneous? Explain.
(d) It has an indefinite shape and slight compressibility. 14. Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
4. Some solids have a crystalline structure, while others have an amor- 15. Which of the following are pure substances?
phous structure. For each of the following five descriptions, deter- (a) sugar (d) maple syrup
mine whether it refers to a crystalline solid or an amorphous solid: (b) sand (e) eggs
(a) has a regular repeating pattern (c) gold
(b) plastic 16. Use the steps of the scientific method to help determine the
(c) has no regular repeating pattern reason that your cell phone has suddenly stopped working:
(d) glass (a) observation (c) experiment
(e) gold (b) hypothesis (d) theory
PAIRED EXERCISES
Most of the exercises in this chapter are available for assignment via the online homework management program, Wiley PLUS ( www. wileyplus.com)
All exercises with blue numbers have answers in Appendix 5.
1. Refer to the illustration and determine which state(s) of matter 2. Refer to the illustration and determine which states(s) of matter
are present. are present.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Foundations of College Chemistry, 15th

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2 Standards for Measurement 14

3 Elements and Compounds 48

5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 86

6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 102

7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 123

8 Chemical Equations 147

9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 175

10 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 196

11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 218

12 The Gaseous State of Matter 253

15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 343

16 Chemical Equilibrium 368

17 Oxidation- Reduction 397

18 Nuclear Chemistry 423

19 Introduction to Organic Chemistry (online only) 447

20 Introduction to Biochemistry (online only) 491

Review Questions Diatomic Elements 55

2 Standards for Measurement 14 Writing Formulas of Compounds

2.1 Scientific Notation 15 Review 62

5.1 Dalton's Model ofthe Atom 87 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Feeling

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION What's in a Name? 105 CHEMISTRY IN ACTION CO Poisoning-

9.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 176

7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 123

10 Modern Atomic Theory and 12 The Gaseous State of Matter 253

The Nature of the Solute and Solvent 315

CHEMISTRY IN ACTION Drug Delivery: 17.1 Oxidation Number 398

18.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 424 Disubstituted Benzenes 463

(online only) CHEMISTRY IN ACTION The Taste of Umami 505

19.1 The Beginnings of Organic Chemistry 448 20.5 Enzymes 506

Mathematical and Review Al

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