NAGPUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, NAGPUR

Shri Sai Shikshan Sanstha’s

Nagpur Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Katol Road, Near Fetri, Mahurzari, Nagpur, Maharashtra 441501

(Approved By AICTE New Delhi, Affiliated to Rashtrasanta Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University)

Department of B.TECH. First Year

Academic Year: 2022-23(Even Session)

Laboratory Manual

Course Name
Applied Physics
Course Code: BESI-2P
Semester: I

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Vision of the Institution:

To be acknowledged as one of the leading institute amongst the other premier institutes
imparting quality education in engineering. Nagpur Institute of Technology is committed to
provide world class engineers with superior knowledge and humanity.

Mission of the Institution:

To impart quality technical education which is in line with the latest global requirements and
to augment the holistic development of the students.

Program Outcomes (UG)

 PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals to the solution of engineering problems.
 PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
 PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public safety, societal and environmental considerations.
 PO4. Conduct problem investigations: Use research-based knowledge including
experimentation, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
 PO5. Modern tool usage: Select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools for analyzing the engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
 PO6. The engineer, industry and society: Apply contextual knowledge to assess industrial,
societal and safety related issues and understand consequent relevance to the professional
engineering practice.
 PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge
of, and need for sustainable development.
 PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
 PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
 PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities such as,
being able to understand and write effective reports, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
 PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one‟s own work, as a member and
leader in a team in multidisciplinary environments.
 PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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Table of Content

Page
Sr.No Title of Contents
From To
List of Experiments as per RTM Nagpur
1
University

2 List of Experiments perform in practical lab

3 Course Objective and Course Outcome

4 Suggestion to students

5 Index Page

6 Experiment List

6.1 Study of CRO

6.2 Newton‟s Ring

6.3 Refractive Index of Quartz Prism

6.4 Diffraction By Grating

6.5 Study of CRO

6.6 Plank Constant

6.7 Comparative study of Unit cell

7 Virtual Lab Experiments

To find the Numerical Aperture and Acceptance

7.1
Angle

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Applied Physics (BESI-2P)

(Total Credits: 1.5)
Teaching Scheme Examination Scheme
Practical: 2 Hours / Week Practical
P (U): 25 Marks P (I): 25 Marks
Duration of University Exam. : 03 Hrs

List of Experiments in Applied Physics

1. Interference in thin films: Study of wedge shaped thin film.

2. Radius of curvature of a plano convex lens by Newton‟s Rings

3. Diffraction due to plane diffraction Grating

4. Determination of principal refractive indices of a prism

5. Determination of Plank‟s constant by using LEDs.

6. Comparative study of cubic crystal structure (with the help of model)

7. Determination of NA for optical fiber

8. Determination of e/m of an electron by bar magnet method (Thomson‟s method)

9. Calibration of Time Base circuit of CRO and determination of frequency of electrical signals

10. Determination of phase of electrical signals using CRO.

11. Determination of AC and DC voltage using CRO.

Note: Performance of at least six experiments is compulsory in a semester.

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Applied Physics (BESI-2P)

(Total Credits: 1.5)
Teaching Scheme Examination Scheme
Practical: 2 Hours / Week Practical
P (U): 25 Marks P (I): 25 Marks
Duration of University Exam. : 03 Hrs

List of Experiments in Applied Physics

1. Calibration of Time Base circuit of CRO and determination of frequency of electrical signals

2. Interference in thin films: Newton‟s ring experiment.

3. Determination of Refractive Index of Prism.

4. Determination of wavelength of sodium light using diffraction grating.

5. Determination of AC and DC voltage using CRO.

6. Determination of Plank‟s constant by using LEDs.

7. Comparative study of cubic crystal structure (with the help of model)

8. Determination of NA for optical fiber (Virtual Lab Practical)

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:

Sr.No Course Objective

1
2
3
4
5
6

COURSE OUTCOMES:

On successful completion of course student will be able to-

CO.NO DESCRIPTION
402.1
402.2
402.3
402.4
402.5
402.6

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SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENT

1. Understand the importance of practical work:

The practical work is the in-house training to develop your mental and manual skills.
2. Be thorough with the aim and plan of the experiment :
By the time you step into the lab, you should be thorough on what you intend to measure
and how you proceed at the task. Begin your work by drawing first the diagram in the note
book. Bear in mind that the purpose of doing an experiment is not taking readings alone but
also to understand the spirit behind.
3. Involve yourself totally in the experiment:
While conducting the experiment, keep your eyes and mind alert. Observe what is
happening. Relate the cause and effect. Analyses whether you are on the right track or not.
Take down the observations in the observation table. In case of any doubt, call your practical
in-charge.
4. Draw the graph and finish the calculations:
Draw the graph properly. Show it to practical in-charge . Remember that you are using a
scientific calculator for the first time. Do the computations carefully. After completion of the
calculation show your results to practical in-charge and obtain his approval and signature.
5. Complete the journal :
Neatly enter the observations and calculations into the journal. Answer the viva-voce
questions carefully and in a neat hand. It is likely that you do not answer them rightly. Take
the help of your practical in-charge. Submit the journal to practical in-charge for his final
signature. Fill in the index page.
6. About diagrams, precautions, viva-voce que.
For the above you should take reference from EXPERIMENTS IN ENGINEERING
PHYSICS by Avadhanulu, Dani, Pokley.

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INDEX

SR. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE PERF. COMPL. GRADE/ TEACHER

NO. NO. DATE DATE MARKS SIGNATURE

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Date: -

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM: - Calibration of Time Base circuit of CRO and determination of frequency of electrical signals

OBJECTIVE:
1) To get thoroughly acquainted with the working of cathode ray oscilloscope.
2) Verification of calibration of vertical amplifier.
3) Verification of calibration of time base and determination of frequency of a signal.

APPARATUS: - A single trace or dual trace cathode ray oscilloscope , a D.C. power supply, a function generator.

DESCRIPTION:-
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Block Diagram of CRO: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists of following main units.
1) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). 2) Vertical Deflection System.
3) Time base circuit (sweep generator). 4) Horizontal deflection system.
5) Trigger Circuit. 6) Power supply System (H.T. & L.T.)
The functions of various blocks in a C.R.O. are described below:
1) Cathode Ray Tube: It is the heart of C.R.O. The CRT provides a sharply focused beam of electrons, accelerated to
very high velocity. This beam of electrons strikes the screen and is seen because of fluorescence they produce on the
screen.
2) Vertical Deflection System: The input signal which is to be display on the screen is or to be measured is processed
in this section and then applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT through a delay line.
3) Time Base Generator (Sweep Generator): It develops a linearly varying sawtooth voltage which is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. This voltage causes the electron spot to move horizontally across the screen
creating a bright horizontal line on the screen called the sweep or trace.
The frequency of the saw tooth wave determines the time of each sweep. The rate of rise of this waveform can be
controlled by TIME/DIV knob on the CRO.
4) Horizontal deflection system: This is required to provide sufficient amplified voltage which is applied to the
horizontal deflecting plates(X-plates) of the CRT. Input of this amplifier can be adjusted either externally or internally.
When two wave forms are to be compared with each other the selector switch of this amplifier is connected externally.
When only one signal is be studied the switch is connected internally i.e. with time base generator.
5) Delay line: Delay line is useful for delaying the arrival of input wave form at vertical deflecting plates until the
trigger and time base circuits starts the sweep of electron beam.
6) Trigger Circuit: A sample of input waveform is fed to the trigger circuit, which produces a trigger pulse at some
selected points on the input waveforms. Trigger pulse is used to start a time base generator which in turn starts the
horizontal sweep of CRT spot.
7) Power supply system: Accelerating anodes of the CRT require high voltage power supply and low d.c. voltages are
applied to the horizontal and vertical amplifiers and also to the sweep.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CRO

PROCEDURE:-

(A) VERIFICATION OF VERTICAL CALIBRATION

1. The input coupling switches is kept in ground position and trace is aligned with central horizontal line on
screen.
2. The BNC connector is connected to input jack and other end (red terminal) is connected to CAL
terminal. A square wave from appears in upper half of the screen. The bottom lines of the waves should
coincide with central horizontal line. Select 1ms/cm position of Time Base.
3. Now, by changing vertical amplifier knob position, note down the vertical division occupied by the square
wave and by multiplying it with the V/cm position calculate the amplitude of calibrating signal.

(B) VERIFICATION OF CALIBRATION OF TIME BASE

1. Same as (A)
2. CRO chord is connected to signal generator.
3. The signal generator is set to a suitable frequency (say 1 kHz) and sine wave from is selected and its
amplitude suitably adjusted. The wave from is vertically centered and horizontally positioned.
4. The time base control is set to get one wave fit in one cm, so that time period is calculated and 1 / T will give
frequency.
5. The time base control is changed to another position. If n wave are displayed in one cm, frequency f is
calculated by f = n / time base position.
6. By changing the time base verify the frequency of the given input signal to CRO.

(C) MEASURMENT OF FREQUNCY OF AC SIGNAL

Different frequencies are fed to CRO from function generator and time base kept at a particular position &
count the no. of divisions occupied by one wave. Multiplying the time base position & no. of divisions occupied by the
wave, calculated time period and hence frequency.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:-

1) VERIFICATION OF VERTICAL CALIBRATION

CALB. Volt (Volt)

Position of Vertical Height of the Square V = D  Volt (Volt)
Sr. No. Amp. Control Wave D (cm) cm
(1) (2) (3) (4) =(2) x (3)
1 0.2 50 mv / cm 4 cm 0.2 V
2 0.2 0.1 v / cm 2 cm 0.2 V
3 0.2 0.2 v / cm 1 cm 0.2 V
4 0.2 0.5 v / cm 0.4 cm 0.2 V

2) MEASURMENT OF FREQUENCY

Time Base No. of Horizontal Frequency

Period T Frequency
Sr. Sensitivity, T Divisions Set on
(Sec.) f = 1 / T (kHz)
No. (ms / cm) (cm) AFO (kHz)
(1) (2) (3) = (1) x (2) (4) =(1)/ (3) (5)
1 1
2 1
3 1

3) VERIFICATION OF CALIBRATION OF TIME BASE

Time Base
Number of Wave, Frequency Frequency set
Sensitivity,
n in one (cm) fB = n / TB (kHz) on AFO (kHz)
Sr. TB (ms / cm)
No. (1) (2) (3) (4)
1 1 1
2 2 1
3 5 1

RESULT:-
i. A calibration of vertical amplifier is verified.
ii. Calibration of time base and determination of frequency of a signal is verified.
PRECAUTION:-

1) The various controls of the CRO are handled gently without applying force
2) The intensity of the trace is always kept at minimum required level

VIVA VOCE QUE

What is C R O?
What are the main parts of C R O?
What is meant by trace?
Which material is coated inside the front surface of the C R T envelope?
What are the various controls seen normally on C R O front panel?
What is time base? What is its importance?
What are the advantages of C R O?

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM: - To determine the radius of curvature of a plane convex Newton‟s ring method.

APPARATUS:- A travelling microscope, plane convex lens, table lamp, magnifying glass

FORMULA:-
D 2 m p  D 2 m
R=
4 p
Slope
R= (from graph)
4
Where, R = radius of curvature,
λ = wavelength of light = 5893 A° = 5893 x 10-8 cm
Dm+p = Diameter of (m+p)th dark ring
Dm = Diameter of mth dark ring.

THEORY:-
The Newton‟s rings are observed when light is reflected from a Plano-convex lens
of a long focal length placed in contact with a plane glass plate. The part of thin film is
played by the air in between the plate and the lens. The thickness of the air film varies zero
as the point of contact to some value .If the lens-plate system is illuminated with
monochromatic light falling at normal to the plane surface lens, concentric bright and dark
interference rings are observed in reflected light. These circular fringes were discovered by
Newton and are called Newton‟s rings.

Experimental Arrangement

Experimental arrangement for observing Newton‟s rings is shown in fig. A Plano convex lens having large radius of
curvature is placed on a plane glass plate.
Light from the monochromatic source is allowed to fall on a glass plate held at an angle 450. The glass plate reflected
light normally towards the Plano convex lens.
When a ray AB is incident on the system, it gets partially reflected at the bottom curved surface of the lens (ray1) and
part of the transmitted ray is partially reflected (ray-2) from the top surface of the plane glass plate. The ray1 and ray2
are derived from the same incident ray by division of amplitude and are thus coherent. Ray-1 undergoes no phase
change but ray-2 acquired a phase change of π upon reflection.
These two reflected rays interference and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular rings. The conditions
for constructive and destructive interference of the ray are given by
2μtcosr = (2n + 1) λ/2 (for bright)
2μtcosr = n λ (for dark)
For normal incident, cos r = 1
For air film µ = 1
Thus for bright

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2 t = (2 n + 1) λ/2 (Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…)

For Dark
1 t = n λ (Where n = 1, 2, 3…)

Determination of radii of dark rings

From the fig. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens. Let a dark ring be located at the point Q. The thickness of the
air film at Q is OQ = rn.

C .
E
H P

S O Q
r
By the theorem of intersecting chords.
n

EP x HE = OE x EM (1)
But EP = OQ =HE = rn
OE = PQ = t
EM = (OM - OE) = (2R - t)
n
Equ (1) becomes
Therefore, rn2 = t ( 2R – t )
rn2 = 2Rt - t2
As 2Rt ›› t2, hence t2 can be neglected
rm2 = 2Rt (2)
2
rn
t (3)
2R
CASE I :- To obtained Radius of Bright ring.
2 t = (2 n + 1) λ/2
2
2 x rn = (2 n + 1) λ/2
2R
rn2 = R (2 n + 1) λ/2

R2n  1 (where n = 0,1,2,3…) (4)

rn 
2
CASE II:- To obtained Radius of Dark ring.
2t=nλ
2
rn
2 x = n λ
2R
rn  nR (5)

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Determination of Wavelength (λ)

The radius of Dark ring is given by

rn  nR
The diameter of nth Dark ring is,

Dn  2 nR
Dn2 = 4 n λ R (1)
th
Diameter of (n + m) Dark ring is

Dn m  2 n  mR
D2n+m = 4 (n + m) λ R (2)
n n
Subtracting equ (1) from equ (2)
D2n+m – Dn2 = 4 m λ R


D 2
n m Dn2  (3)
4mR

DIAGRAM:-

Microscope A

Ray 1
Incident ray

L Ray 2
Glass plate
S
450 Glass to air
Sodium Lamp boundary

B Air film
Plano convex lens π change 0
Air to glass
Plane glass plate boundary

PROCEDURE:-

1. Place the microscope in front of slit of sodium vapor lamp.

2. The least count of the microscope is determined and recorded.

3. Adjust the distance between glass (plane) plate and source and the angle of plane glass plate. To get

circular fringe pattern adjustment are to be done till satisfied fringe system of circular shape with a dark

spot at the centre is obtained.

4. Microscope is adjusted so that the centre of crosswire coincides with the central dark spot of the fringe system.
The horizontal wire should be along the diameter of the rings.

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5. Now move the microscope to about 18th dark ring from the centre on RHS. Then it is brought back to the
position of 15th dark ring. Take the reading of 15th dark ring keeping the vertical cross wire of microscope
tangential to the ring.
6. Take the readings of 15th, 12th, 9th, 6th and 3rd dark ring.
7. Then take reading for 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th and 15th dark ring on LHS or RHS. Moving the microscope only in one
direction
8. The difference in the reading of the two tangential position of cross wire for a particular number of dark
ring gives the diameter.
9. A graph is plotted for D2 in verse the no. of the ring and a straight line graph is obtained. The slope of the
graph gives the values.

D 2 m p  D 2 m
Slope =
p

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

1) LEAST COUNT OF MICROSCOPE

1 MSD
1 MSD (cm) Total VSD (div) LC  (cm)
Total VSD

2) DIAMETERS OF THE RINGS Dm AND THEIR SQUARES D2m

No. of LHS RHS Dm

the ring MSR MSR (TR1 – TR2) D2m (cm)
p VSD TR1 (cm) VSD TR2 (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
0
3
6
9
12
15

SAMPLE GRAPH:
D2 m

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CALCULATION:-

RESULT:-
The radius of curvature of plane convex lens determined by Newton‟s ring expt. is:
(1) R = …………………. (by graph)

(2) R = …………………. (by calculation)

PRECAUTION:-

1) The microscope is move in one direction only from left to right or right to left so that back lash error is avoided.
2) Observe the rings carefully and take a reading of rings accurately.

VIVA VOCE QUE

Which phenomenon is undergoing in this experiment?

Which scales are fixed in this apparatus?
What is least count?
What is interference?
Is the center point dark or bright? Why?
How are Newton‟s ring formed? Why?
Why the glass plate is kept at 450 with the source?
Where does the thin aor film form?
What is thin film?
What will happen if white light is used in place of sodium light?

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM: - Determination of the Refractive indices of a Birefringent Crystal. (Quartz prism)

APPARATUS:- A Quartz Prism, spectrometer, sodium vapour lamp, table lamp, magnifying glass.

FORMULA:-
 A   mo  Sin
 A   me 
Sin
μo = 2 μe = 2
A A
Sin Sin
2 2
Where μe = R. I. of extraordinary ray.,
μo = R. I. of ordinary ray.,
A = Angle of prism
mo = Angle of minimum deviation for O-ray.,
me = Angle of minimum deviation for e-ray.

THEORY:-

Double refraction, also called birefringence, an optical property in which a single ray of unpolarized light entering an
anisotropic medium is split into two rays, each traveling in a different direction. One ray (called the extraordinary ray) is
bent, or refracted, at an angle as it travels through the medium, the other ray (called the ordinary ray) passes through the
medium unchanged.
The Figure shows the phenomenon of double refraction through a Quartz crystal. An incident ray is seen to split into the
ordinary ray CO and the extraordinary ray CE upon entering the crystal face at C. If the incident ray enters the crystal
along the direction of its optic axis, however, the light ray will not become divided.

In double refraction, the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray are polarized in planes vibrating at right angles to each
other. Furthermore, the refractive index of the ordinary ray is observed to be constant in all directions, the refractive
index of the extraordinary ray varies according to the direction taken because it has components that are both parallel
and perpendicular to the crystal‟s optic axis. Because the speed of light waves in a medium is equal to their speed in a
vacuum divided by the index of refraction for that wavelength, an extraordinary ray can move either faster or slower
than an ordinary ray.

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All transparent crystals except those of the cubic system, which are normally optically isotropic, exhibit the
phenomenon of double refraction: in addition to quartz, some well-known examples are ice, mica, calcite, sugar,
and tourmaline. Other materials may become birefringent under special circumstances.

Birefringent Materials

Crystalline materials may have different indices of refraction associated with different crystallographic directions. A
common situation with mineral crystals is that there are two distinct indices of refraction, and they are called
birefringent materials. If the y- and z- directions are equivalent in terms of the crystalline forces, then the x-axis is
unique and is called the optic axis of the material. The propagation of light along the optic axis would be independent of
its polarization its electric field is everywhere perpendicular to the optic axis and it is called the ordinary- or o-wave.
The light wave with E-field parallel to the optic axis is called the extraordinary- or e-wave. Birefringent materials are
used widely in optics to produce polarizing prisms and retarder plates such as the quarter-wave plate. Putting a
birefringent material between crossed polarizers can give rise to interference colors.

A widely used birefringent material is calcite . Its birefringence is extremely large, with indices of refraction for the o-
and e-rays of 1.6584 and 1.4864 respectively.

Crystallographic Origins of Birefringence

The property called birefringence has to do with anisotropy in the binding forces between the atoms forming a crystal,
so it can be visualized as the atoms having stronger "springs" holding them together in some crystalline directions. A
useful situation with mineral crystals occurs when there are two distinct indices of refraction, and they are called
birefringent materials. This is associated with uniaxial crystals, which belong to the hexagonal, tetragonal, and trigonal
crystal systems. In a uniaxial crystal, there is one direction such that any light in that direction in the crystal has the
same speed, regardless of its state of polarization. This direction is called the optic axis. The remaining crystal systems
(orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic) have two optic axes and are said to be biaxial.

PROCEDURE:-

Setting up of the Spectrometer

1. The Spectrometer base & prism table is leveled using Spirit level.
2. The Spectrometer is set with the Collimator towards the light source. Adjust the slit & make it narrow &
vertical.
3. The telescope & Collimator are adjusted for parallel rays using Schuster‟s method.
4. The least count of Spectrometer is determined & recorded in table I.
Measurement of angle of Prism ‘A’

1) The prism is kept on the prism table with its refracting edge at the center & pointing towards the collimator.
2) Both the faces will receive light from the collimator.
3) Rotate the telescope till the image formed by reflection at the face AB is observed through telescope at position
I.
4) Note the reading from both the windows in table II.
5) Again rotate the telescope on the other side to receive light reflected from AC position II.

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6) Note the reading from both the windows w1 & w2. Find „A‟
Angle of minimum deviation

1. The prism table is rotated till the Prism becomes nearly parallel to the collimator beam.
2. The telescope is turned to get the reflected image on the vertical cross wire (as shown in the diagram).
Two vertical lines are observed.
3. Vertical cross wire is made to coincide with the one of the line.
4. Now the prism table is rotated so that the image moves to one side. The telescope is moved with the help
of tangential screw so that it follows the image.
5. Finally a position is reached when the image becomes nearly stationary. A further rotation of the prism
table in the same direction makes the spectral line recede.
6. By moving the prism table slowly twice or thrice the stationary position of yellow line is ascertained. The
cross wire of telescope are made to coincide with the yellow line.
7. This is the position of minimum deviation. Note down readings in table II.
8. In the same way take the reading for minimum deviation for second line. Reading is recorded for both the
windows.
9. Direct reading is recorded after removing the prism, the angle through which the telescope has been
rotated form undeviated position to deviated position gives the angle of minimum deviation.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

1) LEAST COUNT OF SPECTROMETER

1 MSD
1 MSD (Deg.) Total VSD (div) LC  ( Deg.)
Total VSD

2) FOR ANGLE OF PRISEM ‘A’

Reflection from 1st surface Reflection from 2nd surface Diff. A=θ/2
Mean θ (Deg.)
MSR VSD MSR VSD a–b=θ
Wind TR (a) TR (b) (Deg.)
(Deg.) (Div) (Deg.) (Div) (Deg.)
W1

W2

3) FOR ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION δm

Refracted Ray Direct ray Diff.
Ray Wind. MSR VSD TR (a) MSR VSD TR (b) b – a = Dm Mean Dm
(Deg.) (Div) (Deg.) (Div)
W1
O- 360 0
Ray W2
180 0
W1
E- 360 0
Ray W2
180 0

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CALCULATION:-

RESULT:-
The value of μe & μo of Quartz Prism are found to be,

μe = ……………………

μo = ……………………

μ = (μe – μo) = ………………………

PRECAUTION:-

1. The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays by Schuster's method.

2. Slit should be made as narrow as possible.

3. Both windows should be read.

4. Prism should be properly placed on the prism table for measurement of angle of the prism as well as for the angle of

minimum deviation.

VIVA VOCE QUE

What is meant by double refraction? What kind of materials exhibit double Refraction?
What are ordinary and extraordinary rays?
How are doubly refracting crystals are classified as negative and positive?
What is mean by angle of minimum deviation?
What do you mean by refractive index or refractive constant?
What is the advantage of determining minimum deviation position?

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM: - To determine wavelengths of spectral lines of sodium light using a plane transmission diffraction grating.

APPARATUS: A plane transmission grating and its holder, spectrometer, sodium vapour lamp, table lamp, magnifying
glass.

FORMULA:-

λ =
a  b  Sin  n
n
Where, λ = The wavelength of light,
(a + b) grating element = (2.56 / 15000) cm.
n = Order of the spectrum.
θn = Angle of diffraction for nth order.

THEORY

Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave length λ be incident normally on the grating. According to
Huygen‟s principle, the points in the slit AB, CD etc act as a source of secondary wavelets which spread in all directions
on the other side of the grating.

Let us consider the secondary diffracted wavelets, which makes an angle θ with the normal to the grating.

The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of corresponding points A and C is CG = (a + b) sin θ. It will be
seen that the path difference between waves from any pair of corresponding points is also (a + b) sin θ

The point P1 will be bright, when

(a + b) sin θ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3

In the undiffracted position θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0.

(a + b) sin θ = 0, satisfies the condition for brightness for m = 0. Hence the wavelets proceeding in the direction of the
incident rays will produce maximum intensity at the centre O of the screen. This is called zero order maximum or
central maximum.

If (a + b) sin θ1 = λ, the diffracted wavelets inclined at an angle θ1 to the incident direction, reinforce and the first order
maximum is obtained.

Similarly, for second order maximum, (a + b) sin θ2 = 2λ

On either side of central maxima different orders of secondary maxima are formed at the point P1, P2.

In general, (a + b) sin θ = m λ is the condition for maximum intensity, where m is an integer, the order of the maximum
intensity.

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When white light is used, the diffraction pattern consists of a white central maximum and on both sides continuous
coloured images are formed.

where N = 1/a+b , gives the number of grating element or number of lines per unit width of the grating.

In the undiffracted position, θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0. Therefore sin θ = Nmλ is satisfied for m= 0 for all values
of λ. Hence, at O all the wavelengths reinforce each other producing maximum intensity for all wave lengths. Hence an
undispersed white image is obtained.

As θ increases, (a + b) sin θ first passes through λ/2 values for all colours from violet to red and hence darkness results.
As θ further increases, (a + b) sin θ passes through λ values of all colours resulting in the formation of bright images
producing a spectrum from violet to red. These spectra are formed on either side of white, the central maximum.

DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:-

Adjustment of spectrometer

i) Least count of instrument is determined & Recorded in table I.

ii) Spectrometer is set with its collimator towards the source of light the telescope is brought in line with
collimator. The width of the slit is made narrow.
iii) Adjust the telescope so that vertical crosswire coincides with the image of the slit.
iv) Telescope & collimator are adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster‟s method.
Setting of grating for normal incidence.

1. Set the telescope in front of the collimator so that direct image of the slit falls on the vertical cross wire of the
telescope & is bisected by the crosswire.
2. Note the reading in both the windows & let A be the reading on one of them, then rotate the telescope through
90° so reading changes (A+90) or (A-90), clamp the telescope here. Now the angle between the collimator &
the telescope is 90°.

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3. Grating stand is mounted on the prism table & grating is placed in it with its ruled surface towards the
telescope & fixes it with screw. Turn the grating by rotating the grating table alone simultaneously look
through the telescope & adjusted the grating position so that reflected image of the slit is seen on the vertical
cross wire in this position the angle of incidence of light on the grating surface is 45°. The reading of this
position of prism table is noted down from any one window; let it be „B‟.
4. The grating table is rotated back by 45° (i.e. B – 45 or B + 45), so that the grating plane becomes normal to the
direction of light. The prism table is locked in this position. This is the normal incidence position.

For angle of Diffraction (θn)

(1) Unlock the telescope & bring it in the front of collimator to get direct slit image on the vertical cross
wire. Take direct reading from both the windows in table II. (Reading from central maxima)
(2) Rotate the telescope slowly on right till the image of the slit corresponding to the first order coincides with the
crosswire. Note the readings from both the windows in table III.
(3) Rotate the telescope in the same direction to get second order image. Note the reading in both the windows in
table II.
(4) Take similar readings on LHS for first order and second order images, observations are recorded.
(5) Calculate θn & use the formula wavelengths of YELLOW 1& YELLOW 2 are calculated.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

1) LEAST COUNT OF SPECTROMETER

1 MSD
1 MSD (Deg.) Total VSD (div) LC  ( Deg.)
Total VSD

2) FOR ANGLE OF DIFFRACTION ‘θn’

RHS LHS
Ray Wind. a–b=2θ Mean θ
MSR VSD TR (a) MSR VSD TR (b) (Deg)
(Deg.) (Div) (Deg.) (Div)
W1
Y
I W2

W1
Y
II W2

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CALCULATION:-

RESULT:-
Wavelengths of spectral lines of sodium light is found to be,

For YELLOW1 (n = 1) λ1 = ………….. A.U.

For YELLOW2 (n = 2) λ1 = ………….. A.U.

PRECAUTION:-

1. The prism table should be properly levelled.

2. Grating surface is never touched while handling it.
3. Grating should be mounted with its lines parallel to the slit or vertical wire of the cross wires.
4. Prism table should not be disturbed while rotating the telescope to receive images of different orders.
5. Telescope should be rotated slowly, otherwise there is a possibility of missing an order.

VIVA VOCE QUE

In this experiment which phenomenon of light is studied?
How many parts are of Spectrometer? What are their functions?
How the least count of spectrometer is determined?
What is diffracting grating?
What is diffraction?
Which is spectrum?
What is the angle of deviation?

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM: - Determination of AC and DC voltage using CRO

OBJECTIVE:
1) Determination of DC Voltage
2) Determination of DC Voltage

APPARATUS: - A single trace or dual trace cathode ray oscilloscope , a D.C. power supply, a function generator.

PROCEDURE:-

(A) VERIFICATION OF VERTICAL CALIBRATION

1. The input coupling switches is kept in ground position and trace is aligned with central horizontal line on
screen.
2. The BNC connector is connected to input jack and other end (red terminal) is connected to CAL
terminal. A square wave from appears in upper half of the screen. The bottom lines of the waves should
coincide with central horizontal line. Select 1ms/cm position of Time Base.
3. Now, by changing vertical amplifier knob position, note down the vertical division occupied by the square
wave and by multiplying it with the V/cm position calculate the amplitude of calibrating signal.

(B) MEASURMENT OF DC VOLTAGE

1. Same as (A)
2. The coupling switch is kept at DC position the signal (DC) is given to Y input at CRO, & a horizontal
trace is obtained.
3. The vertical shift of the wave from the x axis is noted and multiplied with the vertical amplifier position to get
Vdc.
4. Repeat the above step by changing the dc voltage.

(C) MEASURMENT OF AC VOLTAGE

To measure the alternating voltage of sinusoidal waveform, The A.C. signal, from the signal generator, is
applied across the y – plates. The voltage (deflection) sensitivity band switch (Y-plates) and time base band
switch (X plates) are adjusted such that a steady picture of the waveform is obtained on the screen. The vertical
height (l) i.e. peak-to-peak height is measured. When this peak-to-peak height (l) is multiplied by the voltage
(deflection) sensitivity (n) i.e. volt/div, we get the peak-to-peak voltage (VP-P). From this we get the peak
voltage (VP). The rms voltage (Vrms) is equal to VP/√2 .

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OBSERVATION TABLE:-

MEASURMENT OF DC VOLTAGE

Position of DC Voltage
Vertical Amp. Displacement D Observed DC V = D  Volt
Sr. No. Control (cm) Voltage (volt) cm
(Volt / cm) (Volt)
(1) (2) (3) (4) =(1) x (2)
1 1v
2 2v
3 4v

MEASURMENT OF AC VOLTAGE

Position of
Vertical Amp. Peak to Peak
VP-P (Volts) VP = VP-P/2 Vav (Volts) Vrms (Volts)
Control length (cm)
Sr. No.
(Volt / cm)
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) x (2) (3)/2 0.636 x (4) 0.707 x (4)
1

RESULT:-
1) A calibration of vertical amplifier is verified.
2) Calibration of time base and determination of frequency of a signal is verified.
PRECAUTION:-

1) The various controls of the CRO are handled gently without applying force
2) The intensity of the trace is always kept at minimum required level

VIVA VOCE QUE

What is C R O?
What are the main parts of C R O?
What is meant by trace?
Which material is coated inside the front surface of the C R T envelope?
What are the various controls seen normally on C R O front panel?
What is time base? What is its importance?
What are the advantages of C R O?

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM: - Determination of Planck‟s constant using LEDs

APPARATUS: - LEDs, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Connecting wire, resistors, power supply.

INTRODUCTION

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) convert electrical energy into light energy. They emit radiation (photons) of visible
wavelengths when they are “forward biased” (i.e. when the voltage between the p side and the n-side is above the “turn-
on” voltage). This is caused by electrons from the “n” region in the LED giving up light as they fall into holes in the
“p”region.

The graph below shows the current -voltage curve for a typical LED. The 'turn-on' voltage Vt times e (electron charge)
is about the same as the energy lost by an electron as it falls from the n to the p region, and this is also approximately
equal to the energy of the emitted photon.

If we measure the minimum voltage Vt required to cause current to flow and photons to be emitted, and we know (or
measure) the wavelength of the emitted photons and use it to calculate the photon energy hf, we always find that eVt <
hf. Some of the photon energy is supplied by thermal energy.

PROCEDURE:-

Light-emitting diodes require a series load resistor to prevent thermal runaway – unlimited forward current - from
destroying them. Our experiment is conceptually as shown above, with some modification: we use AC voltage rather
than DC, so the voltage keeps varying periodically, and the LED lights up whenever the voltage is large enough to
overcome the depletion barrier. Then also a current flows across the junction (through the diode). We measure the
applied voltage with an oscilloscope which allows visualization of time dependent electric signals. We measure the
current by measuring the voltage across the 100Ω resistor. By measuring the voltage Vt at which the LED “turns on”,
i.e. at which current flows (current >0), we can determine the energy of the photons (it is equal to eVt). This voltage is
different for the LEDs of different color. We know the wavelength of the light emitted by the different LEDs (and
therefore the frequency). By using the equation eVt = h, we can determine Planck‟s constant h. This is only
approximate, since, as mentioned above, eVt < h , because some of the energy can be supplied by thermal motion. A
better method is therefore to plot Vt vs frequency and determine the slope of a straight trendline fitting the data. The
slope equals h measured in eV, and the intercept gives an estimate of the contribution from thermal energy.

DIAGRAM:-

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OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sr.
LED Light Wavelength λ Voltage Vt
No.
For Red
1
For Yellow
2
For Green
3

CALCULATION:-

RESULT:- The Planks Constant for

1) Red LED =
2) Yellow LED =
3) Green LED =

PRECAUTION:-

1) Make sure that the connections are tight.

2) Take care to apply suitable forward voltages across the LED so that suitable forward currents flow through the
LED. Otherwise the LED may be damaged.

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM: - Comparative study of cubic crystal structure (with the help of model)

APPARATUS: - Plastics Ball, vernier caliper, and model of SC, BCC, FCC

THEORY:-

Simple Cubic (SC) Cell

A simple cubic cell is a primitive cell with lattice points located at the eight corners of the cube. As shown in
fig. .

Characteristics of the simple cubic cell

a) Effective number of atoms per unit cell, Z

 number of atom   number of lattice po int 

Z =
 lattice po int    
   unit cell 

= 1 8 Z = 1 atom/ unit cell

8

b) Atomic radius and Lattice constant, r

r=a
2
a = 2r
In a SC cell, the atoms are in contact along the edges of the cube.

c) Atomic Packing Fraction, APF

For the SC cell, Z = 1, a = 2r
Volume of the spherical atom v = 4  r 3
3
3
Volume of the unit cell V = a
APF = Zv
V
4
1  r 3
APF = 3
a3
APF = 
6
APF = 0.52
d) Void space
Void Space = (1- APF) x 100%
= (1- 0.52) x 100%
= 0.48 x 100%
Void Space = 48 %

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Body Centered Cubic (BCC) cell

The Body Centered Cubic cell is a non-primitive cell having an atom within the cell in addition to eight corner
atoms as shown in fig.

Characteristics of the Body centered cubic cell

a) Effective number of atoms per unit cell,Z

 number of atom   number of lattice po int 
Z=     

 lattice po int   unit cell 
1
= 8
8
Z=1
But the BCC having one centered atom
Z= 1 +1= 2 atom/ unit cell

b) Atomic radius and Lattice constant

In a BCC cell, the atoms are in contact along the body diagonal as shown in fig.
In Δ BDC
By Pythagoras theorem
(BC)2 = (BD)2 + (DC)2
(BC)2 = a2 + a2
(BC)2 = 2a2
Now, In Δ ABC
By Pythagoras theorem A
(AB)2 = (AC)2 + (BC)2
r
2r
(4r)2 = a2 + 2a2
(4r)2 = 3a2
r
16r2 = 3a2
2 B C
r2 = 3a a a
16

r= 3a and a = 4r
4 3
ii. Atomic Packing Fraction, APF
For FCC Z = 2 and a = 4r V = a3
3
4
2  r3
APF = Zv , APF =
3
V a3

APF =  3 , APF = 0.68

8
iii. Void space

Void Space = (1- APF) x 100%

= (1- 0.68) x 100%
= 0.32 x 100%
Void Space = 32 %
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Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Cell

The face centered Cubic unit cell is a non-primitive cell having six atoms at the centers of six faces and eight
atoms at the eight corners of the cube as shown in fig.6

Fig. 6

Fig. 6
Characteristics of the Face centered cubic cell

Effective number of atoms per unit cell, Z

Z = 1  atom   6 faces   1  atom   8 corner 

2  face   atom  8  corner   cell 

Z= 3 +1= 4 atom/ unit cell

a) Atomic radius and Lattice Constant

In a FCC cell, the atoms are in contact along the Face diagonal as shown in fig.
In Δ ABC
By Pythagoras theorem
(AB)2 = (AC)2 + (BC)2 A
2 2 2
r
(4r) = a + a
(4r)2 = 2a2
16r2 = 2a 2r
2
a
r2 = 2 a
16 r
r = 2a
B C
4 a
a= 4r
2

b) Atomic Packing Fraction, APF

For FCC, Z = 4 and a = 4r V = a3
2

APF = Zv
V
4
4  r3
APF =
3
a3

APF =  2
6
APF = 0.7

c) Void space
Void Space = (1- APF) x 100%
= (1- 0.74) x 100%
Void Space = 26 %
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OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Type of Radius Lattice

Sr. No. Diameter D APF VS
Unit Cell r = D/2 Constant a
1 SC
2 BCC
3 FCC

CALCULATION:-

RESULT:- The Lattice Constant of

1) SC =
2) BCC =
3) FCC =

PRECAUTION:-

1) Take Reading of Vernier Caliper Carefully

2) Handle the model of SC, BCC, FCC carefully

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Date:-

EXPERIMENT NO. 8 (Virtual Lab Practical)

AIM: -To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fibre and hence to find its acceptance angle.

APPARATUS: - Output Unit, Detector, Fibre Stand, Concentrator, Emitter, Optical Fibre.

THEORY:-
Optical fibers are fine transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate light. They work under the principle of
total internal reflection from diametrically opposite walls. In this way light can be taken anywhere because fibers have
enough flexibility. This property makes them suitable for data communication, design of fine endoscopes, micro sized
microscopes etc. An optic fiber consists of a core that is surrounded by a cladding which are normally made of silica
glass or plastic. The core transmits an optical signal while the cladding guides the light within the core. Since light is
guided through the fiber it is sometimes called an optical wave guide.
Numerical aperture: The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the acceptance angle. Thus
N.A. = sin  0  12   22
N . A.  12   22
N . A.  1   2  1   2 
1   2  1   2 
N . A.  2 1
2 1

1   2  As  1   2


 1 
N . A.  2 12
1  2 
N . A.  1 2 ----- 1 As  1   2 
   
  1 
Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. It is measure of the amount of the light
that can be accepted by fiber. It is seen from equn (1) that NA. dependent only on the refractive indices of the core and
cladding materials. Its value range from 0.13 to 0.50. A large NA implies that a fiber will accept large amount of light
from the source.

PROCEDURE FOR SIMULATOR

Controls
Start button: To start the experiment.
Switch on: To switch on the Laser.
Select Fiber: To select the type of fiber used.
Select Laser: To select a different laser source.
Detector distance (Z): Use the slider to vary the distance between the source and detector. (ie toward the fiber or away
from the fiber.
Detector distance(x): Use the slider to change the detector distance i.e towards left or right w.r.t the fiber.
Show Graph: To Displays the graph.
Reset: To resets the experimental arrangement.

Preliminary Adjustment
 Drag and drop each apparatus in to the optical table as shown in the figure below.

Fig (4)
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 Then Click “Start” button.

 Switch On (now you can see a spot in the middle of the detector)
 After that select the Fiber and Laser for performing the experiment from the control options.

To perform the experiment

 Set the detector distance Z (say 4mm). We referred the distance as “d” in our calculation.
 Vary the detector distance X by an order of 0.5mm, using the screw gauge (use up and down arrow on the screw gauge
to rotate it).
 Measure the detector reading from output unit and tabulate it.
 Plot the graph between X in x-axis and output reading in y-axis. See figure 5.
 Find the radius of the spot r, which is corresponding to Imax/2.71 (See the figure 5).

Fig (5)
 Then find the numerical aperture of the optic fiber using the equation (4).

OBSERVATION COLUMN
SL No. Screw gauge reading Distance (X)
I µA
H.S.R P.S.R mm

CALCULATIONS
Distance between the fiber and the detector, d = …………………………… m
Radius of the spot, r =……………………….. m
Numerical Aperture of the optic fiber, sin(θ) = = ..................
√
Acceptance angle, θ= = ...........................
√

RESULT
Numerical aperture of the optic fiber is = …………………
Angle of acceptance = ……………….

REFERENCES
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=189&sim=343&cnt=1

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