ISSUES AND DEBATES KNOWLEDGE BOOK

Gender and culture in Psychology – universality and bias. Gender bias

including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural bias, including
ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Universality = The idea that conclusions drawn in psychology can be applied to all people,
irrespective of gender and culture.

Gender bias = The term bias is used to suggest that a person’s views are distorted in some
way. In psychology, there is evidence that gender is presented in a distorted way that leads to
differential representation and/or treatment of males and females.

Androcentrism = This means means being centred on males or the male viewpoint, so that
‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard. In the past, most psychologists
were male, research was often conducted on all-male samples, and the theories produced
tended to represent a male view of the world.

02 WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females.
These differences are often presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable. Whereas, beta
bias refers to theories that have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences. These
theories often assume that the findings from all-male samples can apply equally to females.

03 GIVE AN EXAMPLE

Alpha bias

1. Freud argued that because girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic
stage, they do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys. This means they do not
identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and so
develop weaker superegos.
2. The evolutionary approach in psychology suggests that evolutionary processes in the
development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why
women have more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely
to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and
it is argued that the evolutionary perspective should not be used to justify gender
differences.

Beta bias

1. Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development was based on interviews conducted

with an all-male sample. His classification system is based on a morality of justice and
some researchers (e.g. Gilligan,1982) have found that women tend to be more focused
on relationships when making moral decisions and often appear to be at a lower level
 of moral reasoning when using Kohlberg’s system. Therefore, Kohlberg’s approach
meant that a real difference was ignored.
2. Early research into the fight-or-flight response was based exclusively on male animals
(as female hormones tend to fluctuate), and it was assumed that this was a universal
approach to threat. However, Taylor et al. (2000) have suggested that females are
more likely to show a ‘tend-and-befriend’ response.

04 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Gender bias in psychology has a number of implications (consequences). It can create

misleading assumptions about female (or male) behaviour. It can lead to negative stereotypes
and validate discriminatory practices. For example, feminists have argued that medicalizing
female emotions by explaining them in hormonal terms by using the diagnostic category ‘pre-
menstrual syndrome’ could provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities in
the workplace or in wider society.

Because of the negative implications, it is very important that gender bias in psychology is
resolved. For example, some psychologists attempt to develop theories that emphasise the
importance or value of women. Cornwell et al. (2013) noted that females are better at
learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus emphasising both the value of and the
positive attributes of women. Worrell (1992) also suggested a number of research criteria that
are particularly important to ensure research investigations are not gender-biased: using
alternative methods of inquiry to explore the personal lives of women; considering women in
the natural settings in which they function; collaborating with research participants to explore
personally relevant variables and studying diverse samples (women who vary by age, socio-
economic class, partner preference, minority or ethnic group).

Society has changed over the year and as females have made progress in Psychology,
changes have been made to research methodology and earlier theories. For example, Gilligan
(1981) proposed that women have a different sense of moral understanding from men and
compiled her own stage theory of moral understanding. Her approach showed that men and
women are different, but neither kind of moral reasoning (justice focus or care focus) is
considered to be better, they are just different.

It is important to recognise that gender bias can work against males as well as females. For
instance, Chodorow (1978) viewed women as more relational and caring, which is an example
of alpha bias. Another example is that women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression
and given treatment than males. This may be because women are more likely to suffer from
depression, or it could be that the diagnostic system may be biased towards finding depression
among women. The expectation that males should be able to ‘pull themselves together’ may
highlight an issue with the diagnostic systems for mental disorders.

05 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

This is not the best way to avoid gender bias as using an all-female sample will still show beta
bias as it is likely to minimise differences between males and females due to males not being
studied.
If Andrea wants to avoid gender bias then she needs to include a diverse sample (in terms of
age, socio-economic class, partner preference, minority or ethnic group) of males and females
in her sample. That way she can generalise the findings to all adults and she will also be able to
see whether there are any gender differences in conformity. As it is a conformity study, Andrea
should also consider the gender of the experimenter and of any confederates that might be
used.

By using a diverse sample of males and females Andrea would also be able to see whether
some women or some men are more likely to conform than others, as feminist psychologists
have suggested that diversity within groups of women should be examined, rather than
comparisons made between women and men.

06 PLAN

Discuss beta bias in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in your answer.
(8 marks)

Outline of beta bias in psychology

• Theories that have traditionally ignored or minimised sex differences.

• These theories often assume that the findings from all-male samples can apply equally
to females.

Reference to at least one topic

• Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development was based on interviews conducted

with an all-male sample.
• His classification system is based on a morality of justice and some research has found
women tend to be more focused on relationships when making moral decisions so can
seem to be at a lower level.

Discussion/evaluation of beta bias in psychology

• As shown in this example, beta bias can lead to female behaviours being judged
against male standards, which can have negative consequences.
• However, society has changed over the year and as females have made progress in
psychology, changes have been made to research methodology and earlier theories.
• For example, Gilligan (1981) proposed that women have a different sense of moral
understanding from men and compiled her own stage theory of moral understanding.
Her approach showed that men and women are different, but neither kind of moral
reasoning (justice focus or care focus) is considered to be better, they are just
different.

07 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Cultural bias = Culture can be defined as the values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared
by a group of people and cultural bias is the tendency to ignore cultural differences and judge
people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions.

Ethnocentrism = Refers to judging the behaviours of another culture from the standards and
values of one’s own culture. In psychological research this can often mean that any behaviours
that do not conform to Western norms are seen as deficient, unsophisticated or
underdeveloped.

Cultural relativism = Is the idea that behaviour can only be properly understood if the
cultural context is taken into consideration. Therefore, any study which draws its sample from
only one cultural context (like American college students) and then generalises its findings to
all people everywhere, is suspect as the findings of a psychologist may only make sense from
the perspective of the culture in which they were discovered.

08 GIVE AN EXAMPLE

Ethnocentrism

Ainsworth's Strange Situation is an example of ethnocentric research. The Strange Situation

was developed to assess attachment types, and many researchers assume that the Strange
Situation has the same meaning for infants from other cultures, as it does for American
children.

Psychologists use IQ tests devised by Western psychologists to study intelligence in many

different cultures. The psychologists assume that their view of intelligence applies to all
cultures equally, when this may not be the case. This means that non-Westerners may be
disadvantaged by such tests and then viewed as ‘inferior’.

Cultural relativism

People may be diagnosed as mentally ill by Western psychiatrists on the basis of behaviours
that may be statistically infrequent in Western cultures, but are seen as perfectly normal in
their own culture. For example, hearing voices can be viewed as normal in some
cultures/subcultures meaning that this behaviour can only be fully understood within that
cultural context.

When the strange situation has been used in cross-cultural research, it has been found that
German children, on average, demonstrate a higher rate of insecure-avoidant behaviour.
However, this needs to be understood within the cultural context, as it is not the case that
German mothers are more insensitive than American mothers. Instead, they value and
encourage independent behaviour, and therefore their children react differently in the Strange
Situation.

09 COMPLETE ME

Taking an etic approach involves looking at behaviour from outside a given culture and
attempting to describe behaviours that are universal. For example, comparing attachment
behaviours across cultures using the Strange Situation is an etic approach because the
attachment behaviours being assessed are considered to be universal. Ainsworth’s strange
situation is often criticised for being an imposed etic because it was developed based on
American norms regarding how a securely attached child should behave.

An emic approach functions from inside a particular culture and involves identifying
behaviours that are specific to that culture. Berry (1969) argues that psychology has often
been guilty of imposing an etic approach and that psychologists need to take more account of
cultural relativism, because certain behaviours may only make sense from the perspective of
the culture in which they were discovered.

10 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Culturally biased research can have negative implications (consequences).

For example, it can amplify and validate damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test
before WWI, which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly,
the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a
negative effect on the attitudes of Americans toward this group of people, which highlights the
negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

Because of the negative implications, it is very important that cultural bias in psychological
research is resolved. This can be done by developing ‘indigenous psychologies’, which are
theories that draw explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural
contexts. One example is Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black
people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of
behaviours and attitudes. This is an example of an emic approach, which emphasises the
uniqueness of every culture and looks at behaviour from the inside of a particular cultural
system. This has led to the emergence of theories that are more relevant to the lives and
cultures of people not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins.

Conducting more cross-cultural research can bring benefits. For example, it is able to
challenge our typical Western ways of thinking and viewing the world. Being able to see that
‘West is not necessarily best’ should promote a greater sensitivity to individual differences and
cultural relativism.

However, there are difficulties conducting cross-cultural research. For example, when
conducting research in Western cultures it is assumed that the participants are familiar with
the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry. However, this may not be the case for
participants from cultures that do not have the same historical experience of research. Bond
and Smith (1996) suggests that demand characteristics may be exaggerated, threatening the
validity of the research.

11 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Dr Jones is critical of using the Stanford Binet test to measure intelligence across cultures as it
is an imposed etic. Dr Smith is imposing his own cultural understanding of intelligence onto the
rest of the world, as this IQ test was developed in the US, based on Western ideas regarding
what kinds of behaviours are intelligent. This means that he is showing ethnocentrism, by
attempting to judge the intelligence of people from other cultures by the standards and norms
of his own culture. Dr Jones is referring to cultural relativism when he suggests that different
cultures may view intelligence in a different way than is assessed in the Stanford Binet. If this is
the case then people from other cultures may score lower on the test because it is not
assessing aspects of intelligence that are specific to their culture.
11 PLAN

Discuss ethnocentrism in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in your
answer. (8 marks)

Outline of ethnocentrism in psychology

• Judging the behaviours of another culture from the standards and values of one’s own
culture.
• In psychological research this can often mean that any behaviours that do not conform
to Western norms are seen as deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.

Reference to at least one topic

• Psychologists use IQ tests devised by Western psychologists to study intelligence in

many different cultures.
• The psychologists assume that their view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally,
when this may not be the case.
• This means non-Westerners may be disadvantaged by such tests and then viewed as
‘inferior’.

Discussion/evaluation of ethnocentrism in psychology

• Culturally biased research can have negative implications as it can amplify and
validate damaging stereotypes.
• For example, The US Army used an IQ test which was culturally biased towards
white American. The test showed African-Americans were at the bottom of the
IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the attitudes towards this group of
people.
• Because of such negative implications, it is very important that cultural bias in
psychological research is resolved. This can be done by developing ‘indigenous
psychologies’, which are theories that draw explicitly on the particular
experiences of people in different cultural contexts.

Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism;

biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific
emphasis on causal explanations.
01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Free Will = The view that individuals can play an active role and have a choice in how they
behave. They are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined, meaning they are
responsible for their own actions and it is impossible to predict human behaviour with any
precision.

Determinism = The view that free will is an illusion, and that behaviour is governed by internal
or external forces over which individuals have no control. Consequently, human behaviour is
viewed as predictable. An example of an external force would be the influence of parents
when rewarding certain behaviours, whereas an example of an internal force would be
hormones influencing the way in which someone behaves.
Scientific emphasis on causal explanations = One of the basic principles of science is that
everything has a cause and these causes can be explained using general laws. Knowledge of
causes and being able to form laws is important as they allow scientists to predict and control
events. Determinism provides causal laws that form the basis of science.

02 WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

Hard determinism is the view that internal or external forces outside of our control cause
behaviour, and is incompatible with free will. Whereas soft determinism is the view that
behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain
extent. While all human behaviour has a cause, individuals still have some conscious mental
control over how they behave.

03 EXPLAIN WITH AN EXAMPLE

Type of Explain Example

determinism
Biological The belief that human behaviour Chorley et al., (1998) reported a
determinism is caused by internal biological statistically significant association
factors, such as genes or between IQ test scores and the
hormones, that we have no IGF2r gene on chromosome six,
control over. suggesting that intelligence is, to
some extent, biologically
determined.

Environmental The idea that Bandura (1961) found that

determinism children with violent parents are
more likely to become violent
parents themselves, as a result of
observational learning.

Psychic The idea that human behaviour is
determinism caused by innate drives and
unconscious conflicts, repressed in
childhood, that we have no
control over.
Little Hans phobia of horses was
caused by his repressed fear of his
father castrating him (experienced
during the Oedipus complex),
being displaced onto horses.

04 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Biological determinism would see Carla’s artistic talent as being caused by internal, biological
factors such as genes. Carla’s father is also a talented artist so Carla could have inherited her
artistic genes from him.

Environmental determinism would see Carla’s artistic talent as being caused by external
features of the environment such as reward and punishment, and therefore a learned
behaviour. Carla would have observed her father drawing and painting and being rewarded for
this (e.g. with praise or with money if he sold a painting). Therefore, Carla may have started to
draw and paint herself in order to obtain similar rewards (vicarious reinforcement). Once she
began to draw and paint her father would have praised her (positive reinforcement) and she
would have repeated the behaviour.

Hard determinism is the view that internal or external forces outside of our control or cause
behaviour and there is no free will. This seems to be the case here as Carla says that she feels
she has to draw and paint, and she could not stop even if she wanted to.

05 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Determinism is consistent with the aims of science. The idea that human behaviour always
has a cause and obeys laws puts psychology on a footing with more established sciences. In
addition, the idea that behaviour can be predicted and controlled has led to the development
of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefited many people. For
example, the development of anti-psychotic drugs to treat schizophrenia.

Skinner claimed free will is an illusion and neurological studies of decision making have
revealed evidence to challenge the idea of free will and support determinism. For example,
Libet et al. (1983) found that the motor regions of the brain became active before a person
registers conscious awareness of a decision to move their finger. This strongly suggests that
many responses are biologically determined and that, although we may believe that we have
free will, Skinner’s claim that free will is an illusion may be correct.

Humanistic psychologists argue against determinism, claiming that humans have self-
determination and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause.
For example, studies of identical (MZ) twins typically find an 80% similarity in intelligence
scores and a 40% similarity in the likelihood of depression. However, as identical twins share
100% of their genes, these results suggest that biological determinism is unable to explain any
particular behaviour. The same evidence also indicates that no behaviour is completely
environmentally determined.

Hard determinism is incompatible with the way our legal system operates. If behaviour is
determined by internal or external forces, that provides a potential excuse for criminal acts.
For example, in 1981, Stephen Mobley argued that he was ‘born to kill’ after killing a pizza
shop manager because his family had a disposition towards violence and aggressive behaviour.
An American court rejected this argument. Therefore, a truly determinist position may be
undesirable as it provides an ‘excuse’, allowing people to claim that they are not responsible
for their crimes.

06 PLAN

Discuss the free will and determinism debate in psychology. (16 marks)

Outline of the debate

• Free Will - individuals can play an active role and have a choice in how they behave.
They are self-determined, responsible for their own actions and it is impossible to
predict human behaviour with any precision.
 • Determinism - free will is an illusion, and behaviour is governed by internal or external
forces over which individuals have no control. Consequently, human behaviour is
viewed as predictable.
• Biological determinism - human behaviour is caused by internal biological factors, such
as genes or hormones, that we have no control over.
• Environmental determinism - human behaviour is caused by external features of the
environment, such as reward systems, that we have no control over.
• Psychic determinism - human behaviour is caused by innate drives and unconscious
conflicts, repressed in childhood, that we have no control over.

Discussion/evaluation of the debate

• Determinism is consistent with the aims of science. The idea that human behaviour
always has a cause and obeys laws puts psychology on a footing with more established
sciences.
• The idea that behaviour can be predicted and controlled has led to the development of
useful treatments and therapies.
• Skinner claimed free will is an illusion and neurological studies of decision making have
revealed evidence to challenge the idea of free will and support determinism. E.g.
Libet et al.
• Humanistic psychologists claiming that humans have self-determination and free will
and that behaviour is not the result of any single cause so cannot be predicted.
• Hard determinism is incompatible with the way our legal system operates. Saying
behaviour is determined by internal or external forces provides excuses for criminal
acts.
• Soft determinism provides a compromise - behaviour is constrained by the
environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain extent. While all human
behaviour has a cause, individuals still have some conscious mental control over how
they behave.

The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and

environment in determining behaviour; the interactionist approach.

01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

The nature-nurture debate = A debate concerned with the relative contributions of genetic
inheritance (heredity) and environmental factors in determining human development and behaviour.

Heredity = The process by which characteristics and behaviours are genetically transmitted
from one generation to the next.

Environment = Any non-genetic influence on human behaviour, which can include people,
events and the physical world. The environment can begin to have an effect while a fetus is in
the womb.

The Interactionist Approach = An approach that suggests nature and nurture are so interlinked
that it does not make sense to separate them. Instead, it is more important to study how
nature and nurture interact and influence each other.
02 OUTLINE

Nature

The nature side of the debate proposes that behaviour is the product of innate biological or
genetic factors. Early nativists argued that human characteristics and some aspects of
knowledge were innate and inherited. The basic assumption is that the characteristics of the
human species are a product of evolution and that individual differences are the result of each
person’s unique genetic code.

Nurture

The nurture side of the debate proposes that behaviour is the product of environmental
influences. Environmentalists (also known as empiricists) hold the assumption that the human
mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually ‘filled’ as a result of experience.
This view was first proposed by John Locke in the 17th Century and was later taken up by
behavioural psychologists. According to environmentalists, psychological characteristics and
behavioural differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning.

03 WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE?

Nature

1. Family, twin and adoption studies show that the closer the relatedness of two people,
the more likely it is that they will show the same behaviours. For example, the risk of
being diagnosed with schizophrenia is approximately 1% of the general population.
However, Gottesman and Shields (1991) pooled the results of around 40 family studies
and found that the risk increases to 46% for those with two parents who have
schizophrenia.
2. With regard to OCD, Nestadt et al. (2010 reviewed previous twin studies and found
that 68% of identical (MZ) twins shared OCD compared to 31% of non-identical (DZ)
twins. This strongly suggests a genetic influence.

Nurture

1. Bandura et al. (1961) were able to show how aggression could be learned through
observation and imitation of an adult model playing with a Bobo doll. The children
who saw the adult behaving aggressively towards the doll, were more aggressive than
those who saw a non-aggressive model or no model (control group).
2. Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated how a phobia could be acquired through
classical conditioning. Little Albert was not afraid of the white rat (neutral stimulus)
until it was paired with a loud noise that frightened him (unconditioned stimulus).
Eventually the rat became the conditioned stimulus and fear of the rat the conditioned
response.

04 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Taking one side of the debate (nature or nurture) can have negative consequences. For
example, the nativist belief that ‘anatomy is destiny’ led to the development of the eugenics
movement and the application of eugenics policies. In America in the 1920s and 1930s a large
number of American states enacted legislation that led to compulsory sterilization of citizens
who were deemed ‘feeble-minded’.

The question of nature or nurture is impossible to answer because environmental influences

on a child’s life began at birth (or even before). Therefore, the interactionist approach
suggests that nature and nurture interact to produce behaviour. This is demonstrated in the
diathesis-stress model used to explain psychopathology. The diathesis is the biological
vulnerability (e.g. being born with a gene that predisposes you to develop a disorder. However,
the disorder will only develop if there is an environmental ‘stressor’ to trigger it. Evidence to
support the stress-diathesis model comes from the Finnish Adoption Study, which compared
155 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia, with a matched group of
children with no family history of schizophrenia. They found that the group with schizophrenic
mothers had a 10% rate of schizophrenia, but they also discovered that all of the reported
cases of schizophrenia occurred in families rated as ‘disturbed’. When the family environment
was rated as ‘healthy’, even in the high-risk sample (mother with schizophrenia), the
occurrence of schizophrenia was well below the general population rates. However, the
environment was not the sole cause, as the low-risk children from ‘disturbed’ families did not
develop schizophrenia.

Research that attempts to separate out the influence of the environment from the influence
of genes is complicated by the fact that children raised in the same family will not have
shared the same experiences. The idea of ‘shared’ and ‘unshared’ environments was
introduced by Dunn and Plomin (1990) and suggests that individual differences mean that
siblings experience life events differently. For example, age and/or temperament would mean
that a life event such as parental divorce would have a different meaning to each sibling. This
helps explain the finding that MZ twins reared together do not show 100% concordance,
supporting the view that it does not make sense to try and separate nature from nurture.

05 EXPLAIN

Epigenetics

Research into epigenetics (study of changes in organisms caused by modification of the ways
that genes are expressed rather than alteration of the genetic code) has been able to show
how interaction with the environment can leave epigenetic ‘marks’ on our DNA, telling us
which genes to ignore and which to use. This DNA can then be passed onto our offspring. Dias
and Ressler (2014) gave male laboratory mice electric shocks each time they were exposed to a
particular smell. The mice began to show a fear reaction each time the smell was presented
(classical conditioning). However, the researchers also found that future generations of the
original mice also feared the smell, even though they had not been exposed to it before or
received any shocks.

Gene-environment interactions (Scarr and McCartney)

Scarr and McCartney (1983) proposed that genes influence the environments that people
choose to interact with and described three types of interactions. Passive interaction occurs as
parents pass on genes and also provide an environment, both of which influence the child’s
development. For example, highly intelligent parents are likely to pass on genes for
intelligence to their children. They are also more likely to provide high levels of cognitive
stimulation and a good education. These correlated genetic and environmental influences
increase the likelihood that their child will be highly intelligent. In evocative gene-
environment interaction, heritable traits influence the reaction of others and hence the
environment provided by others. For example, a shy child (partly genetically influenced) may
be less fun to other children, making other children less likely to want to spend time with him
or her. This environment may result in the child becoming even more socially withdrawn. In
active gene-environment interaction, a child’s heritable traits influence his or her choice of
environment. For example, an aggressive child may choose to watch violent films and engage
in contact sports. All of these show

Niche picking (Plomin, 1994)

Similar to active gene-environmental interaction, this is the idea that people create their own
‘nuture’ by actively selecting environments that are complement their ‘nature’, so that both
work together. For example, extroverts may seek out other extroverts. This is one reason
research has shown that the influence of genes increases as children get older.

Neuroplasticity (e.g. Maguire at al., 2000)

Neuroplasticity is a term which describes the changes in the structure of the brain (nature), as
a result of life experience (nurture). For example, Maguire et al. (2000) investigated the
hippocampi volume of London taxi drivers’ brains. They found that the hippocampus on each
side of the brain (and especially the right hippocampus) was larger in taxi drivers in
comparison to non-taxi drivers. This shows how nurture (their driving experiences) influenced
nature (their brain structure).

06 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Joanne’s parents were also shy and quite so she may have inherited her shyness from them
(nature) as she shares their genes.

However, she also grew up with them, therefore, her shyness and quietness may have been
learned through social learning (observing and imitating her parents) and positive
reinforcement.

It is most likely that both nature and nurture have interacted to produce Joanne’s shyness as
she would have inherited her parent’s genes and also grew up in an environment where quiet
activities were encouraged. This is known as a passive gene-environment correlation. As she
became older her shyness affected the behaviour of other children (evocative-gene
correlation) and she had few friends, which would have increased her shyness. Her shyness
also seems to have led to niche-picking as she seems to have actively selected quite
environments that completement her ‘nature’. This is also known as an active gene-
environment correlation.

07 PLAN

Discuss the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour. (16
marks)

Outline of the debate regarding the relative importance of heredity and environment in
determining behaviour
 • Heredity - process by which characteristics and behaviours are genetically transmitted
from one generation to the next.
• Nature side of nature-nurture debate proposes behaviour is product of innate
biological or genetic factors. Early nativists argued that human characteristics and
some aspects of knowledge were innate and inherited.
• Environment - any non-genetic influence on human behaviour (e.g. people, events and
the physical world). Can begin to have an effect while a fetus is in the womb.
• Nurture side of debate proposes that behaviour is the product of environmental
influences. Empiricists assume the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) which is
gradually ‘filled’ as a result of experience.

Discussion/evaluation of the debate

• Evidence to support role of heredity - family, twin and adoption studies show that the
closer the relatedness of two people, the more likely it is that they will show the same
behaviours.
• Evidence to support role of the environment - Bandura et al. (1961) were able to show
how aggression could be learned through observation and imitation of an adult model
playing with a Bobo doll.
• Question of nature or nurture is impossible to answer because environmental
influences on a child’s life began at birth (or even before). Therefore, the interactionist
approach suggests that nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) interact to
produce behaviour. E.g. diathesis-stress hypothesis for schizophrenia.
• Evidence to support interactionism – epigenetics. Environment can leave epigenetic
‘marks’ on our DNA, telling us which genes to ignore and which to use. This DNA can
then be passed onto our offspring. E.g. Dias and Ressler (2014) mice passed on learned
fear to offspring.
• Evidence to support interactionism – neural plasticity. Changes in the structure of the
brain (nature), as a result of life experience (nurture). E.g. Maguire et al. (2000) - taxi
drivers.

Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in Psychology. Biological

reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism.
01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Reductionism = The belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into
simpler component parts. Those taking a reductionist position believe that the best way to
understand behaviour is to look closely at the parts that make up our systems and then use the
simplest explanations to understand how they work. Reductionism is based on the scientific
assumption of parsimony: the idea that complex phenomena should be explained in the
simplest terms possible.

Holism = comes from the Greek word ‘holos’, which means ‘all’, ‘whole’ or ‘entire’ and is the
idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as
separate parts.
02 COMPLETE THE TABLE

Level of explanation Outline Example

Social and Cultural Behaviour is explained in terms Memory can be explained at a
explanations of the influence of social social and cultural level as the work
groups. of Bartlett’s schema theory (1932)
explains how social and cultural
factors influence what we
remember.
Psychological Cognitive and behavioural/ Cognitive psychologists examined
explanations environmental explanations of particular aspects of memory. For
behaviour. example, Miller examined the
capacity of STM and Peterson and
Peterson examined the duration of
STM.

Biological/physiological Behaviour is explained in terms Memory can be explained in terms

explanations of genes, neurochemicals, of biological components. For
hormones, brain structure etc. example, Maguire et al. (2000)
found the size of the hippocampus
was linked to spatial ability.

03 EXPLAIN WITH AN EXAMPLE

Biological reductionism

Biological reductionism is based on the idea that all behaviour is at some level biological and
can be explained in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, evolution
and genetic factors.

Explanations of psychological disorders are often biologically reductionist, as genes and

neurochemical imbalances are offered as the main cause. For example, neural explanations for
OCD suggest that it may be caused by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system in
the brain.

Environmental (stimulus-response reductionism)

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R
(stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains.

For example, behaviourists reduce the complex behaviour of attachment down to a stimulus-
response link, where the mother becomes the conditioned stimulus due to being associated
with the pleasure gained from feeding. Therefore, the child comes to feel pleasure
(conditioned response) when he or she encounters their mother, leading to the formation of
an attachment.

Experimental reductionism

Experimental reductionism is where complex behaviour is reduced to a single (isolated)

variable for the purpose of testing. Experimental reductionism underpins the experimental
approach; complex behaviours are reduced to operationalised isolated variables in order to
measure and determine causal relationships.

Cognitive psychologists often examine memory in terms of isolated variables. For example,
Peterson and Peterson (1959) examined the duration of short-term memory by testing
participants memory for nonsense trigrams, when rehearsal was prevented, after different
amounts of time (3, 6, 9,12 or 18 seconds).

04 TELL ME

1. Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception, as when we perceive

something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and
pieces. What we see only makes sense when we consider the whole image, rather
than the individual elements that make up our vision. This is why they said that ‘the
whole is greater than the sum of parts.’

2. Humanistic psychology also advocates a holistic approach, as it argues that humans

react to stimuli as an organised whole, rather than as a set of stimulus-response links.
Humanistic psychologists use qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the
individual, as well as the interactions between people. They also see successful
therapy as bringing together all aspects of the ‘whole person’.

05 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Taking a reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research. For example,
most experimental psychology is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be
studied effectively through relatively simple experiments, where complex behaviour is reduced
to isolated variables (experimental reductionism). This allows researchers to study the
different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner while establishing a
causal relationship. This would not be possible if psychologists attempted to study all of the
factors that influence human behaviour at once, as it would be too complex to interpret the
findings. This approach has given psychology greater credibility. However, the results of highly
controlled laboratory studies are often questionable. For example, the findings of laboratory
research examining the reliability of eyewitnesses (e.g. Loftus and Palmer) have not been
confirmed by studies examining real-life witnesses (e.g. Yuille and Cutshall).

Taking a reductionist approach can lead to errors in understanding.

This is because it ignores the complexity of human behaviour. For example, to treat conditions
like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than
neurochemical imbalances, is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause.
Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but it can be argued that the conditions which gave rise to
the ADHD have still not been addressed. Success rates of drug therapy for most mental health
problems are so highly variable, that trying to explain conditions such as schizophrenia or
depression only in terms of biological factors seems inadequate.

Holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour. There are

aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group or cultural context and cannot be
understood at the individual level. For example, the effects of conformity to social roles and
the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could only
be understood by studying the group as a whole, rather than studying the individuals within
the group in terms of biological factors (e.g. genes or hormones), or environmental factors (S-R
links).

Holistic explanations do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing. As explanations

become more complex, then they become vague and speculative. This can be seen with
humanistic psychology, which is often criticised for its lack of empirical evidence. In addition, if
we accept that there are many factors that contribute to any one behaviour, such as
depression, then it becomes difficult to establish which is the most influential and which to
focus on as a basis for therapy.

06 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Dr Brown is taking a reductionist approach to investigate why people enjoy taking part in
dangerous sports. This is due to him wanting to use brain scans to focus on just one
component part of this behaviour - the way that they process information. This is an example
of biological reductionism as he wants to explain why people enjoy taking part in dangerous
sports in terms of brain function.

Dr Black is taking a holistic approach, by using case studies to investigate the whole integrated
experience of taking part in dangerous sports to help understand why some people enjoy it.
This is because he recognises that it is important to consider the whole person, in terms of
social, emotional and cognitive factors.

07 PLAN

Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied
in psychology in your answer (16 marks)

Outline of holism and reductionism in psychology

• Reductionism - belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into
simpler component parts.
• Best way to understand behaviour is to look closely at the parts that make up our
systems and then use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.
• Reductionism based on the scientific assumption of parsimony: the idea that complex
phenomena should be explained in the simplest terms possible.
• Biological reductionism - all behaviour is at some level biological and can be explained
in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, evolution and
genetic factors.
• Environmental reductionism - behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks
of S-R (stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R
chains.
• Holism - comes from the Greek word ‘holos’, which means ‘all’, ‘whole’ or ‘entire’.
• Human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as
separate parts.

Reference to at least one topic

• Example of biological reductionism - neural explanations for OCD suggest that it may
be caused by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system in the brain.
 • Example of environmental reductionism - behaviourists reduce the complex behaviour
of attachment down to a stimulus-response link, where the mother becomes the
conditioned stimulus due to being associated with the pleasure gained from feeding.
• Example of holism - Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception, as
when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a
collection of bits and pieces. What we see only makes sense when we consider the
whole image

Discussion of holism and reductionism in psychology

• Taking a reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research. For
example, most experimental psychology is based on the assumption that human
behaviour can be studied effectively through relatively simple experiments, where
complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables (experimental reductionism).
• However, taking a reductionist approach can lead to errors in understanding because it
ignores the complexity of human behaviour. E.g. ADHD.
• Holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour - there are
aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group or cultural context and
cannot be understood at the individual level. E.g. Stanford prison experiment.
• However, holistic explanations do not lend themselves to scientific testing.

Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation.

01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Idiographic approach = Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the

individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature. This means they
favour qualitative research methods, such as the case study, unstructured interviews and
thematic analysis, which allow an in-depth insight into individual behaviour. The idiographic
approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others.

Nomothetic approach = Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with
establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, and the use of
statistical (quantitative) techniques to analyse data. This means that experiments, correlations,
psychometric testing and other quantitative methods are favoured among nomothetic
researchers.

02 WHICH IS IT?

The study of KF (Shallice and Warrington, Idiographic approach as a case study has
1970) who suffered a motor bike accident been used to gain an in-depth insight into
that affected his memory. The research the memory function of one person.
showed that STM consists of more than one
component, which challenged the multi-
store model of memory.

Nestadt et al. (2010) conducted a review of Nomothetic approach as a large sample have
twin studies and found that 68% of been studied and the findings statistically
 identical twins shared OCD as opposed to analysed in order to establish a general law
31% of non-identical twins. regarding the cause of OCD.
Skinner conducted research with rats and Nomothetic approach as a large sample (of
pigeons and found that behaviour is shaped animals) have been studied and the findings
by its consequences (positive statistically analysed in order to establish
reinforcement, negative reinforcement and general laws of learning (classical and
punishment). operant conditioning) that can be applied to
humans as well as non-human animals.
Freud conducted very detailed Idiographic approach as Freud was using the
investigations into the lives of his patients case study method to gain insight into his
(e.g. Little Hans, Rat Man) in an attempt to patient’s disorders. However, Freud did use
understand and help them overcome their some of his case studies to form general
psychological disorders. laws regarding personality development
(nomothetic approach).
Humanistic psychologists such as Rogers Humanistic psychologists take an idiographic
and Maslow emphasise the unique personal approach as they are more concerned with
experience of human nature. investigating unique experience than
producing general laws of behaviour.

03 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Dr Black is taking an idiographic approach because he is using a small number of case studies.
This is because a qualitative method is being used to gain in-depth understanding of the
unique reasons people might have for putting their lives in danger.

Dr Brown is taking a nomothetic approach. This is because he is using a large sample in order
to establish differences in brain function between people who take part in dangerous sports
and those who don’t. The psychologist would then be able to produce a general law to explain
how people who enjoy dangerous sports process information differently to those who don’t.

04 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Methods used by those taking an idiographic approach (e.g. case studies) can be very useful
for highlighting flaws in psychological theories and prompting further research. For example,
the case study of KF exposed a limitation of the Multi- Store Model of Memory, by providing
evidence that our STM comprises of at least two components (auditory and visual).

The idiographic approach has been criticised for being unscientific. The emphasis on in-depth
data collection of unique individuals means that meaningful generalisations cannot be made.
In addition, case studies often rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher so are
open to bias. However, due to its use of in-depth qualitative methods of investigation, the
idiographic approach is able to provide complete and global accounts of individuals.

The nomothetic approach has given psychology scientific credibility. The use of experimental
(quantitative) methods, controlled measurement and the ability to predict behaviour, are all
seen as strengths of the nomothetic approach. Furthermore, controlled methods allow for
replication to examine the reliability of findings which has helped psychology establish itself as
a scientific discipline. The development of theories and empirical testing is just one of the key
features of science that are employed by the nomothetic approach.

The nomothetic approach has been criticised for losing sight of the ‘whole person’. This is
due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis, which mean that nomothetic
approaches only provide a superficial understanding of human behaviour. For example,
Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a
450-volt electric shock because they were ordered to do so. However, the results fail to
provide an explanation of why each person obeyed, and there may have been very different
circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant.

Holt (1967) argues that the ideographic/nomothetic distinction is a false distinction and it is
possible to consider the same topic/behaviour/issue from both perspectives. For example,
while cognitive psychologists typically take a nomothetic approach and create general laws of
cognitive processes (e.g. the working memory model), they also take advantage of the
idiographic approach when using case studies to provide evidence for a particular theory. In
reality, many research studies make use of both approaches, and it could be argued that the
distinction between idiographic and nomothetic is meaningless and psychologists should
employ both methods depending on the nature of the research question.

05 PLAN

Discuss the idiographic approach in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in
your answer. (8 marks)

Outline of the idiographic approach

• Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise
the unique personal experience of human nature.
• They favour qualitative research methods, such as the case study, unstructured
interviews and thematic analysis, which allow an in-depth insight into individual
behaviour.
• Idiographic approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others.

Reference to at least one topic

• Case study of case study of KF used to gain an in-depth insight into the memory
function of one person – showed STM consists of more than one component, which
challenged the multi-store model of memory.
• Humanistic psychologists take an idiographic approach as they are more concerned
with investigating unique experience than producing general laws of behaviour.

Discussion/evaluation of the idiographic approach

• Methods used by those taking an idiographic approach (e.g. case studies) can be very
useful for highlighting flaws in psychological theories and prompting further research.
E.g. case study of KF used to challenge multi-store model of memory.
 • The idiographic approach is unscientific - emphasis on in-depth data collection of
unique individuals means generalisations cannot be made.
• Holt (1967) argues that the ideographic/nomothetic distinction is a false distinction
and it is possible to consider the same topic/behaviour/issue from both perspectives.
E.g. cognitive approaches uses case studies but makes general laws.

Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to

social sensitivity.
01 WHAT IS MEANT BY?

Ethical issues = Ethical issues arise in psychology when there is a conflict between the rights of
the participants and the researcher’s needs to gain valuable and meaningful data. Examples
are informed consent, deception and protection from harm.

Ethical implications = These are the consequences or effects of psychological research, in

terms of rights, for either the participants who took part or the wider public. Examples are the
impact the findings might have on public policy or the impact that being deceived might have
on a participant.

Socially sensitive research = According to Sieber and Stanley (1988) this is research where
there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people
represented by the research.

02 WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH?

The research question

Researchers must think carefully about their research question carefully. This is because asking
questions like, ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or, ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be
damaging to members of a particular group. This is because asking such questions appears to
add scientific credibility to a prejudice that already exists.

Conduct of research and treatment of participants

Researchers needs to consider the treatment of participants and their right to confidentiality
and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, or to having
unprotected sex if they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?

The institutional context

Researchers needs to be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is
funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, they
need to think about why they are funding the research and how they intend to use the
findings.

Interpretation and application of findings

Researchers need to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real
world, and whether their data or results could be used to inform policy. Research findings may
be used for purposes other than originally intended. For example, the development of IQ tests
by psychologists was subsequently used to demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups of
people and was also used to identify the ‘feeble-minded’ who could then be sterilised.

03 WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS?

Migram conducted his obedience
research to answer the question
‘Are German’s different?’
Milgram’s participants were
deceived as they were led to
believe that they were delivering
electric shocks to another
participant.
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
suggests that children form one
special attachment bond, usually
with their mother, which must take
place within a critical period.
Bowlby also suggested that this
attachment bond affects their
future relationships through an
internal working model.
Burt’s research using identical twins
which found a heritability
coefficient of 0.77 for intelligence,
suggesting a strong genetic basis for
intelligence.
Research into race and IQ. For
example, Robert Yerkes conducted
flawed research with American
soldiers during the First World War
which found that black Americans
had lower IQ scores in comparison
to white Americans.
Asking this research question has ethical
implications as Milgram asked the question
following the Second World War when there was
already prejudice against German people, and asking
this could have given this scientific credibility.
There were also ethical implications of Milgram’s
deception as the participants believing that they
were delivering electric shocks led to high levels of
stress and in some cases seizures.
While Bowlby’s theory has contributed to the
development of childcare practices, it has also
encouraged the view that a women’s place is at
home with her children, which could make some
mothers feel guilty for returning to work following
childbirth.
Burt’s conclusions greatly influenced the Hadow
Report (1926), which led to the creation of the 11+
exam for entry into a selective ‘grammar school’.
This was used throughout England from 1944-1976
and is still used today in a few areas. This meant that
generations of children were affected by the 11+
exam, even though there has been huge controversy
regarding whether Burt had falsified some of his
research data.
The findings of such research have been used to
justify new (and often unwarranted) forms of social
control. For example, between 1907 and 1963, over
64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilised under
eugenic legislation in the United States and, in 1972,
the United States Senate Committee revealed that
at least 2,000 involuntary sterilisations had been
performed on poor black women without their
consent or knowledge.

04 ELABORATE YOUR DISCUSSION POINTS

Not all socially sensitive research has negative consequences. Some socially sensitive
research is desirable and beneficial to society. For example, research examining eyewitness
testimony, especially the use of child witnesses (e.g. Flin et al.) has found young children can
be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner. In this area,
socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists
and the legal profession to help improve the accuracy and validity of child eyewitnesses. Scarr
(1988) argues that the studies of underrepresented groups may promote a greater sensitivity
and understanding of such groups, which can help to reduce prejudice and encourage
acceptance.

Current ethical guidelines are inadequate. Psychologists typically deal with ethical issues in
research by following the ethical guidelines for the conduct of their studies. However, the
current ethical guidelines focus on protecting the immediate needs of research participants,
but do not deal with all the possible ways in which research may inflict harm on a group of
people or section of society. For example, at present ethical guidelines don’t ask researchers to
consider how their research might be used by other people or institutions to form and/or
shape public social policy. Therefore, even though Sieber and Stanley (1988) raised their
considerations some time ago, they have not yet permeated into professional practice.

Researchers should be free to carry out whatever research they feel is important, even
though it might be socially sensitive. Because if governments start passing laws to prohibit
certain kinds of research (e.g. ethnicity-related research), then there is a real danger that
research would be stopped for political rather than for ethical reasons. According to Sieber and
Stanley (1988), simply ignoring socially sensitive research is not a responsible approach to
science. They suggest that avoiding controversial topics, simply because they are controversial,
means psychologists are also avoiding responsibility. Therefore, psychologists have a duty to
conduct such research. However, there is some evidence that socially sensitive research (at
least in the US) is more likely than non-sensitive research to be rejected by institutional ethical
committees. For example, Ceci et al. (1985) found that the rejection rate was about twice as
great, which suggests that university ethics departments are mindful of socially sensitive
research, and measures are put in place at an institutional level to protect individuals and the
wider community from socially sensitive research.

Psychologists need to take responsibility for what happens to their research findings. In
order to reduce the likelihood of misuse of data, psychologists should be energetic in taking
responsibility for what happens to their findings. They should be aware of the possibility that
the results of their research might lead to abuse and discrimination. The British Psychological
Society has a press centre which aims to promote evidence-based psychological research to
the media. But individual researchers should also consider it part of the research process to
promote their research in a socially sensitive way, as opposed to the neutral position that
some scientists take. Another solution might be for psychologists to engage more actively with
policymakers after the publication of their findings to help reduce the likelihood that data is
misused and to ensure that evidence-based research is used in socially sensitive ways.

05 USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE

This is an example of socially sensitive research, as it may have negative consequences for
individuals with this type of brain damage who did not take part in the research. For example,
the findings may have a negative impact on people who have this type of brain damage, but
are not violent criminals. It may affect how people treat them or make it very difficult for them
to get a job. Raine only conducted brain scans of violent criminals, we do not know how many
people in the general population who are not violent criminals also have this type of brain
damage.

Another ethical implication is that it might affect policy decisions. It might be recommended
that people who have this type of brain damage and do commit a violent crime should be
given a longer prison sentence because they are more likely to reoffend in the future. The
findings could even be used to imprison people with this type of brain damage just in case they
commit a violent crime.

06 PLAN

Discuss ethical implications of psychological research that could be considered to be socially

sensitive. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in your answer. (8 marks)

Description of ethical implications of psychological research that could be considered to be

socially sensitive.

• According to Sieber and Stanley (1988) socially sensitive research is research where
there are potential social consequences or ethical implications for the participants or
the group of people represented by the research.
• Four key aspects - the research question, conduct of research and treatment of
participants, the institutional context and interpretation and application of findings
• Psychologists need to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in
the real world, and whether their data or results could be used to inform policy.

Reference to at least one topic

• Bowlby’s attachment theory can be considered socially sensitive as it has encouraged

the view that a women’s place is at home with her children, which could make some
mothers feel guilty for returning to work following childbirth.
• Research into race and IQ is socially sensitive as findings have been used to justify new
(and often unwarranted) forms of social control.

Discussion/evaluation of ethical implications of research that could be considered to be

socially sensitive

• Not all socially sensitive research has negative consequences. Some socially sensitive
research is desirable and beneficial to society, e.g. Research into accuracy of child
witnesses.
• Researchers should be free to carry out whatever research they feel is important, even
though it might be socially sensitive. Sieber and Stanley (1988) argue simply ignoring
socially sensitive research is not a responsible approach to science.
• However current ethical guidelines are inadequate and psychologists need to take
responsibility for what happens to their research findings.
• Psychologists should engage more actively with policymakers after the publication of
their findings to help reduce the likelihood that data is misused and to ensure that
evidence-based research is used in socially sensitive ways.
Research methods question 1
a. Volunteer sampling.
b. One strength is that it would be less time consuming than opportunity sampling in this
investigation. This is because the psychology student would have to contact a lot of
people to find pairs of MZ and DZ twins prepared to take part in the study. Using
volunteer sampling meant she could simply place an advert on the internet and wait
for them to come to her. One limitation is that asking for volunteers may attract a
particular kind of person. In this investigation it might be more likely to attract people
who are extrovert rather than introvert, which may make the findings difficult to
generalise.
c. The psychology student has taken a nomothetic approach. This is because she is
studying a fairly large sample of twins, using statistical analysis, in order to produce a
general law of human behaviour (that extraversion has a strong genetic basis).
d. One reason is that the study is looking for a relationship/correlation between the
extroversion scores for each pair of twins. Another reason is that the data is at least
ordinal as it is scores on the extroversion test. There is a scale of measurement, but we
cannot be sure that there are equal intervals between each unit on the scale.
e. The psychology student could have assessed test-retest reliability. She could have
asked some of the participants to fill in the extraversion scale again 1 week later. She
could then have compared the results of the two separate ratings, and calculated the
correlation between the two sets of ratings. If she obtained a correlation of at least 0.8
between the test and the re-test, she could assume the measuring scale for
extroversion was reliable.
f. It is an example of biological determinism because she is suggesting that extroversion
is caused by internal genetic influences that humans have no control over.
g. The nature side of the nature-nurture debate would suggest that extroversion is
inherited. However, if that was the case the correlation for MZ twins, who share 100%
of their genes should be 1.0 rather than 0.69. The nurture side of the debate would
suggest that extroversion is a learned behaviour, therefore due to the environment.
However, that does not explain why the correlation for MZ twins is so much larger
than the correlation for DZ twins. Therefore, it would seem that nature and nurture
interact to produce extroversion. People might inherit a predisposition towards being
extravert, which is then influenced by the environment that they grow up in. Even
though the twins grew up together, their life experiences would not be completely the
same (e.g. they may have had different friends) and this would mean that the
correlation for identical twins was not 1.0.
Research methods question 2
A psychologist wanted to take a holistic approach to studying depression, rather than focus on
any one explanation. The psychologist was interested in finding out all of the things that the
participants believed were responsible for their depression, which involved conducting
unstructured interviews with a small sample of female participants. The interviews were
recorded and then analysed.

1. An unstructured interview is more like a conversation and very little is decided in

advance, perhaps only some topic areas and some of the questions. They allow the
collection of rich, qualitative data.
2. One strength of conducting unstructured interviews is that their conversational
structure allows the participant to relax and the psychologist to build a rapport with
them. This would allow the collection of more detailed responses regarding what the
participants feel is responsible for their depression. One limitation is that they are very
difficult and time consuming to analyse. The psychologist would have a lot of data
regarding what participants thought was responsible for their depression to sift
through and this may make it difficult to draw firm conclusions.
3. The psychologist could have used the recordings to make transcriptions of the
interviews. The psychologist could have read through the transcriptions looking for
emerging themes regarding what participants thought was responsible for their
depression (e.g. loss of a job, bereavement etc.)
4. One strength of taking a holistic approach to study depression is that it will provide a
more complete understanding of all the reasons why someone might feel depressed,
rather than simply focusing on one aspect, such as biological factors (e.g.
neurotransmitters) or cognitive factors (negative thinking). One limitation of taking a
holistic approach to studying depression is that if the investigation finds that there are
many different factors that contribute to depression, it may be difficult to establish
which one or ones are most important in order to provide a basis for therapy.
5. This would be an example of beta bias as the sample are all female. Generalising the
findings to males could mean that differences between males and females in terms of
what sorts of things they believe are responsible for their depression are
underestimated.
6. The psychologist should use a sample that includes males and females.
7. One ethical issue is protection from harm. The participants are being asked about
things that they believe are responsible for their depression, which may be upsetting.
Therefore, the psychologist needs to explain before the interview begins that if the
participant is uncomfortable at any point, then they will be allowed to stop and to
withdraw from the study. The psychologist should also look for any signs of the
participant becoming upset during the interview and if they do, ask them if they would
like to stop. The participants should also be reminded of their right to withdraw
afterwards in a debrief.
 Mini issues and debates mock (24 marks – 30 minutes)
1. Which one of the following is not a type of reductionism?
A. Biological reductionism
B. Stimulus-response reductionism
C. Psychic reductionism
D. Experimental reductionism
(1 mark)

Correct answer = C

2. Briefly explain what is meant by the term cultural relativism. (2 marks)

The idea that behaviour can only be properly understood if the cultural context is
taken into consideration. For example, attachment behaviours, such as German
children appearing to be insecure-avoidant, may only make sense from the perspective
of the culture in which they are shown. This is because German mothers value
independence.

3. Briefly outline the nature-nurture debate in psychology. (3 marks)

It is a debate/discussion regarding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and

environmental factors to human behaviour. The nature side of the debate proposes
that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors. For example, early
nativists argued that human characteristics and some aspects of knowledge were
innate and inherited. The nurture side of the debate proposes that behaviour is the
product of environmental influences. Environmentalists (also known as empiricists)
hold the assumption that the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this
is gradually ‘filled’ as a result of environmental experiences.

4. Explain the difference between hard determinism and soft determinism. (4 marks)
Hard determinism is the view that internal (e.g. genes) or external forces (e.g.
reinforcement contingencies) outside of our control cause behaviour, and is
incompatible with free will. However, soft determinism is the view that behaviour is
constrained by the environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain extent.
While all human behaviour has a cause, individuals still have some conscious mental
control over how they behave.

5. Explain one strength and one limitation of taking a nomothetic approach in

psychological investigations. (4 marks)
One strength of taking a nomothetic approach is that the processes involved tend to
be scientific as they involve testing large samples under standardised conditions and
using statistical analysis. This has allowed psychologists to establish general laws of
 behaviour, giving it scientific credibility. One limitation of taking a nomothetic
approach is that by focusing on general laws, prediction and control, people’s
uniqueness and the richness of human experience has been lost. Explanations can end
up only providing a superficial understanding of human behaviours.

6. Referring to one example of research you have studied, explain what it meant by
social sensitive research. (3 marks)
According to Sieber and Stanley (1988) this is research where there are potential social
consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research.
For example, while Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment has contributed to the
development of childcare practices, it has also encouraged the view that a women’s
place is at home with her children, which could make some mothers feel guilty for
returning to work following childbirth.

7. Discuss alpha bias in psychology. Refer to at least one topic you have studied in your
answer. (8 marks)
Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and
females. These differences are often presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable.
For example, Freud argued that because girls do not experience castration anxiety in
the phallic stage, they do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys. This means they
do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, and
so develop weaker superegos.

Alpha bias in psychology has a number of implications (consequences). It can create

misleading assumptions about female behaviour, which then lead to negative
stereotypes and validation of discriminatory practices. For example, feminists have
argued that medicalizing female emotions by explaining them in hormonal terms by
using the diagnostic category ‘pre-menstrual syndrome’ could provide scientific
‘justification’ to deny women opportunities in the workplace or in wider society.
Because of the negative implications, it is very important that gender bias in
psychology is resolved, and some psychologists have attempted to develop theories
that emphasise the importance or value of women. For example, Cornwell et al. (2013)
noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised,
thus emphasising both the value of and the positive attributes of women. However, it
is important to recognise that alpha bias can work against males as well as females.
For instance, Chodorow (1978) viewed women as more relational and caring than
men. In addition, women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and given
treatment than males. This may be because diagnostic systems for mental disorders
are biased towards finding depression among women.