Childhood and Adolescence Voyages in

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 CHAPTER 9
Early Childhood: Cognitive Development

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Discuss Piaget’s preoperational stage.

2. Explain the concepts of egocentrism, causality, confusion of mental and physical events, and
mental blinders as they relate to Piaget’s preoperational stage.
3. Explain the concepts of scaffolding and zone of proximal development as they relate to
Vygotsky’s views of early childhood development.
4. Describe the advantages provided in school later on by a highly academic preschool education.
5. Describe the research that supports the positive impact of Head Start on economically
disadvantaged preschoolers.
6. Explain why preschoolers often cannot differentiate between commercials and the TV programs
themselves.
7. Discuss theory of mind, false beliefs and the appearance-reality distinction as they relate to these
to the cognitive development of the early childhood child.
8. Describe memory for past events in 1- and 2-year-olds.
9. Describe 3-year-old children’s use of rehearsal, even without their being taught to do so.
10. Discuss why a 3-year-old girl might say, “We singed it all up,” to explain that she and her mother
finished singing a song.
11. Explain why “Daddy goed away” rather than “Daddy went away” is really a sign that 3-year -olds
understand rules of grammar.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

This chapter covers cognitive development in early childhood. The chapter begins with an extensive
discussion of Piaget’s theory of the preoperational stage, presenting his ideas on symbolic play,
egocentrism, logical principles and operations, understanding of causality, and understanding of the
difference between appearance and reality. The theory is then critiqued, using recent findings and new
theoretical perspectives in the field. Vygotsky’s views on scaffolding within the zone of proximal
development are then discussed. Other factors affecting cognitive development are presented, including
research on family and home environmental factors, preschool education, and television. The area of
theory of mind research is introduced, and preschooler understanding of how the mind works and where
knowledge comes from is presented. Information about the impact of quality preschool experiences on
later development is presented. Next, the development of memory skills (recognition, recall, strategies for
remembering) is introduced. This section ends with a discussion of factors that influence memory
development. The chapter ends with a description of additional developments in language ability in early
childhood and a discussion of the relationship between language and cognition in human development.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
A. Symbolic Thought
1. Piaget’s preoperational stage (about age 2-7) is characterized by the use of symbols to
represent objects and relations among them. Language, drawing, and pretend play all use
symbolism.
B. Symbolic or Pretend Play: “We Could Make Believe”
1. Pretend play starts around 12-13 months with familiar activities (e.g., feed themselves), shifts
to a focus on others (e.g., feed a doll) around 15-3 months, and by 30 months, others can take
an active role (e.g., doll feeds itself).
2. The quality of pretend play is connected to creativity and peer relations and affects later
development.
3. Imaginary friends are quite common, but more common among first-born and only children.
Having an imaginary friend is associated with many positives, such as having more real
friends and advanced language skills.
C. Operations: “Transformers” of the Mind
1. Preschoolers show a lack of logical operations (mental acts) that are flexible and reversible.
D. Egocentrism: It’s All about Me
1. Preoperational children demonstrate egocentrism, meaning they can only view the
world through their own perspective.
2. Piaget used the three-mountain test to demonstrate young children’s inability to take the
viewpoint of others.
E. Causality: Why? Because
1. Preschoolers’ attributions of causality are precausal, that is, their ideas of causality are
influenced by egocentrism, and many events are thought to be caused by will.
2. Preoperational children also engage in transductive reasoning (attributing cause and effect to
non-related events), animism (attribute life and intentions to inanimate objects), and
artificialism (assume environmental features were created by people).
F. Confusion of Mental and Physical Events: On “Galaprocks” and Dreams That Are Real
1. Preschoolers often confuse mental and physical phenomena. They may believe their internal
thoughts reflect external reality and believe dreams are true.
2. Observing Children, Understanding Ourselves: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
G. Focus on One Dimension at a Time: Mental Blinders
1. Preoperational children lack conservation, or an understanding that properties (volume, mass,
number) remain the same even if you change the shape or arrangement.
2. Instead, they focus on one dimension at a time (centration) and do not realize that some
actions can be reversed (irreversibility).
3. Class inclusion, or including new objects or categories in broader mental classes, requires a
child to focus on more than one aspect of situation at once, making this a difficult feat for
preoperational children.
H. Evaluation of Piaget
1. Piaget underestimated preschoolers’ abilities.
2. Failure on the three-mountain test may be attributed to demands on child and language
development, not egocentrism.

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3. Preschoolers’ logical understanding appears more sophisticated when posing more direct
questions.
4. The approach of classic conservation tests may mislead children.
5. A Closer Look--Diversity: Development of Concepts of Ethnicity and Race
1. Four stages of understanding race and ethnicity are presented: (1) ages 3-6, race differences
thought of in physical terms, (2) ages 6-10, literal understanding that race is a matter of
ancestry and affects many aspects of life, (3) ages 10-14, link ethnicity to social class, (4)
and adolescence, may show pride and belongingness for their ethnicity. Ages 6-14 are the
best years for children to form friendships with children from other ethnicities.
II. Vygotsky’s Views on Early Childhood
A. Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development
1. Vygotsky believed that adults guide children through the zone of proximal development by
scaffolding their efforts.
2. A Closer Look--Research: Effects of Scaffolding on Children’s Abilities to Recall and Retell
Stories
1. Describes two studies showing that children learn and remember better when their
mothers provide scaffolding, such as directing their attention and asking questions.
III. Other Factors in Early Childhood Cognitive Development
A. Being at HOME: The Effect of the Home Environment
1. The Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME) observes parent-
child interaction in the home. Scales include parental emotional and verbal responsiveness,
avoidance of punishment, organization of the physical environment, play materials, parental
involvement, and variety of daily stimulation.
2. HOME scores are strong predictors of child IQ and school achievement.
B. Early Childhood Education
1. Preschools may be academically structured or more child-centered, where learning occurs
through play, and children choose their own activities.
2. Preschool enrichment programs for children living in poverty (e.g. Head Start) were designed
to increase school readiness and enhance cognitive development. Many stress parental
involvement and provide healthcare and social services to children and families.
3. Head Start and Early Start programs serve underprivileged preschoolers and their families.
4. These programs have shown benefits such as positive influence on IQ scores, better graduation
rates, and a decrease in delinquency, unemployment, and welfare usage later in life.
5. Preschool enrichment for middle-class children can also be beneficial; but
excessive parental academic expectations may impair children’s desire to learn and their
social and emotional development.
C. Television: Window on the World or Prison within a False World?
1. American children spend more time watching TV than they do in school!
2. Sesame Street is the most successful educational TV show for children. Regular viewing was
associated with increased skill in numbers, letters, sorting, classification, and vocabulary.
3. Children’s cognitive limitations make them particularly susceptible to commercials.
4. The couch-potato effect is a term describing the strong correlation between the number of hours
a child spends watching TV and being overweight.

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5. A Closer Look—Real Life: Helping Children Use Television Wisely

1. General suggestions are made to limit TV and make appropriate educational choices, as
well as tips for coping with violence on TV, applying TV to real life, and understanding
advertising.
IV. Theory of Mind: What Is the Mind? How Does It Work?
A. False Beliefs: Just Where Are Those Crayons?
1. Theory of mind is an understanding of how the mind works. Preschoolers have some
rudimentary knowledge in this area.
2. Most 3-year-olds fail false-belief tasks and are not adept at deception. However, by age 4-5,
children have gained the ability to separate their own beliefs from another who has false
knowledge of a situation and the ability to deceive.
B. Origins of Knowledge: Where Does It Come From
1. Children who are 4 to 5 years old also show vast improvement over 3-year-olds when it comes
to identifying the source of their knowledge.
C. The Appearance-Reality Distinction
1. Although Piaget claimed children could not distinguish real events from mental events until age
7, more recent studies suggest this ability emerges in preschool and some children as young
as 3 are successful at these appearance-reality tasks.
2. However, children still have limitations in understanding that an event or object may take more
than one form in the mind, understanding changes in mental states, and understanding the
relationship between a model and represented object (mental representation).
V. Development of Memory: Creating Files, Storing Them, Retrieving Them
A. Memory Tasks: Recognition and Recall
1. Preschool children recognize more information than they can recall.
B. Competence of Memory in Early Childhood
1. Children’s memory is best for meaningful and familiar events.
2. Children use scripts (abstract, generalized accounts of repeated events) to help them remember
events. Scripts are formed after one experience and become more elaborate with repetition.
3. The development of autobiographical memory, or the memory for personal specific events, is
linked to the development of language and other sills. Even though children as young as 1 or
2 years of age can remember events, these memories are rarely retained through adulthood.
C. Factors Influencing Memory
1. Types of memory: children remember activities more than objects and sequenced events better
than random events.
2. Interest level: children better remember items and events that captivate their interest and
motivation.
3. Retrieval cues: younger children depend on retrieval cues from adults more than older children.
Parental elaboration also improves a child’s memory for events.
4. Types of measurement: younger children are limited in measurement by use of verbal reports,
which typically underestimate their memory.
D. Memory Strategies: Remembering to Remember
1. Strategies for remembering (e.g., rehearsal, organizing, mentally grouping) are not used
extensively until age 5. However, these strategies can be taught.
2. Younger children use more concrete memory aids such as pointing, looking, and touching.

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VI. Language Development: Why Daddy “Goed Away”

A. Development of Vocabulary: Words, Words, and More Words
1. Word learning often occurs through fast-mapping, in which children quickly attach a new
word to the appropriate concept.
2. Fast-mapping is facilitated by children’s whole-object assumption and the contrast
assumption (also called the mutual exclusivity assumption).
3. Observing Children, Understanding Ourselves: An Explosion in Vocabulary
B. Development of Grammar: Toward More Complex Language
1. A “grammar explosion” occurs during the third year, during which children begin using
articles, conjunctions, and possessive adjectives.
2. Overregularizations also occur as children use a strict application of grammar rules even in
the cases that call for exceptions (e.g., childs instead of children).
3. Children’s first questions are telegraphic with rising pitch at the end. Toward the end of the
third year, children begin to incorporate the wh questions: what, who, and where. Why, when,
which, and how appear a bit later.
4. Young children have difficulty understanding passive sentences and do not use them.
C. Pragmatics: Preschoolers Can Be Practical
1. There is rapid development of pragmatic speech between the ages of 3 and 5 as children’s
cognitive skills allow them to adjust their speech to fit the social situation.
D. Language and Cognition
1. Piaget believed that cognitive development precedes language development. This is supported
by the fact that children’s vocabulary explosion (18 months) is related to advances in
categorization.
2. Others believe language development precedes cognitive development and that children create
cognitive classes for objects labeled by words.
3. An interactionist view is held by most developmentalists.
4. Vygotsky believed that during the first year, vocalizations and thoughts are separate, but during
the second year, thought and language combine.
5. Vygotsky held that children’s thought are initially spoken aloud, but gradually language
becomes internalized. This private speech is self-regulative.

ANSWER KEY: TRUTH OR FICTION?

1. A preschooler’s having imaginary playmates is a sign of loneliness or psychological problems.

FALSE. Children with imaginary companions are less aggressive and more cooperative, and they
often nurture the imaginary friends (Gleason, 2002).
2. Two-year-olds tend to assume that their parents are aware of everything that is happening to them,
even when their parents are not present.
TRUE. This is a reflection of their egocentric perspective.
3. “Because Mommy wants me to” may be a perfectly good explanation for a 3-year-old.
TRUE. This is an example of precausal thinking.
4. Children’s levels of intelligence – not just their knowledge – are influenced by early learning
experiences.
TRUE.

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5. An academic preschool education provides children with advantages in school later on.
TRUE. Studies of Head Start and other intervention programs provide convincing evidence that
environmental enrichment can significantly enhance the cognitive development of economically
disadvantaged children (Wilson, 2004; Zigler & Styfco, 2001).
6. One- and 2-year-olds are too young to remember the past.
FALSE. Children as young as 11½ months of age can remember organized sequences of events they
have just experienced (Bauer & Mandler, 1990).
7. During her third year, a girl explained that she and her mother had finished singing a song by saying,
“We singed it all up.”
TRUE. In fact the girl was the daughter of the textbook’s author!
8. Three-year-olds usually say, “Daddy goed away,” instead of, “Daddy went away,” because they do
understand the rules of grammar.
TRUE. Since the child does understand the rules of grammar, they correctly apply the rule for past
tense of a regular verb to an irregular verb.

IDEAS FOR INSTRUCTION

I. Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

A. Key Words
preoperational stage precausal conservation
symbolic play transductive reasoning centration
operations animism irreversibility
egocentrism artificialism class inclusion

B. Lecture Expanders
The Magic Years
Early childhood is often termed the “magic years” because limitations in children’s cognitions allow for
magical beliefs and limit logical thinking. Have your students name some popular movies or TV shows
that take advantage of the characteristics of preoperational children’s thinking. For example, in the movie
Toy Story, toys come to life. If children already attribute human qualities to toys (animism), this movie
could be believable. If possible, bring in a few clips from these shows and have students comment on
them. Another possibility would be for students to bring in books for this age group and have them analyze
them for examples of preoperational thought.

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

Conservation Tasks in Real Life
If at all possible, have a 3-year-old and a 6-year-old come to class to demonstrate the conservation tasks in
real life. It will make a lasting impact on your class! (You may also want to have the children do the
classic Sally-Anne or Smarties tasks to assess theory of mind.)

Video Suggestions
Observing Children and Adolescents: The Video (2004 Wadsworth). Footage of children and adolescents
in a variety of naturalistic settings.

Intellectual Development: The First Five Years (1997, Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 21
minutes). Overview of cognitive development in infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool years.

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D. Student Projects
Observing Children, Understanding Ourselves: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Ask students to visit WebTutor or the premium website (register/purchase access at
www.cengage.com/login) to view the video “Piaget’s Preoperational Stage.” This video is featured in
Chapter 9. Below are the video narration and the application questions with answers on Piaget’s
Preoperational Stage.

Video Narration: According to Jean Piaget, children enter the preoperational stage of cognitive
development during the preschool years. Their thinking changes dramatically in that they now have the
capacity to think symbolically, using words or objects to represent something else. Sarah and Jill dress up
and have a tea party; later they feed their doll. Four-year-old Jared pretends he is a “Spy Kid” and chooses
an appropriate costume. Todd and Jared show further increases in mental representation. They are engaged
in what Piaget called symbolic play, clearly imagining that the blocks they are playing with are something
else, in this case, a building.
Despite these increases in cognitive skills the thought processes of preoperational children result in
characteristic errors in reasoning. One of the most easily observed deficiencies is the tendency to view the
world from one’s own perspective only, a phenomenon that Piaget termed egocentrism. Because of
egocentric thinking, preoperational children may “hide” by covering their eyes or only parts of their
bodies, believing that if they can’t see the seeker, then they themselves can’t be seen.
Other preoperational reasoning errors result from thinking that is intuitive, rather than logical. For
example, preschool children are incapable of conservation. They do not understand that certain properties
of objects, such as volume or mass, do not change just because the superficial appearance of the object
changes. When given two of Piaget’s famous conservation tasks, Olivia, Debra, Jacob, Christopher, and
Jack illustrate this lack of understanding.
Preoperational children are not only tied to their perceptions, they are also unable to de-center their
thinking, or think about more than one aspect of a problem at a time. Their thinking also shows what
Piaget called irreversibility. They are unable to reverse or mentally undo an action. The following
responses to the question, “Why do they no longer have the same amount?” illustrate these limitations in
preoperational thinking.
Key Terms and Concepts:
Animism: The tendency to attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects.
Centration: The tendency to concentrate on only one aspect of a situation or a problem at a time.
Egocentrism: The inability to take the perspective of another person, or to imagine the other person’s
point of view.
Failure to conserve: The inability to understand that objects stay the same in weight, volume, and other
properties despite changes in shape or appearance.
Irreversibility: The inability to mentally reverse a series of events or operations back to the starting point.
Perception-bound thought: Being easily distracted by the concrete, observable characteristics of objects.
Preoperational stage: Piaget’s stage of cognitive development marked by rapid growth in
representational, or symbolic, mental activity.
Transductive reasoning: Reasoning from particular event to particular event.
Application Questions and Answers:
1. Describe Jean Piaget’s preoperational stage of development.
• Increases in representational thought
• Reasoning is perception bound and intuitive
• Characteristic reasoning errors include egocentrism, animism, centration, irreversibility, and failure to
conserve

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How does the ability to use mental symbols to represent objects change the way that children interact in
the world?
• Increases in use of language
• Ability to think about and reconstruct the past
• Imitation and symbolic play
• Artistic reproduction of mental images
Describe the behaviors exhibited by the children in the video that illustrate representational or symbolic
activity.
• Preschool children playing dress-up
• Sara and Jill playing “tea party” and feeding doll imaginary food
• Jared, age 4, dressing as “Spy Kid”
• Todd and Jared building with blocks, constructing a “building”
• 2- and 3-year-olds “hiding” by covering eyes and face
2. Using examples from the video, discuss Piaget’s concept of egocentrism.
• 2- and 3-year-old children in the video show egocentrism, or the inability to take the perspective of
another person, when they believe they are hidden just by covering their own eyes or parts of their body
Why are children in the preoperational stage more egocentric than older children, according to Piaget?
• Perception-bound thinking and reliance on own perceptual perspectives
3. What is conservation?
• Understanding that objects stay the same in weight, volume, and other properties despite changes in
shape or appearance
Describe the conservation tasks shown in the video and discuss the performance of Olivia, Debra, Jacob,
Christopher, and Jack.
• Both liquid and matter tasks are shown, using colored water and play dough
• All agree that amount is not the same after transformation
Are their responses typical of children in the preoperational stage? Why or why not?
• Responses are typical
• Show characteristic reasoning errors of preoperational thought: centration, irreversibility, failure to
conserve
4. How do Olivia, Debra, Jacob, Christopher, and Jack respond when asked to explain why they thought
the amount of liquid or play dough had changed or not changed?
• Debra, age 3 – “Cause it’s tall”
• Christopher, age 4½ – “This one’s higher than this one”
• Jack, age 5 – “This one’s low and this one’s tall”
• Olivia, age 3 – “That one’s up and that one’s down”
• Debra, age 3 – “It’s squished”
• Jacob, age 4 – “Because you smushed that one down and not that one, that one has the most”
• All responses indicate perception bound, centered thinking, and irreversibility
How do these responses illustrate deficits in the reasoning abilities of preoperational children, as described
by Piaget, including centration, irreversibility, perception-bound thought, and their focus on states rather
than dynamic transformations?
• Focus on height or shape in defining amount, illustrating perception-bound thought and centration
• Watch transformation occur, yet cannot reverse, illustrating focus on states and irreversibility

Children in Action
Have students observe in a local preschool, Head Start, or university-based daycare individually or in
groups. Have them develop a checklist of behaviors they think they might see that would be examples of
preoperational thought (e.g., animism, conservation, centration, class inclusion, egocentrism, etc.). What
examples of preoperational thought did they actually observe? How do the toys and materials in the center

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encourage preoperational thought? Have them share their findings in class. Compare and contrast based on
the type of setting they observed.

II. Vygotsky’s Views on Early Childhood

A. Key Words
(none)

B. Lecture Expanders
Your own ZPD
Help students understand that Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development is a concept that applies to
learning at all stages of life, not just early childhood. A relevant example for college students is their own
selection of courses. The sequencing of college courses is often designed with the zone of proximal
development in mind. For example, it is best to successfully complete Introductory Psychology before
moving on to more advanced classes in psychology such as Cognitive Psychology and Infant and Child
Psychology. Introductory Psychology provides a base of knowledge that scaffolds the learning of more
advanced materials. Taking upper-level psychology courses without any prior knowledge would likely be
outside one’s ZPD. The main point is that there is material that is next best to learn for most topics.

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

Video Suggestions
Lev Vygotsky: Documentary (2009, PHD Lowe Productions, 1 hour 53 minutes). This video examines
Vygotsky’s life, his theory, and how his theory is applied in real life.
Growing Minds: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (1996, Davidson Films, 25 minutes). David
Elkind’s discussion and presentation of this topic.

D. Student Projects
Scaffolding in Real Life
Students should complete this project by scaffolding children of two different ages in a task and reflecting
on their role as the more experienced collaborator. The task should be something that the student can
complete competently on their own but that their two child participants cannot do independently. You may
assign a task to your students or let them pick their own tasks according to their personal skill sets.
Suggestions for this task include origami, putting together a complex puzzle, and making a friendship
bracelet out of thread or yarn. Require ethical treatment of the child participants and informed consent
from the parents/guardians. The following questions should be answered by the students in a written
report:
(1) What ages were your two participants?
(2) Describe each child’s zone of proximal development. (Hint: What could the child do on his/her
own? What was needed to complete the task?)
(3) How did you scaffold each child? Was your level of scaffolding different for each child?
(4) Lastly, reflect on the type of scaffolding you are receiving in your current college classes.

III. Other Factors in Early Childhood Cognitive Development

A. Key Words
(none)

B. Lecture Expanders
Parental Control of Children’s Media
This chapter offered helpful tips on helping children use media wisely. This is quite an important topic
considering the prevalence of TVs today along with many other forms of media, including cell phones and
handheld electronic devices. They are truly everywhere! A 2004 survey found that 30% of children under

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age 11 have a television in their bedroom and that this practice is associated with increased television and
video usage. Interestingly, lower socioeconomic status families appear to be at higher risk for having a
television in a child’s bedroom (Christakis, BE Ebel, FP Rivara, FJ Zimmerman, 2004). Parents should be
aware that they have the tools of TV ratings and the V-chip. A TV rating of TV-Y is appropriate for
children of all ages, and TV-G is also generally acceptable. Further, the V-chip is in all TVs 13” or larger
that were made after January 2000. The V-chip can be programmed to block all programs of a certain
rating (i.e., TV-Y7, TV-14) of content (violence).

Current information regarding children and the media can be found on the Public Broadcasting System
website dedicated to providing practical information for parents (PBS Parents). Recommendations for
various types of media use (TV, computers, advertisements, and video games) based on the age of the
child are provided. Use this information to begin discussions in your class regarding the pros and cons of
media in the lives of young children.

http://www.pbs.org/parents/childrenandmedia/
Christakis, D.A., Ebel, B.E., Rivara, F.P., & Zimmerman, F.J. (2004). Television, video, and computer
game usage in children under 11 years of age. Journal of Pediatrics, 145 (5), 652-656.

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

HOME Environment Questionnaire
After students have come to understand the most critical elements of the home environment for cognitive
development according to the research (parental involvement, age-appropriate play materials,
opportunities for variety in daily stimulation, and responsiveness), have them design a questionnaire to
give to parents. Five concrete questions that operationalize these factors should be written for each (20
questions in all). Students could work alone or in groups. Expand this activity by having students actually
pilot this questionnaire with parent volunteers. Did it give them the information they wanted, or are there
changes they would make?

Early Childhood in Action

Most local school districts employ early childhood specialists (teachers, physical therapists, occupational
therapist, school psychologists, and speech and language pathologists) who work exclusively with the
preschoolers. Invite a panel of these professionals to class to talk about their jobs and experiences with
preschool children who may have developmental delays or who are at risk of developing delays. Have
your students develop a set of questions they’d like to ask before the panel comes. Be sure and ask about
working with families of preschoolers!

Video Suggestions
Building Literacy Competencies in Early Childhood (2000, Davidson Films, 30 minutes). Looks at
developing literacy skills in preschool classrooms.
Nourishing Language in Early Childhood (1996, Davidson Films, 31 minutes). Emphasis on the
importance of language for cognitive, social, and emotional development. Includes classroom footage.

D. Student Projects
Television
Have students design a coding sheet for assessing the content of children’s television shows and then have
them watch at least three television programs aimed at preschool-aged children and do the coding.
Examples include Sesame Street, Dora the Explorer, Blue’s Clues, Doodlebops, Backyardagins, etc.
Students can work alone or in groups to design the coding sheets. Features of the programs that could be
examined include acts of violence, acts of prosocial behavior, stereotypical male and female behaviors,
words and concepts having to do with theory of mind development (e.g., know, dream, think, pretend),
types of commercials, etc. Then have students respond to what they observed, evaluate it, and discuss their

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own ideas about the pros and cons of TV for children and how they think they will regulate their own
children’s viewing.

IV. Theory of Mind: What is the Mind? How Does It Work?

A. Key Words
theory of mind appearance-reality distinction mental representations

B. Lecture Expanders
Theory of Mind Deficits in Autism
The material on theory of mind in this chapter can be linked to the material on Autism Spectrum Disorders
presented in Chapter 7. As stated in Chapter 7, the presence of severe difficulties in interacting with others
is a defining characteristic of autism and spectrum disorders. Even high-functioning children with autism
have been shown to demonstrate significant delays in formulating the theory of mind that contributes to
typical social interactions (Frith, 2004). Even in comparison to other children matched on age and IQ,
children with autism experience profound difficulties with tasks that require knowledge of the contents of
other individuals’ minds (Baron-Cohen, 1991). Some investigators have even attributed autism to a
biologically impaired theory of mind module, a hypothetical brain mechanism that enables children to
understand other human beings (Fodor, 1992; Frith, 2004). To illustrate the importance of theory of mind
for social interactions, have students describe a few recent social interactions they had and then explain
how they used theory of mind in this interaction.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). The development of a theory of mind in autism: Deviance and delay? Psychiatric
Clinics of North America, 14, 33-51.
Fodor, J. A. (1992). A theory of the child’s theory of mind. Cognition, 44, 283-296.
Frith, U. (2004). Emanuel Miller lecture: Confusions and controversies about Asperger syndrome. Journal
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 672-686.

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

Theory of Mind Tasks
Some researchers argue that theory of mind is actually a set of multiple theories of mind. Thus, the
different experimenter designed assessments (e.g., false-belief by appearance, false-belief by
representational transfer, and an aspectuality tasks) are actually measuring different skills, and these skills
may develop at different rates (Naito, 2003). Have your students find several examples of theory of mind
tasks used by researchers. Students should share their findings with the rest of the class. Alternatively, you
can bring in several examples and demonstrate them to the class (or have students participate in the tasks).
Some examples: the Sally-Anne false-belief task (Wimmer & Perner, 1983), the aspectuality task (O-Neill,
Astington, & Flavell, 1992), and the faux pas task (Baron-Cohen, O’Riordan, Stone, Jones, & Plaisted,
1999).

More information regarding theory of mind tasks as it relates to autism is provided on the Speech Therapy
Information and Resources website. The Sally-Anne false-belief task is also illustrated on this site.

Naito, M. (2003). The relationship between theory of mind and episodic memory: Evidence for the
development of autonoetic consciousness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 85, 312-336.

Speech Therapy Information and Resources (2011) Autism and Theory of Mind. http://www.speech-
therapy-information-and-resources.com/autism-and-theory-of-mind.html (Accessed October 6, 2012)

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Video Suggestions
Cognitive Development: Representation in Three- to Five-Year-Old Children (1997, Films for the
Humanities and Social Sciences, 30 minutes). Examines recent research into theory of mind, analogical
reasoning, causal reasoning, and other cognitive abilities in preschoolers.

D. Student Projects
The Shrinking Room - Children’s Understanding of Representations
A wonderfully creative study presented in the primary literature clearly illustrates the difficulties young
children have in figuring out how symbols are related to what they stand for. Have your students read The
Credible Shrinking Room: Very Young Children’s Performance with Symbolic and Nonsymbolic
Relations. This short article was published in the journal Psychological Science, Vol. 8, pages 308-313.
Have your students write a summary of the theory that guided the hypotheses, the procedure, and the
findings in this article. Make sure your students comment on the ethics of using mild deception in this
study.

False Beliefs: The Crayon Box Task

If students have access to children between the ages of 3 and 5 years, have them try out the crayon box
task with them. It is absolutely amazing to watch a child who does not yet have a well-developed theory of
mind claim that they themselves or another person always “knew” that there was something other than
crayons in the box. An understanding of the appearance-reality distinction and a concept of humans that
involves a representational capacity is so basic to our nature that it is difficult to imagine what it would be
like to be in the world and not have it. This activity can help students gain some understanding of just how
significant a developmental transition the acquisition of an understanding of false beliefs is in the life of a
preschooler. After testing a few children, have students write down what the children said. Students should
also try and think about how this understanding develops from simpler concepts.

V. Development of Memory: Creating Files, Storing Them, Retrieving Them

A. Key Words
scripts autobiographical memory rehearsal

B. Lecture Expanders
Elaborative Reminiscing
One way parents can help their preschool aged children to develop rich autobiographical memory is to
reminisce with them using an “elaborative style” (Reese & Newcombe, 2007). During conversations about
past events, an elaborative parent follows up on children’s comments and elicits long-detailed discussions.
(This can be contrasted with a repetitive style, in which a parent may simply repeat a question that a child
did not answer without providing any new information.)
The role of maternal reminiscing in the emergence of autobiographical memory is evident in cultural
differences in individuals’ earliest memories. Research examining adults’ earliest memories has found that
European Americans tend to have an earlier age at earliest memory than Asians do (McDonald, Uesiliana,
& Hayne, 2000; Mullen, 1994). Further, Asian mothers are less elaborative than are European-American
mothers (Wang, Leichtman, & Davies, 2000).
Reese and Newcombe (2007) offer these tips for parents to maintain an elaborative style when talking
about the past:
▪Draw your child into the conversation with what, where, who, when questions
▪Respond to your child
▫Praise your child’s responses
▫Follow in your child’s responses with related questions
▫If your child doesn’t respond, rephrase your question with new information
▫Keep it fun (p. 1170)

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 Chapter 9

McDonald, S., Uesiliana, K., & Hayne, H. (2000). Cross-cultural and gender differences in childhood
amnesia. Memory, 8, 365-376.
Mullen, M. K. (1994). Earliest recollections of childhood. A demographic analysis. Cognition, 52, 55-79.
Reese, E. & Newcombe, R. (2007). Training mothers in elaborative reminiscing enhances children’s
autobiographical memory and narrative. Child Development, 78 (4), 1153-1170.
Wang, Q., Leichtman, M. D., & Davies, K. (2000). Sharing memories and telling stories: American and
Chinese mothers and their 3-year-olds. Memory, 8, 159-177.

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

Preschoolers Outperform You on This Memory Task!
The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is frequently used by experimenters to investigate false
memories. Have your students complete a small example of the DRM by asking them to listen carefully as
you present the following list of words. Tell your students this is a memory test and you are going to ask
them to remember the words on the list. Then read the following list of words, taken from Braneird,
Renya, and Forrest (2002):
Butter Rye Jelly
Food Jam Dough
Eat Milk Crust
Sandwich Flour Slice
After completing the list, have your students write down as many words as they can remember. Then, ask
how many falsely remember the word “bread”? Bread was not on the list but was conceptually related to
it. Roediger and McDermott (1995) found that adult participants falsely recalled the non-presented lures
(like bread) with the level of false recall equaling or exceeding the correct recall of items that were
presented in the middle of the list! (There are many lists available if you would like to use a few more
examples). Because young children do not process information on the same level as adults, Brainerd,
Reyna, and Forrest (2002) showed that kindergartners rarely made these memory mistakes. Thus, young
children are actually better at this memory task than adults! Interestingly, if the list words are related by
sound (rhyming) rather than meaning, 5-year-olds report false memories of words that were phonetically
related (Dewhurst & Robinson, 2004).
Brainerd, C. Reyna, V., & Forrest, T. (2002) Are young children susceptible to the false-memory allusion?
Child Development, 73 (5), 1363–1377.
Dewhurst, S.A. & Robinson, C. A. (2004). False memories in children: Evidence for a shift from
phonological semantic associations. Psychological Science, 15 (11), 783-786.
Roediger, H.L., III, & McDermott, K.B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not
presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803–
814.

Video Suggestions
Early Childhood Cognitive Development: Weighing the Evidence (1999, Films for the Humanities and
Social Sciences, 22 minutes). ABC footage on building better babies, including interviews with experts.
Music and Early Childhood (1994, Filmakers Library, 28 minutes). Covers the potential benefits for
language and cognitive development of music education. Includes interview with Howard Gardner.

D. Student Projects
Peoples Beliefs about Children’s Memory
This project is based on a survey recently conducted by Magnussen and his colleagues (2006). Have your
students survey 10 adults on the following two questions:

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 Chapter 9

1. When small children recount events they have experienced, do you think they remember better, as well
as, or worse than adults?
2. Many people talk about memories from their early childhood years. How far back in time do you
believe people can remember?
Then, have your students write a brief report on whether public opinion is consistent or inconsistent with
current research findings. Magnussen et al. found that the public tended to overestimate the memory
abilities of young children, but fairly accurate in estimating the offset of childhood amnesia around age 3.
Magnussen, S., Andersson, J., Cornoldi, C., De Beni, R., Endestad, T., Goodman, G., et al. (2006). What
people believe about memory. Memory, 14(5), 595-613.

VI. Language Development: Why Daddy “Goed Away”

A. Key Words
fast mapping contrast assumption pragmatics
whole-object assumption overregularization private speech

B. Lecture Expanders
How to Positively Influence Preschoolers’ Language Development
One way to foster the development of preschoolers’ language skills is through shared reading, which
occurs when a caregiver reads a book to a young child and discusses the book as they go along. This
activity has a positive effect on both expressive and receptive language development because many
elements of adult speech that foster children’s linguistic development (e.g., frequent use of open-ended
questions, the provision of familiar linguistic routines in which children can become progressively more
active agents, the elaboration of the child’s current focus) occur at an accelerated rate during shared
reading episodes. However, children also actively influence caregivers’ utterances during shared reading
by displaying (or not!) interest (Deckner, Adamson, & Bakeman, 2006). You may want to discuss your
students’ experiences in shared reading, their favorite childhood books, and how shared reading is
captured on the HOME scales discussed earlier in the chapter.
Deckner, D. F., Adamson, L. A., & Bakeman, R. (2006). Child and maternal contributions to shared
reading: Effects on language and literacy development. Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 31-
41.

The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) provides specific activities caregivers

should use to foster language development in children from birth to age 6. Present these to the class and
have them reflect on how often they have seen examples of these activities in their own lives or in their
observations of others.

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2012)

http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/parent-stim-activities.htm (Accessed October 6, 2012)

C. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations

Pragmatics
Have your students pretend to tell (or write an email) about a recent date (or outing with a friend) to their
best friend, their mother, and their 3-year-old cousin. Have students’ note the differences in these three
accounts. Do they differ in length? Level of vocabulary? Word choice? Content? All of these differences
illustrate pragmatics.
Say That Again? Speech and Language Pathology in Action
Most local school districts employ speech and language pathologists to work with young children who
either have speech or language problems or who are at risk of developing speech or language difficulties.
Invite one (or more) to visit your class to talk about their jobs and experiences with working with young
children and their families. Have students prepare a list of questions to ask prior to their visit.

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Video Suggestions
Developing Language: Learning to Question, Inform, and Entertain (1994, Films for the Humanities and
Social Sciences, 25 minutes). Covers later language development, including sophisticated aspects of
conversational speech.

D. Student Projects
Observing Children, Understanding Ourselves: An Explosion in Vocabulary
Ask students to visit WebTutor or the premium website (register/purchase access at
www.cengage.com/login) to view the video “An Explosion in Vocabulary.” This video is featured in
Chapter 9. Below are the video narration and the application questions with answers on An Explosion in
Vocabulary.
Video Narration:
After the age of 2, there is a vocabulary explosion. Children learn words at an astronomical rate, acquiring
more than 14,000 new words by the age of 6. Many new words are very difficult for the child to
pronounce. So, children develop all kinds of strategies to simplify difficult words. Initial consonants may
be dropped or replaced with less difficult forms.
At the same time, children are developing this extensive vocabulary, they are also beginning to use
grammatical morphemes, or word endings that impart grammatical information such as possession,
plurals, and tense. As children begin to use new word forms, rules for combining words and word endings
may be over used, an error called overregularization.
Preschoolers are also learning the system of rules, or the grammar, of their language. By the age of 4,
rather than using one or two words to make a request or to comment, children begin to use complete
sentences that include adjectives, pronouns, and prepositions. They are better conversationalists and can
talk about the things that interest them such as preschool, their friends, or outings and interesting
experiences. Four-year-old Caroline tells about her experience with bowling and miniature golf.
Application Questions:
1. When does the vocabulary spurt begin?
• Between 18 and 24 months
Why do researchers believe that children learn new words at such an astronomical rate?
• By fast-mapping, or retaining words in memory after hearing it on a small number of occasions
• Proposed by nativists that the brain is genetically preprogrammed to make neural connections rapidly
when exposed to language
2. How old does Debra say that she is? What error does she make in her articulation of her answer? Is this
typical for a child her age? Why or why not?
• 3 years, says “I free”
• Drops consonant blend, replaced by simpler form
• Yes, typical strategy for simplifying pronunciation of difficult words
3. What is a grammatical morpheme?
• Word endings that impart grammatical information such as possession, plurals, and tense
Olivia and Christopher incorrectly add “-ed” to refer to the past tense. What does this indicate regarding
their mastery of the rules of English?
• Overusing rule of tense, overregularization
• Olivia says, “I don’t remember what I watcheded”
• Christopher says, “I think somebody taked it”
How old do you think Christopher and Olivia are? Why?
• Between 2 and 4 years
• Overregularization common in preschool children

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4. Discuss the language achievements of early childhood in the context of Olivia’s conversation with the
interviewer.
• Produces complex sentences indicating syntactic development
• Uses the relational words on, in, into, and over
• Semantic difficulty with unfamiliar bowling equipment: “…You try to knock it in a blue thing” and
“…You can’t knock the thing that is right there over”

Do You Hear What I Hear? Listening to Young Children

Have students form small groups and observe young children in action. This could be at a local daycare or
preschool, in malls, or playgrounds. Ask them to specifically listen for conversations between caregivers
and the children or between children. Have them bring back samples of these conversations and analyze
them for characteristics of language in young children outlined in the text.

136
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 LOS ATAUIOS DE LOS
CAPITANES D'ARMAS,
SOLO DE LAS ARMAS
Los adereços de los capitanes
solamente contaremos los de los
cauallos de armas e los de sus
personas para las armas, de los
quales el primero que aqui se
cuenta es el duque de Termens,
el qual entre otros cauallos
muchos que lleuaua vimos quatro
atauiados señaladamente, los dos
con dos pares de sobreuardas de
brocado e sus sayones de lo
mismo, otro con vnas
sobreuardas de terciopelo
carmesi e sayon con faxas de
raso carmesi, el principal con
vnas sobreuardas de terciopelo
morado y el sayon de lo mismo,
con vnos troncos bordados de oro
de martillo muy releuados con
vnos fuegos que salian por los
concauos dellos, de manera que
los troncos e las flamas henchian
el campo de los paramentos e del
sayon, con vnas cortapisas en lo
uno y en lo otro de letras grandes
del mismo oro bordadas en que
blasonaua la fantesia de la
inuencion.
El señor Prospero Colona hizo
seys atavios aunque entonces no
partio. El vno era de carmesi
vellutado, los dos eran el vno de
brocado rico, el otro de brocado
raso; los tres eran bordados, vno
de terciopelo negro con vnos
toros de oro en cada pieça o en
cada quarto del sayo muy
releuados; estaua el toro puesto
sobre vn fuego de troncos del
mismo oro de manera que se
henchia todo el campo. Era el toro
que dizen de Nero. En las
cortapisas hauia bordada vna
letra de letras de oro que dezia:
Non es questo simil al nuestro.
El otro atauio de raso azul con
vnos soles en cada canton de las
pieças en lo alto y en lo baxo,
vnos espejos en que dauan los
rayos del sol de do salian flamas
que sembrauan los campos de las
pieças. En las cortapisas estauan
como en lo otro, las letras de la
inuencion. El otro atauio e mas
rico, era de raso carmesi con vna
viña bordada por todas las pieças,
con sus sarmientos e hojas e
razimos maduros e por madurar,
hecho todo de oro tirado e plata e
matizes de seda de relieue, de
manera que la obra allende de ser
muy galana era muy rica.
El señor Fabricio lleuó cinco
cauallos de su persona; los dos
con atauios de sedas de colores,
el vno con vnas sobreuardas de
sayo carmesi e brocado hecho a
quartos, otro de brocado raso,
otro de brocado rico.
El marques de la Padula no hizo
alli ningun atauio por el luto que
lleuaua de su cuñada, pero lleuó
oro de martillo texido escacado
para vn sayo e sobre cubiertas e
brocados para otros atauios; su
hijo don Juan no lleuó otra cosa
sino paño negro por el luto de su
muger.
El conde de Populo lleuó sus
cauallos atauiados de brocados e
sedas, pero su persona no
llevaua mas que vna jornea a la
usanza antigua; mas lleuó su
sobrino don Antonio Cantelmo
que yua por su lugar teniente, tres
cauallos con tres atauios, uno de
brocado, otro de raso azul e
brocado a puntas, otro de raso
azul chapado de vnas matas de
siempre viuas muy releuadas.
El conde de Potencia lleuó dos
cauallos con sobre cubiertas e
sayones de sedas de colores e vn
otro atauio de brocado, y el
principal de raso azul con vnas
estrellas, en cada campo vna, que
los rayos della henchian toda la
pieça, eran de oro texido
bordadas muy releuadas, en las
cortapisas yua bordada la letra de
la inuencion.
El prior de Mesina hizo quatro
atauios para quatro cauallos; el
vno era de brocadelo e de
brocado rico a mitades; otro de
raso pardillo e terciopelo leonado
a puntas; otro de terciopelo
leonado e raso encarnado a
centellas con vnas tiras de tafetan
blanco sueltas por encima las
costuras como vnas lazadas de lo
mismo que las atauan a las juntas
de los centelles. El principal
atauio era de raso carmesi e
brocado rico de pelo hecho a
ondas a puntas. Hauia por medio
de la tira del raso vnos fresos de
oro que hazian la misma onda a
puntas, e de la vna parte e de la
otra dos tiras de margaritas de
perlas. Estauan juntado el
brocado e el raso con pestañas
blancas.
Antonio de Leyua lleuó quatro
cauallos de su persona,
atauiados, vno de raso naranjado
e raso blanco á puntas; otro con
vnas sobrecaidas e sazon de
brocado e damasco blanco hecho
a escaques, assentadas vnas
tiras angostas en torno del
escaque del brocado en el de la
seda, e de la seda en el brocado
e dos cees encanadas de lo vno
en lo otro, bordado todo de
cordon de oro. El principal cauallo
con vnas sobre cubiertas de
brocado blanco e terciopelo
carmesi hecho assimesmo a
escaques, e dos barras
travessadas en cada escaque de
lo vno en lo otro sentadas sobre
raso blanco, e en las barras de
brocado hauia en cada vna tres
candeleros de plata estampados y
en las de carmesi otros tres
dorados.
Don Jeronimo Lloriz lleuó quatro
cauallos de su persona; vno con
vnas cubiertas de azero, otro con
sobre cubiertas e sayo de azeituni
negro e de brocado hecho a
puntas. Otro con sobre cubiertas
e sayo de raso blanco e terciopelo
carmesi hecho a centelles con
vnas tiras de brocado de otro
tirado, assentadas encima las
costuras como vna reja, e vnos
lazos dentro en cada centelle del
mismo brocado, bordado todo de
cordon de oro. El otro cauallo
lleuó con vnas cubiertas de
carmesi raso de la manera de las
ricas del visrey.
Aluarado lleuó tres cauallos de su
persona; el vno con vnas sobre
cubiertas de terciopelo negro con
vnas tiras de raso amarillo; el otro
con vnas sobre cubiertas e sayo
de terciopelo morado e raso
amarillo a meatades, cubierto de
escaques de tres en tres tiras de
la vna seda en la otra, sentadas
sobre raso blanco. El otro con
vnas sobre cubiertas e sayo la
mitad de brocado rico e raso
carmesi, la mitad de brocado raso
e terciopelo carmesi, hecho todo
a escaques con vnas cruzes de
Jerusalen, de lo vno en lo otro,
bordadas de cordon de plata.
El capitan Pomar lleuó tres
cauallos de su persona; vno con
vnas sobre cubiertas e sayo de
raso carmesi con vnos entornos
de puntas de raso blanco; otro
con vnas sobre cubiertas e sayo
de raso blanco e terciopelo
carmesi e brocado hecho a
puntas de manera de vna venera;
el otro con vnas sobre cubiertas
de raso azul con vna reja de tiras
de brocado con vnas pieças de
plata estampadas, en cada
quadro eran vnas aes goticas.
Diego de Quiñones lleuó tres
cauallos de su persona; el vno
con vnas sobre cubiertas e sayo
de terciopelo negro e raso
amarillo hecho a puntas; otro de
terciopelo morado con vnas faxas
de brocado entorno; otro con vnas
sobre cubiertas e sayon de
brocado.
Carauajal lleuó cinco cauallos de
su persona adereçados los dos
de brocado con sus sayones, dos
de sedas de colores con sus
sayos, vno con vnas sobreuardas
e sayos de terciopelo carmesi
guarnecido de fresos de oro, con
vnas rosas de plata sembradas
por encima.
Los capitanes que nueuamente
con Carauajal yuan fueron bien
en orden; no los contamos porque
en nuestro tratado no estan
nombrados e no queremos turbar
los nombres para los que querran
sacar por los vnos nombres los
otros.
Rafael de Pacis se partió ante
deste porque se fue a viuir con el
papa e houo una conducta de
setenta lanças, pero lleuó tres
adereços fechos de Napoles para
su persona e tres cauallos. El vno
era vnas ricas cubiertas pintadas
con vn braço en cada pieça que
tenia vna palma en la mano, con
vn retulo reuuelto en ella con vna
letra que dezia:

La primera letra desta

tengo yo en las otras puesta.

Para este atauio lleuó vn sayo de

brocado negro; lleuó otro atauio
de brocado con vnas cruzes
coloradas de sant Jorge
sembradas por encima; otro
atauio lleuó de terciopelo negro
cubierto de lazos de brocado
sentados sobre raso blanco e
todos los vazios llenos de vnas
palmas pequeñas de plata a
manera de batientes.
El marques de Pescara lleuó
quatro cauallos con cuatro
adereços; los tres con
sobreuardas e sayos de brocado;
los dos de rico, el vno de raso. El
principal era de raso carmesi con
vnos fresos de oro entorneados,
vna mano vno de otro e de freso a
freso estaua cubierto el carmesi
de hilo de oro que cubria la seda,
saluo que de tres a tres dedos se
ataua el oro con vn cordoncico
pequeño fecha vna lazada e
quedaua entre vno e otro hecho
vn centelle de la seda y el oro
hecho dos medio centelles.
El conde Atorran Farramosca
entre otros atauios que lleuó, el
principal fue vnas sobreuardas e
vn sayon de raso carmesi con
vnas agudas de oro bordadas en
las pieças, de las quales salian
vnos fuegos que ocupauan todos
los vazíos. Era tan rico que se
cree que fuesse el atauio que
más avía costado vno por vno.
Su hermano Guidon Farramosca
lleuó el principal atauio de su
persona de brocado e terciopelo
carmesi hecho a triangulos, con
vnos triangulos del brocado en el
carmesi; del carmesi en el
brocado pequeños, con pestañas
de raso blanco.
Don Luys de Hiscar hizo dos
atauios de su persona; vno de
brocado de oro tirado,
sobreuardas e sayos, otras
sobreuardas e sayo de raso
amarillo e raso blanco a
meatades; el raso amarillo
cubierto de una red de plata con
vnos batientes de plata en los
nudos, y en lo vazio sobre el raso
vna cifra de plata estampada;
sobre el raso blanco la misma red
de oro con los batientes e pieças
doradas. Pero este murio ante de
la partida de Napoles.
Mossen Torel hauia hecho sin otro
atauio vnas sobreuardas e sayo
de terciopelo carmesi e raso
carmesi a meatades cubierto todo
de vnas tortugas de plata, saluo
que en las uardas eran grandes y
en el sayo pequeñas; pero este
tambien murio antes del partir e
llevólo su hijo.
El marques de Bitonto sin otros
atauios de brocado que lleuó hizo
vnas sobrecubiertas e vn sayo de
terciopelo negro con vnas
epigramas de oro bordadas por
él, muy ricas.
El prior de Roma hizo vn atauio
de brocado azul e terciopelo
carmesi hecho a triangulos con
pestañas de raso blanco, sobre
los triangulos de carmesi hauia
vnas pieças de oro estampadas
tan espessas que a penas se
descubria la seda.
Don Jeronimo Fenollet lleuó dos
atauios vno de terciopelo morado
e raso encarnado hecho a
centellas con tiras e lazadas de
tafetan blanco, como el del prior
de Mesina; lleuó otras uardas de
terciopelo negro con vna reja de
fresos de oro sobre tafetan
encarnado hecho a centelles; en
las juntas de los fresos hauia
vnas puntas de plata bien
releuadas e vn batiente en cada
punta; en los vazios del terciopelo
hauia vn centelle de plata
estampado tan grande que de
terciopelo se descubria tanto
como era el freso de ancho. Lleuó
con ellas vn sayo de raso blanco
e raso encarnado a meatades,
con vnos lazos de brocado por
medio de los girones e cortapisa
sentados sobre lo encarnado con
pestañas blancas, sobre lo blanco
con pestañas encarnadas Hauia
en los vazios de los lazos vnas
villetas de plata estampadas, en
lo blanco doradas, en lo
encarnado blancas, con muchos
batientes de la misma manera. El
cuerpo del sayo estaua forrado de
brocado muy rico acuchillado el
raso de encima e muy
guarnecido.
Mossen Coruaran fue por alferez
real; lleuó vn rico atauio bordado.
El duque de Grauina, el duque de
Trayeto, el marques de la Tela, el
marques Gaspar de Toralto, el
conde de Montelion destos no
especifica la escriptura
particularmente lo que lleuauan,
porque segun estos otros quien
quiera lo puede considerar e
porque sus atauios eran de
brocados e de sedas, sin manera
de deuisas ni inuenciones.
De Cicilia vinieron algunos
caualleros; aqui no se nombra
sino el conde de Golisano y el
lugar teniente de Cicilia que se
llamaua Don Juan de Veyntemilla.
Cualquier destos caualleros
napolitanos e cecilianos que no
tenian cargos, fueron tan
complidamente en orden, que
ninguno lleuó menos de veynte
gentiles hombres de cadenas de
oro de su nacion. De manera que
se estima que sin las mill e
dozientas lanças de ordenança e
capitanes, lleuó el visrey con los
cincuenta continos del rey y estos
señores e los italianos que con
ellos yuan e muchos otros
caualleros Españoles que viuian
con el rey, e otros que de nueuo
alli se llegaron delos otros
campos de Francia e venecianos
e del papa e de Ferrara,
trezientos caualleros de cadenas
de oro entre hombres de titulo e
varones e caualleros.
Agora hablaremos del dia qu'el
virrey partió; las damas que en
tres o quatro partes se juntaron,
porque por su nombre propio las
nombraremos, mas como
hauemos hecho los caualleros,
para quien quiera especular o
escaruar por los vnos nombres
los otros, pues que se podran
hallar vnos por el principio de los
nombres o titulos fengidos, otros
por las deuisas e colores; assi
que mire bien cada vno que no es
esto nada falso ni fengido.

LA PARTIDA DEL VISREY

El señor visrey partio de Napoles,
domingo a medio dia, ocho de
nouiembre, acompañado de todos
estos caualleros e otros muchos
principales e perlados e señores
que en la tierra quedaron, entre
los quales, fue el cardenal de
Sorrento, el arzobispo de
Napoles, el principe de Visiñano,
el príncipe de Melfa, el duque de
Ferrandino, el señor Prospero, el
duque de Bisella, el duque de
Atria, el conde de Soriano, el
conde de Matera, el conde de
Chariata, el conde de Trauento, el
almirante Villamarin, el marques
de Layno, el conde de Marco e
muchos otros caualleros. En
estos que aqui se nombran que
quedaron hay muchos de los que
en el tratado hallemos continuado
en las fiestas nombradas; los
quales son el marques de
Nochito, el duque de Bisella, el
duque de Ferrandina, el conde de
Marco, el conde de Sarno, el
conde de Trauento, el almirante,
el cardenal don Carlos de Aragon.
En las casas del principe de
Salerno estauan las señoras
reynas de Napoles con sus
damas, doña Juana Castriote, la
duquesa de Grauina, doña Maria
Enriquez, doña Maria Cantelmo,
doña Porfida, doña Angela
Villaragut, doña Juana Carroz,
doña Violante Celles, la señora
Diana Gambacorta, la señora
Maruxa, la marquesa de Layno, la
marquesa de Toralto e otras
muchas damas.
En Castel Novo estaua la
visreyna e su hermana, la
condesa de Capacho muger del
almirante, su hermana la muger
de don Alonso de Aragon, e otras
muchas señoras.
En casa del conde de Trauento
estaua la condessa e su hermana
la condessa de Terranoua e sus
hijas, la marquesa de Nochito, la
condessa de Soriano, la
condessa de Matera e otras
muchas señoras.
En casa de la señora duquesa de
Milan la señora su hija doña
Bona, la duquesa de Trayeto, la
señora Isabel, la señora doña
Maria de Aragon, la Griega e las
otras damas de la señora
duquesa e la condessa de Marco.
En casa de la marquessa de
Pescara estaua la marquesa, e la
marquesa del Guasto, la
marquesa de la Padula, la
condessa de Benafra, doña
Castellana muger de Antonio de
Leyua, la marquesa de Vitonto, la
duquesa de Franca Vila.
En casa de madame Andriana
estaua ella e su hija e doña Maria
Dalise e las hijas de Cario de
Fango.

LO QUE DESPUES DE PARTIDO

EL VISREY SE SIGUIO E LO
QUE FLAMIANO HABLÓ A
VASQUIRAN
DESPIDIENDOSE DEL.—
DONDE EL AUTOR TORNA A
USAR EL ESTILO PRIMERO
DE LOS NOMBRES
FENGIDOS.
Las otras damas que en aquel dia
houo no se nombran aunque
fueron muchas, mas no hazen al
proposito de nuestro tratado
porque en él no se han hallado.
Partido el visrey quedaron alli
algunos caualleros por algunos
negocios que les cumplian o
satisfazian, entre los quales
quedó Flamiano por poderse
despedir de Vasquiran más a su
plazer, él queriéndose partir
començo a hablar con Vasquiran
desta manera:
Agora, Vasquiran, conozco que mi
vida es poco o durará poco,
porque dos cosas que viua la
sostenian agora la acaben; la vna
era tener yo esperança de ver a
mi señora Belisena que della era
señora, la otra era tu compañia e
conuersacion que a los males
della ponia consuelo. Pues agora
el ausencia apartandome dos
bienes tan grandes no puede sino
encausarme dos mill males
mayores, por donde conozco en
mi que me acerco a la muerte,
apartandome de ti. Una cosa te
suplico, que no te enojes de
escriuirme, por que yo sé que
poco te durará tal fatiga. E si de
mi fuere lo que pienso que será,
ruegote que este amor tan grande
que agora nos sostiene e
conserua en tanto estremo de
bien querer, que de tus entrañas
no lo dexes amenguar ni venir a
menos, como muchas vezes
acontece, segun yo te lo he
escripto contradiciendote; mas
ante te suplico que en el pligo de
tus lastimas lo envueluas, para
que con aquellas, de mi te duelas
como dellas hazes. Esto te pido
no por darte a ti fatiga como dello
recibiras, mas por el consuelo que
mi alma recebira de ver la
memoria que de mi tienes, e
plega a nuestro Señor que en ti
dé tanto consuelo e alegria
quanto yo desseo e tú has
menester. No me cuentes esto a
pobreza de animo, porque
parecen palabras en algo
mugeriles, ante lo atribuye a lo
qu'es razon, porque lo mucho que
tu ausencia me lastima, la poca
esperança que de vida tengo me
lo haze dezir. Suplicote que en
tanto que aqui estaras no dexes
de visitar a mi señora Belisena,
porque sola esta esperança me
dara esfuerço para lo que me
quitará la vida, que será poder
caminar donde de su presencia
me alexase. No quiero más
enojarte con mis fatigas, pues que
siempre desseé complazerte con
mis seruicios, sino que me
encomiendo a ti, e te encomiendo
a Dios.

RESPUESTA DE VASQUIRAN A
FLAMIANO
Todo el bien que la muerte me
pudo quitar me quitó; todo el
consuelo e descanso que la
fortuna me podia apartar para mis
trabajos, me apartó en tu partida,
y esta lastima te deue bastar,
Flamiano, viendo con tu ausencia
quál me dexas, sin que con tal
pronostico más triste me dexes
como hazes. No son tus virtudes,
siendo tantas, para que tus dias
sean tan breues, porque muy
fuera andaria la razon e la justicia
de sus quicios si tal consintiesse.
Tu viuiras e plega a Dios que tan
contento e alegre como yo agora
triste e descontento viuo. Lo que
a mi memoria encomiendas, por
dos cosas es escusado; la una
por lo que he dicho, la otra porque
si otro fuesse lo que no será,
quien a tus dias daria fin a los
mios daria cabo, por muchas
razones que escusar no lo
podrian; mas en esto no se hable
más porque parece feo. Mandas
me que a la señora Belisena
visite; tambien es escusado
mandarmelo, porque quando tu
amistad no me obligara a hazerlo,
su merecimiento me forçara. Lo
que me pides que te escriua, te
suplico que hagas como es razon.
Yo me partire lo mas presto que
pudiere para Felernisa, negociado
que alli haya algunas cosas que
me conuienen, trabajaré de ser
muy presto contigo si algun graue
impedimento no me lo estorua, lo
que Dios no quiera. Entre tanto
viue alegre como es razon, pues
que vas en tal camino que por
muchas causas a ello te obliga.
La una yr en seruicio de la yglesia
como todos ys. La otra en el de tu
rey como todos deuen. La otra
por que vas a usar de aquello
para que Dios te hizo, qu'es el
habito militar donde los que tales
son como tú, ganan lo que tú
mereces e ganarás. La otra e
principal que lleuas en tu
pensamiento a la señora Belisena
e dexas tu coraçon en su poder,
qu'esto solo basta para fazerte
ganar quantas vitorias alcançar se
podrian. Una cosa temo, que la
gloria de verte su seruidor e las
fuerças que su seruicio te
ofreceran, no te pongan en mas
peligro de lo que haurias
menester. Yo te ruego que pues la
honrra es la prenda deste juego,
que dexes donde menester fuere
la voluntad e te gouiernes con la
discrecion. E assi te encomiendo
a Dios hasta que nos veamos e
siempre.

LA PARTIDA DE FLAMIANO
Acauados sus razonamientos
hablaron en otras muchas cosas
todo aquel dia, hasta la tarde que
Flamiano fue a besar las manos a
la señora duquesa e despedirse
della e de su señora con la vista.
A la qual embió estas coplas que
hizo por la partida, despues de
haberse despedido.

Poco es el mal que

m'aquexa
estando en vuestra presencia
en respecto del que ausencia
dentro en el alma me dexa
y en la vida,
porque siento en la partida
tanta pena e tal tormento
que no hallo a lo que siento
ya medida
ni me basta el suffrimiento.
E siendo mi pena tal,
no me quexo ni hay de quién
que quien nunca tuvo bien
no se ha de quexar de mal,
ni yo lo hago
porque con la pena pago
aunque me sea cruel
mi pensamiento, pues dél
me satisfago
con que no hay remedio en él.
Callo porque siempre crece
mi dolor que nunca mengua
pues ha callado mi lengua
lo que mi alma padece,
con tal pena,
mas agora me condena
este mal deste partir
para que os ose dezir:
aun no suena
que se acaba mi viuir.
Acabase porque veros
me mata con dessear
y el desseo con pesar
de verme no mereceros,
pues presente
de tal bien tan mal se siente
el triste que no os verá,
dezidme qué sentirá
siendo ausente,
claro esta que morirá.
Assi que, señora mia,
lo que siempre desseé
fue morir en vuestra fee
como agora se me guia,
si mi suerte
alcançasse con la muerte
tanto bien en pago della
qu'os pesasse a vos con ella,
menos fuerte
me seria padecella.
Mas nunca vos hareys tal
porque vuestro merecer
no lo consiente hazer
viendo que es pequeño mal
morir por ello,
assi que si me querello
será, señora, de mi,
porque nunca os mereci
e sin merecello
tantos males padeci.
E podeys ser cierta desto
qu'en veros supe juzgar
que no se podia pagar
tanto bien con menos qu'esto,
de manera,
que conocera quien quiera
pues que se muestra tan claro
que a muy poco mal me paro
aunque muera
e que no me cuesta caro.