Theories & Models of Communication

Models are pictures or illustrations of objects or events which allows us to see things in relation to
others. They force us to ask questions in order to have clarity. They may encourage new or further
research that may lead to other developments or discoveries.

There are three (3) main types of communication models:

1. Linear

2. Interactive

3. Transactional

Schools of Thought:

1. Communication as a process that affects individuals’ behaviour and state of mind – Transmission of
Messages:

- Encode & Decode

- Transmitters & Channels

- Efficiency Accuracy

- Draws on the social sciences (acts of communication)

2 . Communication as production and exchange of meanings- Semiotics.

- How messages interact with people to produce meaning (what role does culture play in
communication).

- Draws on linguistics and the Arts (the works of communication).

Continuous Loop Model – Creator unknown 1920/30

 • One of the earliest models of communication

• Considered to be more academic

• Based on the concept that language is a system or a machine

• Communication acts as the gears for the machine to work properly

• Assumes the communication is continuous

Shannon & Weaver (1949). Mathematical Theory of Communication

One of the earliest models (developed during the 2nd world war) – linear model – views communication
as a practical one way process (source, channel, receiver). Their focus at the time was to make channels
as efficient as possible - mechanics. Study was based on telephone conversations.

Associated Concepts

• Redundancy: High predictability – low information (receivers most often can know what the
message will be).

• Entropy: Low predictability – high information (most often a knowledge gaining experience)

• Noise: Addition to the message that was not intended by the Source.

• Channel Capacity: Number of messages (signals)

Shannon and Weaver were concerned with three levels of problems:-

1. Level A: Technical problems – How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitted

2. Level B: Semantic problems – How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired
meaning?

3. Level C: Effectiveness Problems – How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in
the desired way? (Fiske, 1990).
 David Berlo’s SMCR Model (1960?)

Berlo’s communication model is all-inclusive, however, it was never tested.

Pre-conditions of Communication

1. Communication Skills

- Speaking & Writing – encoding skills

- Listening & Reading – decoding skills

- Thoughts and Reasoning – encoding & decoding

2. Knowledge

- Own Attitude

- How s/he produce or treats messages

- Choices s/he can make about channels

- Subject matter

3. Social/Cultural Systems

People in varying social/cultural systems communicate differently. Social and cultural systems
influence:

• The choice of words

• Purpose for communicating

 • Meanings attached to certain words

• Choice of receivers

• Channels used for different messages

4. Attitudes

- Attitude towards self

- Attitude towards subject

- Attitude towards receiver

Characteristics of the Message

- Content

- Elements

- Treatment

- Structure

- Code

Structure is essential for content and treatment

Channel

- Seeing

- Hearing

- Touching

- Smelling

- Taste
 Wilber Schramm (1954)

Wilbur Schramm (1954), one of the first theorist to revise Shannon and Weaver’s model, believed that
encoding and decoding were activities carried on simultaneously by sender and receiver. He therefore,
made provisions for a two-way interchange of messages.

Also, Schramm model allows for an the inclusion of an “interpreter” as an abstract representation of the
problem of meaning in communication.

“How Communication Works,” in The Process and Effects of Communication, ed. Wilbur Schramm
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1954), pp. 3-26):

Dance’s Helical Model (1967)

A Non-Linear Model

Dance: “At any and all times, the helix gives geometrical testimony to the concept that communication
while moving forward is at the same moment coming back upon itself and being affected by its past
behavior, for the coming curve of the helix is fundamentally affected by the curve from which it
emerges. Yet, even though slowly, the helix can gradually free itself from its lower-level distortions.
(cont’d on next page)
The communication process, like the helix, is constantly moving forward and yet is always to some
degree dependent upon the past, which informs the present and the future. The helical communication
model offers a flexible communication process” [p. 296].

NB. Please do additional readings on the models, also read up on Gerbner’s Model; Laswell’s Model;
Newcomb’s Model, also non-linear models.