Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach 8Th Edition Cengel Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF

Thermodynamics An Engineering
Approach 8th Edition Cengel Solutions

Manual
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8-1
Solutions Manual for

Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
8th Edition
Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2015
Chapter 8
EXERGY
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL
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If you are a student using this Manual, you are using it without permission.
8-2
Exergy, Irreversibility, Reversible Work, and Second-Law Efficiency
8-1C The dead state.
8-2C Yes; exergy is a function of the state of the surroundings as well as the state of the system.
8-3C Useful work differs from the actual work by the surroundings work. They are identical for systems that involve no
surroundings work such as steady-flow systems.
8-4C Yes.
8-5C No, not necessarily. The well with the higher temperature will have a higher exergy.
8-6C The system that is at the temperature of the surroundings has zero exergy. But the system that is at a lower
temperature than the surroundings has some exergy since we can run a heat engine between these two temperature levels.
8-7C The second-law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a device relative to its performance under reversible
conditions. It differs from the first law efficiency in that it is not a conversion efficiency.
8-8C No. The power plant that has a lower thermal efficiency may have a higher second-law efficiency.
8-9C No. The refrigerator that has a lower COP may have a higher second-law efficiency.
8-10C A processes with Wrev = 0 is reversible if it involves no actual useful work. Otherwise it is irreversible.
8-11C Yes.
8-3
8-12 Windmills are to be installed at a location with steady winds to generate power. The minimum number of windmills
that need to be installed is to be determined.
Assumptions Air is at standard conditions of 1 atm and 25C
Properties The gas constant of air is 0.287 kPa.m3/kg.K (Table A-1).
Analysis The exergy or work potential of the blowing air is the kinetic energy it possesses,
V 2 (6 m/s)2  1 kJ/kg 
Exergy  ke      0.0180 kJ/kg
2 2  1000 m 2 / s 2 
At standard atmospheric conditions (25C, 101 kPa), the density and
the mass flow rate of air are
P 101 kPa
   1.18 m 3 / kg
RT (0.287 kPa  m 3 / kg  K)(298 K)
and
 D2
m  AV1   V1  (1.18 kg/m 3 )( / 4)( 40 m) 2 (6 m/s) = 8904 kg/s
4
Thus,
Available Power  m ke  (8904 kg/s)(0.0180 kJ/kg) = 160.3 kW
The minimum number of windmills that needs to be installed is

W total 1500 kW
N   9.4  10 windmills
W 160.3 kW
8-4
8-13E Saturated steam is generated in a boiler by transferring heat from the combustion gases. The wasted work potential
associated with this heat transfer process is to be determined. Also, the effect of increasing the temperature of combustion
gases on the irreversibility is to be discussed.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Analysis The properties of water at the inlet and outlet of the boiler and at the dead state are (Tables A-4E through A-6E)
P1  200 psia  h1  h f  355.46 Btu/lbm

x1  0 (sat. liq.)  s1  s f  0.54379 Btu/lbm R q
P2  200 psia  h2  h g  1198.8 Btu/lbm Water
200 psia
 200 psia
x 2  1 (sat. vap.)  s 2  s g  1.5460 Btu/lbm R sat. liq. sat. vap.
T0  80F  h0  h f @ 80F  48.07 Btu/lbm

P0  14.7 psia  s 0  s f @ 80F  0.09328 Btu/lbm R
The heat transfer during the process is

qin  h2  h1  1198.8  355.46  843.3 Btu/lbm
The entropy generation associated with this process is

qin
sgen  sw  sR  ( s2  s1 ) 
TR
843.3 Btu/lbm
 (1.5460  0.54379)Btu/lbm  R 
(500  460)R
 0.12377 Btu/lbm  R
The wasted work potential (exergy destruction is)
xdest  T0sgen  (80  460 R)(0.12377 Btu/lbm R)  66.8 Btu/lbm
The work potential (exergy) of the steam stream is

 w  h2  h1  T0 ( s2  s1 )
 (1198.8  355.46)Btu/lbm  (540 R )(1.5460  0.54379)Btu/lbm R
 302.1 Btu/lbm
Increasing the temperature of combustion gases does not effect the work potential of steam stream since it is determined by
the states at which water enters and leaves the boiler.
Discussion This problem may also be solved as follows:
Exergy transfer by heat transfer:
 T   540 
xheat  q1  0   (843.3)1    368.9 Btu/lbm
 TR   960 
Exergy increase of steam:

 w  302.1 Btu/lbm
The net exergy destruction:

xdest  xheat   w  368.9  302.1  66.8 Btu/lbm
8-5
8-14 Water is to be pumped to a high elevation lake at times of low electric demand for use in a hydroelectric turbine at
times of high demand. For a specified energy storage capacity, the minimum amount of water that needs to be stored in the
lake is to be determined.
Assumptions The evaporation of water from the lake is negligible.
Analysis The exergy or work potential of the water is the potential energy it possesses,
Exergy = PE = mgh 75 m
Thus,
PE 5 10 6 kWh  3600 s  1000 m 2 / s 2 

  2.45  10 10 kg
m   
gh (9.8 m/s 2 )( 75 m)  1 h  1 kW  s/kg 

8-15 A body contains a specified amount of thermal energy at a specified temperature. The amount that can be converted to
work is to be determined.
Analysis The amount of heat that can be converted to work is simply
the amount that a reversible heat engine can convert to work, 650 K
T0 298 K 100 kJ
 th,rev  1  1  0.5415
TH 650 K HE
Wmax,out  Wrev,out   th,rev Qin
 (0.5415)(100 kJ) 298 K
= 54.2 kJ
8-16 The thermal efficiency of a heat engine operating between specified temperature limits is given. The second-law
efficiency of a engine is to be determined.
Analysis The thermal efficiency of a reversible heat engine operating
between the same temperature reservoirs is 1200C
 th,rev  1 
T0
 1
293 K
 0.801  th = 0.40
TH 1200  273 K HE
Thus,
 th 0.40 20C
 II    49.9%
 th,rev 0.801
8-6
8-17 A heat reservoir at a specified temperature can supply heat at a specified rate. The exergy of this heat supplied is to be
determined.
Analysis The exergy of the supplied heat, in the rate form, is the amount
1500 K
of power that would be produced by a reversible heat engine,
T0 298 K
 th,max   th,rev  1   1  0.8013 HE 
W rev
TH 1500 K
Exergy  W max,out  W rev,out   th,rev Q in
 (0.8013)(150,000 / 3600 kJ/s) 298 K
= 33.4 kW
8-18 A heat engine receives heat from a source at a specified temperature at a specified rate, and rejects the waste
heat to a sink. For a given power output, the reversible power, the rate of irreversibility, and the 2 nd law efficiency are to be
determined.
Analysis (a) The reversible power is the power produced by a reversible heat engine operating between the specified
temperature limits,
TL 320 K
 th,max   th,rev  1  1  0.7091
TH 1100 K 1100 K
W rev,out   th,rev Q in  (0.7091)( 400 kJ/s) = 283.6 kW 400 kJ/s
(b) The irreversibility rate is the difference between the reversible HE 120 kW
power and the actual power output:
I  W rev,out  W u,out  283.6  120  163.6 kW

320 K
(c) The second law efficiency is determined from its definition,
Wu,out 120 kW
 II    0.423  42.3%
Wrev,out 283.6 kW
8-7
8-19 Problem 8-18 is reconsidered. The effect of reducing the temperature at which the waste heat is rejected on the
reversible power, the rate of irreversibility, and the second law efficiency is to be studied and the results are to be plotted.
Analysis The problem is solved using EES, and the solution is given below.
"Input Data"
T_H= 1100 [K]
Q_dot_H= 400 [kJ/s]
{T_L=320 [K]}
W_dot_out = 120 [kW]
T_Lsurr =25 [C]
"The reversible work is the maximum work done by the Carnot Engine between T_H and T_L:"
Eta_Carnot=1 - T_L/T_H
W_dot_rev=Q_dot_H*Eta_Carnot
"The irreversibility is given as:"
I_dot = W_dot_rev-W_dot_out
"The thermal efficiency is, in percent:"
Eta_th = Eta_Carnot*Convert(, %)
"The second law efficiency is, in percent:"
Eta_II = W_dot_out/W_dot_rev*Convert(, %)
TL [K] W rev [kJ/s] I [kJ/s] II [%]

500 218.2 98.18 55
477.6 226.3 106.3 53.02
455.1 234.5 114.5 51.17
432.7 242.7 122.7 49.45
410.2 250.8 130.8 47.84
387.8 259 139 46.33
365.3 267.2 147.2 44.92
342.9 275.3 155.3 43.59
320.4 283.5 163.5 42.33
298 291.6 171.6 41.15
300
290
280
Wrev [kJ/s]
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
275 320 365 410 455 500
TL [K]
8-8
180
160
I [kJ/s]
140
120
100
275 320 365 410 455 500

TL [K]
56
54
52
50
 II [%]
48
46
44
42
40
275 320 365 410 455 500
TL [K]
8-9
8-20E The thermal efficiency and the second-law efficiency of a heat engine are given. The source temperature is to be
determined.
TH
Analysis From the definition of the second law efficiency,
 th  0.25
 II    th,rev  th 
  0.50
 th,rev  II 0.50 HE
 th = 25%
Thus,  II = 50%
TL
 th,rev  1   TH  TL /(1   th,rev )  (510 R)/0.50 = 1020 R
 510 R
TH
8-21 A house is maintained at a specified temperature by electric resistance heaters. The reversible work for this heating
process and irreversibility are to be determined.
Analysis We consider a reversible heat pump operation as the reversible counterpart of the irreversible process of heating
the house by resistance heaters. Instead of using electricity input for resistance heaters, it is used to power a reversible heat
pump. The reversible work is the minimum work required to accomplish this process, and the irreversibility is the difference
between the reversible work and the actual electrical work consumed. The actual power input is
W in  Q out  Q H  50,000 kJ/h = 13.89 kW

50,000 kJ/h
The COP of a reversible heat pump operating between the
specified temperature limits is
1 1
COPHP,rev    14.20 House
1  TL / TH 1  277.15 / 298.15 25 C
4 C
Thus,
Q H 13.89 kW
W rev,in    0.978 kW
COPHP,rev 14.20 ·
W
and
I  W u,in  W rev,in  13.89  0.978  12.91 kW
8-10
8-22E A freezer is maintained at a specified temperature by removing heat from it at a specified rate. The power
consumption of the freezer is given. The reversible power, irreversibility, and the second-law efficiency are to be
determined.
Analysis (a) The reversible work is the minimum work required to accomplish this task, which is the work that a reversible
refrigerator operating between the specified temperature limits would consume,
1 1
COPR,rev    8.73
TH / TL  1 535 / 480  1
75F
Q L 75 Btu/min  1 hp 
W rev,in      0.20 hp
COPR,rev 8.73  42.41 Btu/min 
R 0.70 hp
(b) The irreversibility is the difference between the reversible work and the
actual electrical work consumed, 75 Btu/min
I  W u,in  W rev,in  0.70  0.20  0.50 hp Freezer

20F
(c) The second law efficiency is determined from its definition,
W rev 0.20 hp
 II    28.9%
W u 0.7 hp
8-23 It is to be shown that the power produced by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity and the
square of the blade span diameter.
Analysis The power produced by a wind turbine is proportional to the kinetic energy of the wind, which is equal to the
product of the kinetic energy of air per unit mass and the mass flow rate of air through the blade span area. Therefore,
Wind power = (Efficienc y)(Kinetic energy)(Ma ss flow rate of air)
V2 V 2  D2
=  wind ( AV )   wind  V
2 2 4
V 3 D 2
  wind   (Constant )V 3 D 2
8
which completes the proof that wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity and to the square of the blade
span diameter.
8-11
Exergy Analysis of Closed Systems
8-24C Yes, it can. For example, the 1st law efficiency of a reversible heat engine operating between the temperature limits
of 300 K and 1000 K is 70%. However, the second law efficiency of this engine, like all reversible devices, is 100%.
8-25 A fixed mass of helium undergoes a process from a specified state to another specified state. The increase in the useful
energy potential of helium is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 At specified conditions, helium can be treated as an ideal gas.
2 Helium has constant specific heats at room temperature.
Properties The gas constant of helium is R = 2.0769 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1). The
constant volume specific heat of helium is cv = 3.1156 kJ/kg.K (Table A-2).
He
Analysis From the ideal-gas entropy change relation, 8 kg
T2 v 288 K
s 2  s1  cv ,avg ln  R ln 2
T1 v1
353 K 0.5 m 3 /kg
 (3.1156 kJ/kg  K) ln  (2.0769 kJ/kg  K) ln
288 K 3 m 3 /kg
= 3.087 kJ/kg  K
The increase in the useful potential of helium during this process is simply the increase in exergy,
 2   1  m(u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )  P0 (v 1  v 2 )
 (8 kg){(3.1156 kJ/kg  K)(288  353) K  (298 K)(3.087 kJ/kg  K)
+ (100 kPa)(3  0.5)m 3 / kg[kJ/kPa  m 3 ]}
 6980 kJ
8-12
8-26E Air is expanded in an adiabatic closed system with an isentropic efficiency of 95%. The second law efficiency of the
process is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 2 The process is adiabatic, and thus there is no heat
transfer. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 0.240 Btu/lbm·R, cv = 0.171 Btu/lbm·R, k = 1.4, and R =
0.06855 Btu/lbm·R (Table A-2Ea).
Analysis We take the air as the system. This is a closed system since no mass crosses the boundaries of the system. The
energy balance for this system can be expressed as
E E  E system
inout
  
Net energy transfer Changein internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential,etc. energies
Air
 Wb,out  U  mcv (T2  T1 ) 180 psia
The final temperature for the isentropic case is 140°F
( k 1) / k 0.4 / 1.4
P   20 psia 
T2 s  T1  2   (600 R)   320.3 R
 P1   180 psia 
The actual exit temperature from the isentropic relation is
T 180 psia
T T 1
 1 2
T1  T2s 20 psia
T2  T1   (T1  T2 s )  600  (0.95)(600  320.3)  334.3 R
2
The boundary work output is 2s
wb,out  cv (T1  T2 )  (0.171 Btu/lbm R)(600  334.3)R  45.44 Btu/lbm s
The entropy change of air is

T2 P
s air  c p ln  R ln 2
T1 P1
334.3 R 20 psia
 (0.240 Btu/lbm  R)ln  (0.06855 Btu/lbm  R)ln
600 R 180 psia
 0.01021 Btu/lbm  R
The exergy difference between states 1 and 2 is
1   2  u1  u 2  P0 (v 1  v 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )
T T 
 cv (T1  T2 )  P0 R 1  2   T0 ( s1  s 2 )
 P1 P2 
 600 R 334.3 R 
 45.44 Btu/lbm  (14.7 psia)(0.06855 Btu/lbm R)    (537 R)(0.01021 Btu/lbm R)
 180 psia 20 psia 
 37.44 Btu/lbm
The useful work is determined from
T T 
wu  wb,out  wsurr  cv (T1  T2 )  P0 (v 2  v 1 )  cv (T1  T2 )  P0 R 2  1 
 P2 P1 
 334.3 R 600 R 
 45.44 Btu/lbm  (14.7 psia)(0.06855 Btu/lbm R)  
 20 psia 180 psia 
 31.96 Btu/lbm
The second law efficiency is then
wu 31.96 Btu/lbm
 II    0.854
 37.44 Btu/lbm
8-13
8-27E Air and helium at specified states are considered. The gas with the higher exergy content is to be identified.
Assumptions 1 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 2 Air and helium are ideal gases with constant specific
heats.
Properties The properties of air at room temperature are cp = 0.240 Btu/lbm·R, cv = 0.171 Btu/lbm·R, k = 1.4, and R =
0.06855 Btu/lbm·R = 0.3704 psiaft3/lbm·R. For helium, cp = 1.25 Btu/lbm·R, cv = 0.753 Btu/lbm·R, k = 1.667, and R =
0.4961 Btu/lbm·R= 2.6809 psiaft3/lbm·R. (Table A-2E).
Analysis The mass of air in the system is
PV (100 psia)(15 ft 3 ) Air

m   5.704 lbm
RT (0.3704 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(710 R) 15 ft3
100 psia
The entropy change of air between the given state and the dead state is 250°F
T P
s  s 0  c p ln  R ln
T0 P0
710 R 100 psia
537 R 14.7 psia
 0.06441 Btu/lbm  R
The air’s specific volumes at the given state and dead state are
RT (0.3704 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(710 R)

v   2.630 ft 3 /lbm
P 100 psia
RT0 (0.3704 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(537 R)

v0    13.53 ft 3 /lbm
P0 14.7 psia
The specific closed system exergy of the air is then

  u  u 0  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
 cv (T  T0 )  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
 1 Btu 
 (0.171 Btu/lbm  R )(300  77)R  (14.7 psia)(2.630  13.53)ft 3 /lbm 
 5.404 psia  ft 3 
 
 (537 R)(0.06441) Btu/lbm  R
 34.52 Btu/lbm
The total exergy available in the air for the production of work is then
  m  (5.704 lbm)(34.52 Btu/lbm)  197 Btu
We now repeat the calculations for helium:
PV (60 psia)(20 ft 3 )
m   0.6782 lbm
RT (2.6809 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(660 R)
Helium
T P 20 ft3
s  s 0  c p ln  R ln 60 psia
T0 P0
200°F
660 R 60 psia
537 R 14.7 psia
 0.4400 Btu/lbm  R
RT (2.6809 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(660 R)

v   29.49 ft 3 /lbm
P 60 psia
8-14
RT0 (2.6809 psia  ft /lbm  R)(537 R)

3
v0    97.93 ft 3 /lbm
P0 14.7 psia
  u  u 0  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
 cv (T  T0 )  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
 1 Btu 
 (0.753 Btu/lbm  R )( 200  77)R  (14.7 psia)(29.49  97.93)ft 3 /lbm 
 5.404 psia  ft 3 
 
 (537 R)(0.4400) Btu/lbm  R
 142.7 Btu/lbm
  m  (0.6782 lbm)(142.7 Btu/lbm)  96.8 Btu
Comparison of two results shows that the air system has a greater potential for the production of work.
8-15
8-28 Steam and R-134a at the same states are considered. The fluid with the higher exergy content is to be identified.
Assumptions Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Analysis The properties of water at the given state and at the dead state are
u  2594.7 kJ/kg
P  800 kPa  Steam
 v  0.24720 m /kg
3
(Table A - 6)
T  180C  1 kg
s  6.7155 kJ/kg  K 800 kPa
u 0  u f @ 25C  104.83 kJ/kg 180°C
T0  25C 
 v 0  v f @ 25C  0.001003 m /kg (Table A - 4)
3
P0  100 kPa 
s 0  s f @ 25C  0.3672 kJ/kg  K
The exergy of steam is

  mu  u 0  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
  1 kJ 
(2594.7  104.83)kJ/kg  (100 kPa)(0.24720  0.001003)m /kg 
3
 (1 kg)   1 kPa  m 3 
 (298 K)(6.7155  0.3672)kJ/kg  K 
 622.7kJ
For R-134a;
u  386.99 kJ/kg
P  800 kPa 
 v  0.044554 m /kg (Table A - 13)
3
T  180C  R-134a
s  1.3327 kJ/kg  K
1 kg
u 0  u f @ 25C  85.85 kJ/kg
T0  25C  800 kPa
 v 0  v f @ 25C  0.0008286 m /kg (Table A - 11)
3
180°C
P0  100 kPa 
s 0  s f @ 25C  0.32432 kJ/kg  K
  mu  u 0  P0 (v  v 0 )  T0 ( s  s 0 )
  1 kJ 
(386.99  85.85)kJ/kg  (100 kPa)(0.044554  0.0008286)m /kg 
3
 (1 kg)   1 kPa  m 3 
 (298 K)(1.3327  0.32432)kJ/kg  K 
 5.02 kJ
The steam can therefore has more work potential than the R-134a.
8-16
8-29 A cylinder is initially filled with R-134a at a specified state. The refrigerant is cooled and condensed at constant
pressure. The exergy of the refrigerant at the initial and final states, and the exergy destroyed during this process are to be
determined.
Assumptions The kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
Properties From the refrigerant tables (Tables A-11 through A-13),
v 1  0.034875 m 3 / kg
P1  0.7 MPa 
 u1  274.03 kJ/kg
T1  60C  s  1.0257 kJ/kg  K
1
v  v f @ 20C = 0.0008160 m 3 / kg R-134a

P2  0.7 MPa  2 0.7 MPa
 u 2  u f @ 20C = 78.85 kJ/kg P = const.
T2  20C s s
Q
2 f @ 20C = 0.30062 kJ/kg  K
v  0.23373 m 3 / kg
P0  0.1 MPa  0
 u 0  248.81 kJ/kg
T0  20C 
s 0  1.0919 kJ/kg  K
Analysis (a) From the closed system exergy relation,
X 1   1  m(u1  u 0 )  T0 ( s1  s 0 )  P0 (v 1  v 0 )
 (8 kg){(274.03  248.81) kJ/kg  (293 K)(1.0257  1.0919) kJ/kg  K
 1 kJ 
+ (100 kPa)(0.034875  0.23373)m 3 /kg }
 1 kPa  m 3 
 197.8 kJ
and
X 2   2  m(u 2  u 0 )  T0 ( s 2  s 0 )  P0 (v 2  v 0 )
 (8 kg){(78.85  248.81) kJ/kg - (293 K)(0.30062  1.0919) kJ/kg  K
 1 kJ 
+ (100 kPa)(0.0008160  0.23373)m 3 /kg }
 1 kPa  m 3 
 308.6 kJ
(b) The reversible work input, which represents the minimum work input Wrev,in in this case can be determined from the
exergy balance by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,
X X  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

inout
    
Net exergy transfer Exergy Change
by heat, work, and mass destruction in exergy
Wrev,in  X 2  X 1  308.6  197.8  110.8 kJ
Noting that the process involves only boundary work, the useful work input during this process is simply the boundary work
in excess of the work done by the surrounding air,
Wu,in  Win  Wsurr,in  Win  P0 (V1  V 2 )  P(V1  V 2 )  P0 m(v 1  v 2 )
 m( P  P0 )(v 1  v 2 )
 1 kJ 
 (8 kg)(700 - 100 kPa)(0.034875  0.0008160 m 3 / kg)   163.5 kJ
 1 kPa  m 3 
Knowing both the actual useful and reversible work inputs, the exergy destruction or irreversibility that is the difference
between the two is determined from its definition to be
X destroyed  I  Wu,in  Wrev,in  163.5  110.8  52.7 kJ
8-17
8-30 The radiator of a steam heating system is initially filled with superheated steam. The valves are closed, and steam is
allowed to cool until the pressure drops to a specified value by transferring heat to the room. The amount of heat transfer to
the room and the maximum amount of heat that can be supplied to the room are to be determined.
Assumptions Kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
Properties From the steam tables (Tables A-4 through A-6),
Qout
Steam
v 1  1.0805 m / kg 3
P1  200 kPa  20 L
 u1  2654.6 kJ/kg P1 = 200 kPa
T1  200C 
s1  7.5081 kJ/kg  K T1 = 200C
v 2 v f 1.0805  0.001029
x2    0.3171
v fg 3.4053  0.001029
T2  80C 
 u 2  u f  x 2 u fg  334.97  0.3171 2146.6  1015.6 kJ/kg
(v 2  v 1 ) 
s 2  s f  x 2 s fg  1.0756  0.3171 6.5355  3.1479 kJ/kg  K
Analysis (a) The mass of the steam is
V 0.020 m 3
m   0.01851 kg
v 1 1.0805 m 3 / kg
The amount of heat transfer to the room is determined from an energy balance on the radiator expressed as
inout
  
 Qout  U  m(u 2  u1 ) (since W  KE = PE = 0)

Qout  m(u1  u 2 )
or Qout  (0.01851 kg)(2654.6  1015.6) kJ/kg = 30.3 kJ
(b) The reversible work output, which represents the maximum work output Wrev,out in this case can be determined from the
exergy balance by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,
X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

in    
by heat, work,and mass destruction in exergy
 Wrev,out  X 2  X1  Wrev,out  X1  X 2  1   2
Substituting the closed system exergy relation, the reversible work during this process is determined to be

Wrev,out  m (u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )  P0 (v 10  v 2 ) 
 m(u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )
 (0.01851 kg)(2654.6 - 1015.6)kJ/kg - (273 K)(7.5081 - 3.1479)kJ/kg  K   8.305 kJ
When this work is supplied to a reversible heat pump, it will supply the room heat in the amount of
Wrev 8.305 kJ
QH  COPHP,rev Wrev    116 kJ
1  TL / TH 1 - 273/294
Discussion Note that the amount of heat supplied to the room can be increased by about 3 times by eliminating the
irreversibility associated with the irreversible heat transfer process.
8-18
8-31 Problem 8-30 is reconsidered. The effect of the final steam temperature in the radiator on the amount of actual
heat transfer and the maximum amount of heat that can be transferred is to be investigated.
T_1=200 [C]
P_1=200 [kPa]
V=20 [L]
T_2=80 [C]
T_o=0 [C]
P_o=100 [kPa]
"Conservation of energy for closed system is:"

E_in - E_out = DELTAE
DELTAE = m*(u_2 - u_1)
E_in=0
E_out= Q_out
u_1 =intenergy(steam_iapws,P=P_1,T=T_1)
v_1 =volume(steam_iapws,P=P_1,T=T_1)
s_1 =entropy(steam_iapws,P=P_1,T=T_1)
v_2 = v_1
u_2 = intenergy(steam_iapws, v=v_2,T=T_2)
s_2 = entropy(steam_iapws, v=v_2,T=T_2)
m=V*convert(L,m^3)/v_1
W_rev=-m*(u_2 - u_1 -(T_o+273.15)*(s_2-s_1)+P_o*(v_1-v_2))
"When this work is supplied to a reversible heat pump, the heat pump will supply the room heat in the amount of
:"
Q_H = COP_HP*W_rev
COP_HP = T_H/(T_H-T_L)
T_H = 294 [K] 160
Heat Transfer to Room [kJ]
T_L = 273 [K]

140
QH Qout T2 Wrev 120 Maximum

[kJ] [kJ] [C] [kJ]
155.4 46.66 21 11.1 100
153.9 45.42 30 11
151.2 43.72 40 10.8 80
146.9 41.55 50 10.49
Actual
140.3 38.74 60 10.02 60
130.4 35.09 70 9.318
116.1 30.34 80 8.293 40
20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
T2 [C]
8-19
8-32E An insulated rigid tank contains saturated liquid-vapor mixture of water at a specified pressure. An electric heater
inside is turned on and kept on until all the liquid is vaporized. The exergy destruction and the second-law efficiency are to
be determined.
Assumptions Kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
Properties From the steam tables (Tables A-4 through A-6)
v  v f  x1v fg  0.01708  0.25  (11.901  0.01708)  2.9880 ft 3 / lbm

P1  35 psia  1
 u1  u f  x1u fg  227.92  0.25  862.19  443.47 Btu / lbm
x1  0.25 
s1  s f  x1 s fg  0.38093  0.25 1.30632  0.70751 Btu / lbm  R
v 2  v 1  u 2  u g @ v g = 2.9880ft 3/lbm = 1110.9 Btu/lbm


sat. vapor  s 2  s g @ v g = 2.9880ft 3/lbm  1.5692 Btu/lbm R
Analysis (a) The irreversibility can be determined from its definition H2O
Xdestroyed = T0Sgen where the entropy generation is determined from an entropy 35 psia
balance on the tank, which is an insulated closed system, We
S in  S out  S gen  S system

    
Net entropy transfer Entropy Change
by heat and mass generation in entropy
S gen  S system  m( s 2  s1 )
Substituting,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  mT0 ( s 2  s1 )
 (6 lbm)(535 R)(1.5692 - 0.70751)Btu/lbm  R = 2766 Btu
(b) Noting that V = constant during this process, the W and Wu are identical and are determined from the energy balance on
the closed system energy equation,
inout
  
We,in  U  m(u 2  u1 )
or,
We,in  (6 lbm)(1110.9 - 443.47)Btu/lbm = 4005 Btu
Then the reversible work during this process and the second-law efficiency become
Wrev,in  Wu,in  X destroyed  4005  2766  1239 Btu
Thus,
Wrev 1239 Btu
II    30.9%
Wu 4005 Btu
8-20
8-33 An insulated cylinder is initially filled with saturated liquid water at a specified pressure. The water is heated
electrically at constant pressure. The minimum work by which this process can be accomplished and the exergy destroyed
are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 2 The cylinder is well-insulated and thus heat
transfer is negligible. 3 The thermal energy stored in the cylinder itself is negligible. 4 The compression or expansion
process is quasi-equilibrium.
Analysis (a) From the steam tables (Tables A-4 through A-6),
u1  u f @120kPa = 439.27 kJ / kg
P1  120 kPa  v 1  v f @120kPa = 0.001047 m /kg
3

sat. liquid  h1  h f @120kPa = 439.36 kJ/kg Saturated
s1  s f @120kPa = 1.3609 kJ/kg  K Liquid
H2O We
The mass of the steam is
P = 120 kPa
V 0.008 m 3
m   7.639 kg
v 1 0.001047 m 3 / kg
We take the contents of the cylinder as the system. This is a closed system since no mass enters or leaves. The energy
balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed as
inout  
We,in  W b,out  U
We,in  m(h2  h1 )
since U + Wb = H during a constant pressure quasi-equilibrium process. Solving for h2,
We,in 1400 kJ
h2  h1   439.36   622.63 kJ/kg
m 7.639 kg
Thus,
h2  h f 622.63  439.36
x2    0.08168
h fg 2243.7
P2  120 kPa 
 s 2  s f  x 2 s fg  1.3609  0.08168  5.93687  1.8459 kJ/kg  K
h2  622.63 kJ/kg 
u  u  x u  439.24  0.08168  2072.4  608.52 kJ/kg
2 f 2 fg
v 2  v f  x 2v fg  0.001047  0.08168  (1.4285  0.001047)  0.1176 m 3 /kg
The reversible work input, which represents the minimum work input Wrev,in in this case can be determined from the exergy
balance by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,
X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system  Wrev,in  X 2  X1
in    
Substituting the closed system exergy relation, the reversible work input during this process is determined to be
Wrev,in  m(u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )  P0 (v 1  v 2 )
 (7.639 kg){(439.27  608.52) kJ/kg  (298 K)(1.3609  1.8459) kJ/kg  K
+ (100 kPa)(0.001047  0.1176)m 3 / kg[1 kJ/1 kPa  m 3 ]}
 278 kJ
(b) The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) associated with this process can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed =
T0Sgen where the entropy generation is determined from an entropy balance on the cylinder, which is an insulated closed
system,
    
Substituting,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  mT0 (s 2  s1 )  (298 K)(7.639 kg)(1.8459  1.3609)kJ/kg  K = 1104 kJ
8-21
8-34 Problem 8-33 is reconsidered. The effect of the amount of electrical work on the minimum work and the exergy
destroyed is to be investigated.
x_1=0
P_1=120 [kPa]
V=8 [L]
P_2=P_1
{W_Ele = 1400 [kJ]}
T_o=25 [C]
P_o=100 [kPa]
"Conservation of energy for closed system is:"

E_in - E_out = DELTAE
DELTAE = m*(u_2 - u_1)
E_in=W_Ele
E_out= W_b
W_b = m*P_1*(v_2-v_1)
u_1 =intenergy(steam_iapws,P=P_1,x=x_1) 1750
v_1 =volume(steam_iapws,P=P_1,x=x_1)
s_1 =entropy(steam_iapws,P=P_1,x=x_1) 1350
u_2 = intenergy(steam_iapws, v=v_2,P=P_2)
s_2 = entropy(steam_iapws, v=v_2,P=P_2)
Xdestroyed [kJ]
m=V*convert(L,m^3)/v_1 950
W_rev_in=m*(u_2 - u_1 -(T_o+273.15)
*(s_2-s_1)+P_o*(v_2-v_1))
550
"Entropy Balance:"
S_in - S_out+S_gen = DELTAS_sys 150
DELTAS_sys = m*(s_2 - s_1)
S_in=0 [kJ/K]
S_out= 0 [kJ/K] -250
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
W Ele [kJ]
"The exergy destruction or irreversibility is:"
X_destroyed = (T_o+273.15)*S_gen
400
WEle Wrev,in Xdestroyed
[kJ] [kJ] [kJ] 350
0 0 0
200 39.68 157.8 300
400 79.35 315.6
250
600 119 473.3
Wrev,in [kJ]
800 158.7 631.1 200

1000 198.4 788.9
1200 238.1 946.7 150
1400 277.7 1104
1600 317.4 1262 100
1800 357.1 1420
2000 396.8 1578 50
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
W Ele [kJ]
8-22
8-35 An insulated cylinder is initially filled with saturated R-134a vapor at a specified pressure. The refrigerant expands in a
reversible manner until the pressure drops to a specified value. The change in the exergy of the refrigerant during this
process and the reversible work are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 2 The cylinder is well-insulated and thus heat
transfer is negligible. 3 The thermal energy stored in the cylinder itself is negligible. 4 The process is stated to be reversible.
Analysis This is a reversible adiabatic (i.e., isentropic) process, and thus s2 = s1. From the refrigerant tables (Tables A-11
through A-13),
v 1  v g @ 0.6 MPa = 0.03433 m 3 / kg

P1  0.6 MPa 
 u1  u g @ 0.6 MPa = 241.86 kJ/kg
sat. vapor s s
1 g @ 0.6 MPa = 0.9220 kJ/kg  K
The mass of the refrigerant is R-134a

0.6 MPa
V 0.03 m 3 Reversible
m   0.8738 kg
v 1 0.03433 m 3 / kg
s2  s f 0.9220  0.12686
x2    0.9754
s fg 0.81517
P2  0.16 MPa 
 v 2  v f  x 2v fg  0.0007435  0.9754(0.12355  0.0007435)  0.12053 m /kg
3
s 2  s1  u  u  x u  31.06  0.9754  190.31  216.69 kJ/kg
2 f 2 fg
The reversible work output, which represents the maximum work output Wrev,out can be determined from the exergy balance
by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,
X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

in    
- Wrev,out  X 2  X1
Wrev,out  X1  X 2
 1   2
Therefore, the change in exergy and the reversible work are identical in this case. Using the definition of the closed system
exergy and substituting, the reversible work is determined to be
 
Wrev,out  1   2  m (u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )   P0 (v 1  v 2 )  m(u1  u 2 )  P0 (v 1  v 2 )
0
 (0.8738 kg)[(241.86  216.69) kJ/kg + (100 kPa)(0.03433  0.12053)m 3 / kg[kJ/kPa  m 3 ]

 14.5 kJ
8-23
8-36E Oxygen gas is compressed from a specified initial state to a final specified state. The reversible work and the increase
in the exergy of the oxygen during this process are to be determined.
Assumptions At specified conditions, oxygen can be treated as an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties The gas constant of oxygen is R = 0.06206 Btu/lbm.R (Table A-1E). The constant-volume specific heat of
oxygen at the average temperature is
Tavg  (T1  T2 ) / 2  (75  525) / 2  300F 

 cv ,avg  0.164 Btu/lbm R
Analysis The entropy change of oxygen is
T v  O2
s 2  s1  cv, avg ln 2
  R ln 2 
 T1
  v1  12 ft3/lbm
 985 R   1.5 ft 3 /lbm  75F
 (0.164 Btu/lbm R) ln   (0.06206 Btu/lbm R) ln 

 535 R   12 ft 3
/lbm 
 0.02894 Btu/lbm R
The reversible work input, which represents the minimum work input Wrev,in in this case can be determined from the exergy
balance by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,

in    
Therefore, the change in exergy and the reversible work are identical in this case. Substituting the closed system exergy
relation, the reversible work input during this process is determined to be
wrev,in   2  1  [(u1  u 2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )  P0 (v 1  v 2 )]
 {(0.164 Btu/lbm R)(535 - 985)R  (535 R)(0.02894 Btu/lbm R)
+ (14.7 psia)(12  1.5)ft 3 /lbm[Btu/5.4039 psia  ft 3 ]}
 60.7 Btu/lbm
Also, the increase in the exergy of oxygen is
 2  1  wrev,in  60.7 Btu/lbm
8-24
8-37 A cylinder initially contains air at atmospheric conditions. Air is compressed to a specified state and the useful work
input is measured. The exergy of the air at the initial and final states, and the minimum work input to accomplish this
compression process, and the second-law efficiency are to be determined
Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. 2 The kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPa.m3/kg.K (Table A-1). The specific heats of air at the average temperature
of (298+423)/2=360 K are cp = 1.009 kJ/kg·K and cv = 0.722 kJ/kg·K (Table A-2).
Analysis (a) We realize that X1 = 1 = 0 since air initially is at the dead state. The mass of air is
P1V1 (100 kPa)(0.002 m 3 )

m   0.00234 kg
RT1 (0.287 kPa  m 3 / kg  K)(298 K)
Also,
P2V 2 P1V1 PT (100 kPa)(423 K)
 
 V 2  1 2 V1  (2 L) = 0.473 L
T2 T1 P2T1 (600 kPa)(298 K)
AIR
and V1 = 2 L
P1 = 100 kPa
T P T1 = 25C
s 2  s 0  c p ,avg ln 2  R ln 2
T0 P0
423 K 600 kPa
 (1.009 kJ/kg  K) ln  (0.287 kJ/kg  K) ln
298 K 100 kPa
 0.1608 kJ/kg  K
Thus, the exergy of air at the final state is
 
X 2   2  m cv ,avg (T2  T0 )  T0 ( s 2  s 0 )  P0 (V 2 V 0 )
 (0.00234 kg)(0.722 kJ/kg  K)(423 - 298)K - (298 K)(-0.1608 kJ/kg  K) 
 (100 kPa)(0.000473 - 0.002)m 3 [kJ/m 3  kPa]
 0.171 kJ
(b) The minimum work input is the reversible work input, which can be determined from the exergy balance by setting the
exergy destruction equal to zero,
X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

in    
Wrev,in  X 2  X1
= 0.171  0  0.171 kJ
(c) The second-law efficiency of this process is
Wrev,in 0.171 kJ
II    14.3%
Wu,in 1.2 kJ
8-25
8-38 An insulated tank contains CO2 gas at a specified pressure and volume. A paddle-wheel in the tank stirs the gas, and
the pressure and temperature of CO2 rises. The actual paddle-wheel work and the minimum paddle-wheel work by which this
process can be accomplished are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 At specified conditions, CO2 can be treated as an ideal gas with
constant specific heats at the average temperature. 2 The surroundings
temperature is 298 K.
Properties The gas constant of CO2 is 0.1889 kJ/kg∙K (Table A-1)
Analysis (a) The initial and final temperature of CO2 are 0.8 m3
1.54 kg
P1V1 (100 kPa)(0.8 m 3 )
T1    275.0 K CO2
Wpw
mR (1.54 kg)(0.1889 kPa  m 3 / kg  K ) 100 kPa
P2V 2 (135 kPa)(0.8 m 3 )
T2    371.3 K
mR (1.54 kg)(0.1889 kPa  m 3 / kg  K )
Tavg  (T1  T2 ) / 2  (275.0  371.3) / 2  323.1 K 

 cv ,avg  0.680 kJ/kg  K (Table A-2b)
The actual paddle-wheel work done is determined from the energy balance on the CO2 gas in the tank,
We take the contents of the cylinder as the system. This is a closed system since no mass enters or leaves. The
energy balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed as
inout
  
Wpw,in  U  mcv (T2  T1 )
or
Wpw,in  (1.54 kg)(0.680 kJ/kg  K)(371.3  275.0)K = 100.8 kJ
(b) The minimum paddle-wheel work with which this process can be accomplished is the reversible work,
which can be determined from the exergy balance by setting the exergy destruction equal to zero,

in    
Substituting the closed system exergy relation, the reversible work input for this process is determined to be

Wrev,in  m (u 2  u1 )  T0 ( s 2  s1 )  P0 (v 2  v 1 )
0


 m cv ,avg (T2  T1 )  T0 ( s 2  s1 ) 
 (1.54 kg)(0.680 kJ/kg  K)(371.3  275.0)K  (298 K )(0.2041 kJ/kg  K) 
 7.18 kJ
since
T2 v  371.3 K 
s 2  s1  cv ,avg ln  R ln 2 0  (0.680 kJ/kg  K) ln   0.2041 kJ/kg  K
T1 v1  275.0 K 
8-26
8-39 An insulated cylinder initially contains air at a specified state. A resistance heater inside the cylinder is turned on, and
air is heated for 10 min at constant pressure. The exergy destruction during this process is to be determined.
Assumptions Air is an ideal gas with variable specific heats.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1).
Analysis The mass of the air and the electrical work done during this process are
P1V1 (140 kPa)(0.020 m 3 )

m   0.03250 kg
RT1 (0.287kPa  m 3 /kg  K)(300 K)
AIR
We  W e t  (0.100 kJ/s)(10  60 s)  60 kJ
140 kPa We
Also, P = const
T1  300 K 
 h1  300.19 kJ/kg and s1o  1.70202 kJ/kg  K
The energy balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed as
inout
  
We,in  W b,out  U
We,in  m(h2  h1 )
since U + Wb = H during a constant pressure quasi-equilibrium process. Thus,

We,in 60 kJ 17 T  1915 K
h2  h1   300.19   2146.3 kJ/kg Table
A  o2
m 0.03250 kg s 2  3.7452 kJ/kg  K
Also,
0
P 
s 2  s1  s 2o  s1o  R ln 2   s 2o  s1o  3.7452  1.70202  2.0432 kJ/kg  K
 P1 
The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) associated with this process can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen
where the entropy generation is determined from an entropy balance on the cylinder, which is an insulated closed system,
    
Substituting,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  mT0 (s 2  s1 )  (0.03250 kg)(300 K)(2.0432 kJ/kg  K) = 19.9 kJ
8-27
8-40 One side of a partitioned insulated rigid tank contains argon gas at a specified temperature and pressure while the other
side is evacuated. The partition is removed, and the gas fills the entire tank. The exergy destroyed during this process is to be
determined.
Assumptions Argon is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, and thus ideal gas relations apply.
Properties The gas constant of argon is R = 0.2081 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1).
Analysis Taking the entire rigid tank as the system, the energy balance can be expressed as
E  Eout  Esystem
in
   
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc. energies Argon
0  U  m(u2  u1 ) 300 kPa Vacuum
u2  u1  T2  T1 70C
since u = u(T) for an ideal gas.

The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) associated with this process can be determined from its definition
Xdestroyed = T0Sgen where the entropy generation is determined from an entropy balance on the entire tank, which is an
insulated closed system,
    
where
 T 0 V  V
Ssystem  m( s2  s1 )  m cv , avg ln 2  R ln 2   mR ln 2
 T1 
V1  V1

 (3 kg)(0.2081 kJ/kg  K) ln(2) = 0.433 kJ/K
Substituting,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  mT0 (s 2  s1 )  (298 K)(0.433 kJ/K) = 129 kJ
8-28
8-41E A hot copper block is dropped into water in an insulated tank. The final equilibrium temperature of the tank and the
work potential wasted during this process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Both the water and the copper block are incompressible substances with constant specific heats at room
temperature. 2 The system is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energies are negligible. 3 The tank is well-
insulated and thus there is no heat transfer.
Properties The density and specific heat of water at the anticipated average temperature of 90F are  = 62.1 lbm/ft3 and
cp = 1.00 Btu/lbm.F. The specific heat of copper at the anticipated average temperature of 100F is cp = 0.0925 Btu/lbm.F
(Table A-3E).
Analysis (a) We take the entire contents of the tank, water + copper block, as the system, which is a closed system. The
energy balance for this system can be expressed as
inout
  
Water
0  U
65F
or
Copper
U Cu  U water  0 220F
[mc(T2  T1 )] Cu  [mc(T2  T1 )] water  0
where
mw  V  (62.1 lbm/ft 3 )(1.2 ft 3 )  74.52 lbm
Substituting,
0  (70 lbm)(0.0925 Btu/lbm  F)(T2  220F)  (74.52 lbm)(1.0 Btu/lbm  F)(T2  65F)
T2  77.4F  537.4 R
(b) The wasted work potential is equivalent to the exergy destruction (or irreversibility), and it can be determined from its
definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen where the entropy generation is determined from an entropy balance on the system, which is an
insulated closed system,
    
S gen  S system  S water  S copper
where
T   537.4 R 
S copper  mc avg ln 2   (70 lbm)(0.0925 Btu/lbm  R) ln   1.5240 Btu/R
 1
T  680 R 
T   537.4 R 
S water  mc avg ln 2   (74.52 lbm)(1.0 Btu/lbm  R) ln   1.7384 Btu/R
 T1   525 R 
Substituting,
X destroyed  (525 R)(1.5240  1.7384)Btu/R = 113 Btu
8-29
8-42 A hot iron block is dropped into water in an insulated tank that is stirred by a paddle-wheel. The mass of the iron block
and the exergy destroyed during this process are to be determined. 
Assumptions 1 Both the water and the iron block are incompressible substances with constant specific heats at room
temperature. 2 The system is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energies are negligible. 3 The tank is well-
insulated and thus there is no heat transfer.
Properties The density and specific heat of water at 25C are  = 997 kg/m3 and cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.F. The specific heat of iron
at room temperature (the only value available in the tables) is cp = 0.45 kJ/kg.C (Table A-3).
Analysis We take the entire contents of the tank, water + iron block, as the system, which is a closed system. The energy
balance for this system can be expressed as
inout
  
100 L
Wpw,in  U  U iron  U water 20C
Wpw,in  [mc(T2  T1 )] iron  [mc(T2  T1 )] water Iron
85C
Wpw
where
Water
m water  V  (997 kg/m 3 )( 0.1 m 3 )  99.7 kg
Wpw  W pw,in t  (0.2 kJ/s)( 20  60 s)  240 kJ
Substituting,
240 kJ = miron (0.45 kJ/kg  C)(24  85)C  (99.7 kg)(4.18 kJ/kg  C)(24  20)C
miron  52.0 kg
(b) The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen where the entropy
generation is determined from an entropy balance on the system, which is an insulated closed system,
    
S gen  S system  S iron  S water
where
T   297 K 
S iron  mc avg ln 2   (52.0 kg)(0.45 kJ/kg  K) ln   4.371 kJ/K
 T1   358 K 
T   297 K 
S water  mc avg ln 2   (99.7 kg)(4.18 kJ/kg  K) ln   5.651 kJ/K
 1
T  293 K 
Substituting,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  (293 K)( 4.371  5.651) kJ/K = 375.0 kJ
8-30
8-43E A rigid tank is initially filled with saturated mixture of R-134a. Heat is transferred to the tank from a source until the
pressure inside rises to a specified value. The amount of heat transfer to the tank from the source and the exergy destroyed
are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energy changes are zero. 2 There is no heat transfer
with the environment.
Properties From the refrigerant tables (Tables A-11E through A-13E),
u  u f  x1u fg  16.929  0.55  79.799  60.82 Btu / lbm
P1  30 psia  1
 s1  s f  x1 s fg  0.03792  0.55  0.18595  0.1402 Btu / lbm  R
x1  0.55 
v 1  v f  x1v fg  0.01209  0.55  (1.5506  0.01209)  0.85825 ft 3 / lbm
v2 v f
0.85825  0.01252
x2    0.9030
v fg 0.79361  0.01252
P2  50 psia 
 s 2  s f  x 2 s fg  0.05412  0.9030  0.16780  0.2056 Btu/lbm  R
(v 2  v 1 ) 
u 2  u f  x 2 u fg  24.824  0.9030  75.228  92.76 Btu/lbm
Analysis (a) The mass of the refrigerant is
V 12 ft 3 Source
m   13.98 lbm 120C
v 1 0.85825 ft 3 / lbm R-134a
30 psia
We take the tank as the system, which is a closed system. The energy Q
balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed as
inout
  
Qin  U  m(u 2  u1 )
Substituting,
Qin  m(u 2  u1 )  (13.98 lbm)(92.76 - 60.82) Btu/lbm = 446.5 Btu
(b) The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen . The entropy
generation is determined from an entropy balance on an extended system that includes the tank and the region in its
immediate surroundings so that the boundary temperature of the extended system where heat transfer occurs is the source
temperature,
    
Qin
 S gen  S system  m( s 2  s1 ) ,
Tb,in
Qin
S gen  m( s 2  s1 ) 
Tsource
Substituting,
 446.5 Btu 
X destroyed  T0 S gen  (535 R)(13.98 lbm)(0.2056  0.1402)Btu/lbm  R  = 77.8 Btu
 580 R 
8-31
8-44 Stainless steel ball bearings leaving the oven at a uniform temperature of 900C at a rate of 1400 /min are exposed to
air and are cooled to 850C before they are dropped into the water for quenching. The rate of heat transfer from the ball to
the air and the rate of exergy destruction due to this heat transfer are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The thermal properties of the bearing balls are constant. 2 The kinetic and potential energy changes of the
balls are negligible. 3 The balls are at a uniform temperature at the end of the process.
Properties The density and specific heat of the ball bearings are given to be  = 8085 kg/m3 and cp = 0.480 kJ/kg.C.
Analysis (a) We take a single bearing ball as the system. The energy balance for this closed
system can be expressed as
inout
  
 Qout  U ball  m(u 2  u1 )

Qout  mc (T1  T2 )
The total amount of heat transfer from a ball is
D 3  (0.012 m) 3
m  V    (8085 kg/m 3 )  0.007315 kg
6 6
Qout  mc (T1  T2 )  (0.007315 kg)( 0.480 kJ/kg.C)(900  850)C  0.1756 kJ/ball
Then the rate of heat transfer from the balls to the air becomes
Q total  n ballQout (per ball)  (1400 balls/min)  (0.1756 kJ/ball)  245.8 kJ/min  4.10 kW
Therefore, heat is lost to the air at a rate of 4.10 kW.

(b) The exergy destruction can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen. The entropy generated during this process
can be determined by applying an entropy balance on an extended system that includes the ball and its immediate
surroundings so that the boundary temperature of the extended system is at 30C at all times:
    
Qout Q
  S gen  S system  S gen  out  S system
Tb Tb
where
T2 850 + 273
S system  m( s 2  s1 )  mc avg ln  (0.007315 kg)( 0.480 kJ/kg.K) ln  0.0001530 kJ/K
T1 900 + 273
Substituting,
Qout 0.1756 kJ
S gen   S system   0.0001530 kJ/K  0.0004265 kJ/K (per ball)
Tb 303 K
Then the rate of entropy generation becomes
S gen  S gen n ball  (0.0004265 kJ/K  ball)(1400 balls/min) = 0.597 kJ/min.K = 0.00995 kW/K
Finally,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  (303 K)(0.00995 kW/K) = 3.01 kW/K
8-32
8-45 An egg is dropped into boiling water. The amount of heat transfer to the egg by the time it is cooked and the amount of
exergy destruction associated with this heat transfer process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The egg is spherical in shape with a radius of r0 = 2.75 cm. 2 The thermal properties of the egg are constant.
3 Energy absorption or release associated with any chemical and/or phase changes within the egg is negligible. 4 There are
no changes in kinetic and potential energies. 5 The temperature of the surrounding medium is 25C.
Properties The density and specific heat of the egg are given to be  = 1020 kg/m3 and cp = 3.32 kJ/kg.C.
Analysis We take the egg as the system. This is a closed system since no mass enters or leaves the egg. The energy balance
for this closed system can be expressed as
inout
  
Qin  U egg  m(u 2  u1 )  mc (T2  T1 )

Then the mass of the egg and the amount of heat transfer become
D 3  (0.055 m) 3
m  V    (1020 kg/m 3 )  0.0889 kg
6 6
Qin  mc p (T2  T1 )  (0.0889 kg)(3.32 kJ/kg.C)( 70  8)C  18.3 kJ
The exergy destruction can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen. The entropy generated during this process can
be determined by applying an entropy balance on an extended system that includes the egg and its immediate surroundings
so that the boundary temperature of the extended system is at 97C at all times:
    
Qin Q
 S gen  S system  S gen   in  S system
Tb Tb
where
T2 70 + 273
S system  m( s 2  s1 )  mc avg ln  (0.0889 kg)(3.32 kJ/kg.K) ln  0.0588 kJ/K
T1 8 + 273
Substituting,
Qin 18.3 kJ
S gen    S system    0.0588 kJ/K  0.00934 kJ/K (per egg)
Tb 370 K
Finally,
X destroyed  T0 S gen  (298 K)(0.00934 kJ/K) = 2.78 kJ
8-33
8-46 Chickens are to be cooled by chilled water in an immersion chiller that is also gaining heat from the surroundings. The
rate of heat removal from the chicken and the rate of exergy destruction during this process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Thermal properties of chickens and water are constant. 3 The
temperature of the surrounding medium is 25C.
Properties The specific heat of chicken is given to be 3.54 kJ/kg.°C. The specific heat of water at room temperature is 4.18
kJ/kg.C (Table A-3).
Analysis (a) Chickens are dropped into the chiller at a rate of 700 per hour. Therefore, chickens can be considered to flow
steadily through the chiller at a mass flow rate of
m chicken  (700 chicken/h) (1.6 kg/chicken )  1120 kg/h = 0.3111kg/s
Taking the chicken flow stream in the chiller as the system, the energy balance for steadily flowing chickens can be
expressed in the rate form as
E  E  E system0 (steady)  0  E in  E out
inout
  
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of changein internal, kinetic,
m h1  Q out  m h2 (since ke  pe  0)

Q out  Q chicken  m chicken c p (T1  T2 )
Then the rate of heat removal from the chickens as they are cooled from 15C to 3ºC becomes
Q (m
chicken  c T ) p  (0.3111 kg/s)(3.54 kJ/kg.º C)(15  3)º C  13.22 kW
chicken
The chiller gains heat from the surroundings as a rate of 200 kJ/h = 0.0556 kJ/s. Then the total rate of heat gain by the water
is
Q  Q
water  Q
chicken  13.22 kW  (400 / 3600) kW  13.33 kW
heat gain
Noting that the temperature rise of water is not to exceed 2ºC as it flows through the chiller, the mass flow rate of water must
be at least
Q water 13.33 kW
m water    1.594 kg/s
(c p T ) water (4.18 kJ/kg.º C)(2º C)
(b) The exergy destruction can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen. The rate of entropy generation during this
chilling process is determined by applying the rate form of the entropy balance on an extended system that includes the
chiller and the immediate surroundings so that the boundary temperature is the surroundings temperature:
S in  S out  S gen  S system0 (steady)
   
Rate of net entropy transfer Rate of entropy Rate of change
by heat and mass generation of entropy
Qin
m 1 s1  m 3 s 3  m 2 s 2  m 3 s 4   S gen  0
Tsurr
Qin
m chicken s1  m water s 3  m chicken s 2  m water s 4   S gen  0
Tsurr
Q
S gen  m chicken ( s 2  s1 )  m water ( s 4  s 3 )  in
Tsurr
Noting that both streams are incompressible substances, the rate of entropy generation is determined to be
T T Q
S gen  m chickenc p ln 2  m water c p ln 4  in
T1 T3 Tsurr
276 275.5 (400 / 3600) kW
 (0.3111 kg/s)(3.54 kJ/kg.K) ln  (1.594 kg/s)(4.18 kJ/kg.K) ln 
288 273.5 298 K
 0.001306 kW/K
Finally,
X destroyed  T0 Sgen  (298 K)(0.001306 kW/K) = 0.389 kW
8-34
8-47 Heat is transferred to a piston-cylinder device with a set of stops. The work done, the heat transfer, the exergy
destroyed, and the second-law efficiency are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The device is stationary and kinetic and potential energy changes are zero. 2 There is no friction between the
piston and the cylinder. 3 Heat is transferred to the refrigerant from a source at 150˚C.
Analysis (a) The properties of the refrigerant at the initial and final states are (Tables A-11 through A-13)
P1  100 kPa  v 1  0.23373 m /kg

3

T1  20C  u1  248.81 kJ/kg
s1  1.0919 kJ/kg.K
P2  120 kPa  v 2  0.23669 m /kg

3

T2  80C  u 2  296.94 kJ/kg R-134a
s 2  1.2419 kJ/kg.K
1.4 kg
Noting that pressure remains constant at 120 kPa as the piston 100 kPa Q
moves, the boundary work is determined to be 20C
Wb,out  mP2 (v 2  v 1 )  (1.4 kg)(120 kPa)(0.23669  0.23373)m3 /kg  0.497kJ
(b) The heat transfer can be determined from an energy balance on the system
Qin  m(u 2  u1 )  Wb,out  (1.4 kg)(296.94  248.81)kJ/kg  0.497 kJ  67.9 kJ
(c) The exergy destruction associated with this process can be determined from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen . The entropy
generation is determined from an entropy balance on an extended system that includes the piston-cylinder device and the
region in its immediate surroundings so that the boundary temperature of the extended system where heat transfer occurs is
the source temperature,
    
Qin Qin
 S gen  S system  m( s 2  s1 ) 
 S gen  m( s 2  s1 ) 
Tb,in Tsource
Substituting,
 67.9 kJ 
X destroyed  T0 S gen  (298 K) (1.4 kg)(1.2419  1.0919)kJ/kg  K  = 14.8 kJ
 150  273 K 
(d) Exergy expended is the work potential of the heat extracted from the source at 150˚C,
 T   25  273 K 
X expended  X Q   th,rev Q  1  L Q  1  (67.9 kJ)  20.06 kJ
 TH   150  273 K 
Then the 2nd law efficiency becomes
X X destroyed 14.80 kJ
 II  recovered  1  1  0.262 or 26.2%
X expended X expended 20.06 kJ
Discussion The second-law efficiency can also be determined as follows:
The exergy increase of the refrigerant is the exergy difference between the initial and final states,
X  mu 2  u1  T0 ( s 2  s1 )  P0 (v 2  v 1 )

 (1.4 kg) (296.94  248.81)kJ/kg  (298 K)(1.2419  1.0919)kg.K  (100 kPa)(0.23669  0.23373)m 3 /kg 
 5.177 kJ
The useful work output for the process is
Wu,out  Wb,out  mP0 (v 2  v 1 )  0.497 kJ  (1.4 kg)(100 kPa)(0.23669  0.23373)m 3 /kg  0.0828 kJ
The exergy recovered is the sum of the exergy increase of the refrigerant and the useful work output,
X recovered  X  Wu,out  5.177  0.0828  5.260 kJ
Then the second-law efficiency becomes
X 5.260 kJ
 II  recovered   0.262 or 26.2%
X expended 20.06 kJ
8-35
Exergy Analysis of Control Volumes
8-48 Refrigerant-124a is throttled from a specified state to a specified pressure. The reversible work and the exergy
destroyed during this process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are
negligible. 3 Heat transfer is negligible.
Properties The properties of R-134a before and after the throttling process are (Tables A-11 through A-13)
P1  1 MPa  h1  335.08 kJ/kg


T1  100C  s1  1.1032 kJ/kg  K
R-134a
P2  0.8 MPa 
 s 2  1.1199 kJ/kg  K 1
h2  h1 
Analysis The exergy destruction (or irreversibility) can be determined from an exergy balance or
directly from its definition Xdestroyed = T0Sgen where the entropy generation is determined from an
entropy balance on the system, which is an adiabatic steady-flow device,
2
S in  S out  S gen  S system0  0
   
m s1  m s 2  S gen  0  S gen  m ( s 2  s1 ) or s gen  s 2  s1
Substituting,
xdestroyed  T0 sgen  T0 (s 2  s1 )  (303 K)(1.1199  1.1032)kJ/kg  K = 5.05 kJ/kg
This process involves no actual work, and thus the reversible work and irreversibility are identical,
xdestroyed  wrev,out  wact,out0  wrev,out  xdestroyed  5.05 kJ/kg
Discussion Note that 5.05 kJ/kg of work potential is wasted during this throttling process.
8-36
8-49 Problem 8-48 is reconsidered. The effect of exit pressure on the reversible work and exergy destruction is to be
investigated.
T_1=100"[C]"
P_1=1000"[kPa]"
{P_2=800"[kPa]"}
T_o=298"[K]"
"Steady-flow conservation of mass"
"m_dot_in = m_dot_out"
"Conservation of energy for steady-flow per unit mass is:"
e_in - e_out = DELTAe
DELTAe = 0"[kJ/kg]"
E_in=h_1"[kJ/kg]"
E_out= h_2 "[kJ/kg]"
h_1 =enthalpy(R134a,T=T_1,P=P_1) "[kJ/kg]"
T_2 = temperature(R134a, P=P_2,h=h_2) "[C]"
"Irreversibility, entropy generated, and exergy destroyed:"
s_1=entropy(R134a, T=T_1,P=P_1)"[kJ/kg-K]"
s_2=entropy(R134a,P=P_2,h=h_2)"[kJ/kg-K]"
I=T_o*s_gen"[kJ/kg]" "Irreversiblility for the Process, KJ/kg"
s_gen=s_2-s_1"]kJ/kg-K]" "Entropy generated, kW"
x_destroyed = I"[kJ/kg]"
w_rev_out=x_destroyed"[kJ/kg]"
P2 [kPa] wrev,out [kJ/kg] xdestroyed [kJ/kg]

100 53.82 53.82
200 37.22 37.22
300 27.61 27.61
400 20.86 20.86
500 15.68 15.68
600 11.48 11.48
700 7.972 7.972
800 4.961 4.961
900 2.33 2.33
1000 -4.325E-10 -4.325E-10
60
exergy destroyed [kJ/kg]
50
wrev,out [kJ/kg]
40
30
or
20
10
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
P2 [kPa]
8-37
8-50 Heium expands in an adiabatic turbine from a specified inlet state to a specified exit state. The maximum work output
is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 This is a steady-flow process since there is no change with time. 2 The device is adiabatic and thus heat
transfer is negligible. 3 Helium is an ideal gas. 4 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Properties The properties of helium are cp = 5.1926 kJ/kg.K and R = 2.0769 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1).
Analysis The entropy change of helium is
T2 P
s 2  s1  c p ln  R ln 2 1500 kPa
T1 P1 300°C
298 K 100 kPa
 (5.1926 kJ/kg  K) ln  (2.0769 kJ/kg  K) ln
573 K 1500 kPa
 2.2295 kJ/kg  K
The maximum (reversible) work is the exergy difference between the Helium
inlet and exit states
wrev,out  h1  h2  T0 ( s1  s 2 )
 c p (T1  T2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 ) 100 kPa
25°C
 (5.1926 kJ/kg  K)(300  25)K  (298 K)( 2.2295 kJ/kg  K)
 2092 kJ/kg
1  m
There is only one inlet and one exit, and thus m 2  m . We take the turbine as the system, which is a control volume
since mass crosses the boundary. The energy balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate form as
E  E  E system0 (steady) 0

inout
 
E in  E out
m h1  W out  Q out  m h2
W  m (h  h )  Q
out 1 2 out
wout  (h1  h2 )  q out
Inspection of this result reveals that any rejection of heat will decrease the work that will be produced by the turbine since
inlet and exit states (i.e., enthalpies) are fixed.
If there is heat loss from the turbine, the maximum work output is determined from the rate form of the exergy
balance applied on the turbine and setting the exergy destruction term equal to zero,
X  X  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system0 (steady)  0

inout
    
Rate of net exergy transfer Rate of exergy Rate of change
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy
X in  X out
 T 
m  1  W rev,out  Q out 1  0   m  2
 T 
 T 
wrev,out  ( 1  2 )  q out 1  0 
 T 
 T 
 (h1  h2 )  T0 ( s1  s 2 )  q out 1  0 
 T 
Inspection of this result reveals that any rejection of heat will decrease the maximum work that could be produced by the
turbine. Therefore, for the maximum work, the turbine must be adiabatic.
8-38
8-51 Air is compressed steadily by an 8-kW compressor from a specified state to another specified state. The
increase in the exergy of air and the rate of exergy destruction are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas with variable specific heats. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1). From the air table (Table A-17)
T1  290 K 
 h1  29016
. kJ / kg
s1o  1.66802 kJ / kg  K
600 kPa
T2  440 K 
 h2  441.61 kJ / kg 167C
s2o  2.0887 kJ / kg  K
Analysis The increase in exergy is the difference between the exit and
inlet flow exergies, AIR
8 kW
Increase in exergy   2  1
0 0
 [( h2  h1 )  ke   pe   T0 ( s 2  s1 )]
100 kPa
 (h2  h1 )  T0 ( s 2  s1 )
17C
where
P2
s 2  s1  ( s 2o  s1o )  R ln
P1
600 kPa
 (2.0887  1.66802)kJ/kg  K - (0.287 kJ/kg  K) ln
100 kPa
 0.09356 kJ/kg  K
Substituting,
Increase in exergy   2  1
 (441.61  290.16)kJ/kg - (290 K)( 0.09356 kJ/kg  K) 
 178.6 kJ/kg
Then the reversible power input is
W rev,in  m
 ( 2  1 )  (2.1 / 60 kg/s)(178.6 kJ/kg)  6.25 kW
(b) The rate of exergy destruction (or irreversibility) is determined from its definition,
X destroyed  W in  W rev,in  8  6.25  1.75 kW
Discussion Note that 1.75 kW of power input is wasted during this compression process.
8-39
8-52 Problem 8-51 is reconsidered. The problem is to be solved and the actual heat transfer, its direction, the
minimum power input, and the compressor second-law efficiency are to be determined.
Function Direction$(Q)
If Q<0 then Direction$='out' else Direction$='in'
end
Function Violation$(eta)
If eta>1 then Violation$='You have violated the 2nd Law!!!!!' else Violation$=''
end
{"Input Data from the Diagram Window"

T_1=17 [C]
P_1=100 [kPa]
W_dot_c = 8 [kW]
P_2=600 [kPa]
S_dot_gen=0
Q_dot_net=0}
{"Special cases"
T_2=167 [C]
m_dot=2.1 [kg/min]}
T_o=T_1
P_o=P_1
m_dot_in=m_dot*Convert(kg/min, kg/s)
"Steady-flow conservation of mass"
m_dot_in = m_dot_out
"Conservation of energy for steady-flow is:"
E_dot_in - E_dot_out = DELTAE_dot
DELTAE_dot = 0
E_dot_in=Q_dot_net + m_dot_in*h_1 +W_dot_c
"If Q_dot_net < 0, heat is transferred from the compressor"
E_dot_out= m_dot_out*h_2
h_1 =enthalpy(air,T=T_1)
h_2 = enthalpy(air, T=T_2)
W_dot_net=-W_dot_c
W_dot_rev=-m_dot_in*(h_2 - h_1 -(T_1+273.15)*(s_2-s_1))
"Irreversibility, entropy generated, second law efficiency, and exergy destroyed:"
s_1=entropy(air, T=T_1,P=P_1)
s_2=entropy(air,T=T_2,P=P_2)
s_2s=entropy(air,T=T_2s,P=P_2)
s_2s=s_1"This yields the isentropic T_2s for an isentropic process bewteen T_1, P_1 and
P_2"I_dot=(T_o+273.15)*S_dot_gen"Irreversiblility for the Process, KW"
S_dot_gen=(-Q_dot_net/(T_o+273.15) +m_dot_in*(s_2-s_1)) "Entropy generated, kW"
Eta_II=W_dot_rev/W_dot_net"Definition of compressor second law efficiency, Eq. 7_6"
h_o=enthalpy(air,T=T_o)
s_o=entropy(air,T=T_o,P=P_o)
Psi_in=h_1-h_o-(T_o+273.15)*(s_1-s_o) "availability function at state 1"
Psi_out=h_2-h_o-(T_o+273.15)*(s_2-s_o) "availability function at state 2"
X_dot_in=Psi_in*m_dot_in
X_dot_out=Psi_out*m_dot_out
DELTAX_dot=X_dot_in-X_dot_out
"General Exergy balance for a steady-flow system, Eq. 7-47"
(1-(T_o+273.15)/(T_o+273.15))*Q_dot_net-W_dot_net+m_dot_in*Psi_in - m_dot_out*Psi_out =X_dot_dest
"For the Diagram Window"
Text$=Direction$(Q_dot_net)
Text2$=Violation$(Eta_II)
8-40
II I [kW] Xdest [kW] T2s [C] T2 [C] Qnet [kW]

0.7815 1.748 1.748 209.308 167 -2.7
0.8361 1.311 1.311 209.308 200.6 -1.501
0.8908 0.874 0.874 209.308 230.5 -0.4252
0.9454 0.437 0.437 209.308 258.1 0.5698
1 1.425E-13 5.407E-15 209.308 283.9 1.506
How can entropy decrease?

250
200 2s
2
150 ideal
100 kPa
T [C]
100
actual
600 kPa
50
1
0
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
s [kJ/kg-K]
300 2.0
280
1.5
260
Xdest
240
T2
1.0
220
200
0.5
180
160 0.0
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
II
2 2.0
1
1.5
0
Xdest
Qnet
1.0
-1
0.5
-2
-3 0.0
0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
II
8-41
8-53 Air is accelerated in a nozzle while losing some heat to the surroundings. The exit temperature of air and the exergy
destroyed during the process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas with variable specific heats. 2 The nozzle operates steadily.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K (Table A-1). The properties of air at the nozzle inlet are (Table A-
17)
T1  338 K 
 h1  338.40 kJ/kg
s1o  1.8219 kJ/kg  K
Analysis (a) We take the nozzle as the system, which is a control volume. The energy balance for this steady-flow system
can be expressed in the rate form as
E  E out  Esystem0 (steady) 0

in
  
Rate of net energy transfer Rate of changein internal, kinetic, 3 kJ/kg
Ein  E out
35 m/s AIR 240 m/s
m (h1  V12 / 2)  m (h2 + V22 /2) + Q out
or
V22  V12
0  q out + h2  h1 
2
Therefore,
V22  V12 (240 m/s)2  (35 m/s)2  1 kJ/kg 

h2  h1  q out   338.40  3     307.21 kJ/kg
2 2  1000 m 2 / s 2 
At this h2 value we read, from Table A-17, T2  307.0 K = 34.0C and s 2o  1.7251 kJ/kg  K
(b) The exergy destroyed during a process can be determined from an exergy balance or directly from its definition
X destroyed  T0Sgen where the entropy generation Sgen is determined from an entropy balance on an extended system that
includes the device and its immediate surroundings so that the boundary temperature of the extended system is Tsurr at all
times. It gives

   
Q out
ms1  m s 2   S gen  0
Tb,surr
Q
S gen  m s 2  s1   out
Tsurr
where
P2 95 kPa
s air  s 2o  s1o  R ln  (1.7251  1.8219)kJ/kg  K  (0.287 kJ/kg  K) ln  0.1169 kJ/kg  K
P1 200 kPa
Substituting, the entropy generation and exergy destruction per unit mass of air are determined to be
x destroyed  T0 s gen  Tsurr s gen
 q   3 kJ/kg 
 T0  s 2  s1  surr   (290 K) 0.1169 kJ/kg  K + 
 Tsurr   290 K 
 36.9 kJ/kg
8-42
Alternative solution The exergy destroyed during a process can be determined from an exergy balance applied on the
extended system that includes the device and its immediate surroundings so that the boundary temperature of the extended
system is environment temperature T0 (or Tsurr) at all times. Noting that exergy transfer with heat is zero when the
temperature at the point of transfer is the environment temperature, the exergy balance for this steady-flow system can be
expressed as
X  X out  X destroyed  X system0 (steady)  0  X destroyed  X in  X out  m  1  m  2  m ( 1   2 )

in   
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy
 m [( h1  h2 )  T0 ( s1  s2 )  ke  pe0 ]  m [T0 ( s2  s1 )  (h2  h1  ke )]

 m [T0 ( s2  s1 )  qout ] since, from energy balance,  qout  h2  h1  ke
 Q 
 T0  m ( s2  s1 )  out   T0 Sgen
 T0 
Therefore, the two approaches for the determination of exergy destruction are identical.
8-43
8-54 Problem 8-53 is reconsidered. The effect of varying the nozzle exit velocity on the exit temperature and exergy
destroyed is to be investigated.
"Knowns:"
WorkFluid$ = 'Air'
P[1] = 200 [kPa]
T[1] =65 [C]
P[2] = 95 [kPa]
Vel[1] = 35 [m/s]
{Vel[2] = 240 [m/s]}
T_o = 17 [C]
T_surr = T_o
q_loss = 3 [kJ/kg]
"Conservation of Energy - SSSF energy balance for nozzle -- neglecting the change in potential energy:"
h[1]=enthalpy(WorkFluid$,T=T[1])
s[1]=entropy(WorkFluid$,P=P[1],T=T[1])
ke[1] = Vel[1]^2/2
ke[2]=Vel[2]^2/2
h[1]+ke[1]*convert(m^2/s^2,kJ/kg) = h[2] + ke[2]*convert(m^2/s^2,kJ/kg)+q_loss
T[2]=temperature(WorkFluid$,h=h[2])
s[2]=entropy(WorkFluid$,P=P[2],h=h[2]) 60
"The entropy generated is detemined 55

from the entropy balance:"
s[1] - s[2] - q_loss/(T_surr+273) + s_gen = 0 50
x_destroyed = (T_o+273)*s_gen
45
Vel2 [m/s] T2 xdestroyed
T[2] [C]
40
[C] [kJ/kg]
100 57.66 58.56 35
140 52.89 54.32
180 46.53 48.56 30
220 38.58 41.2
260 29.02 32.12 25
300 17.87 21.16
20
15
100 140 180 220 260 300
Vel[2] [m/s]
60
55
50
xdestroyed [kJ/kg]
45
40
35
30
25
20
100 140 180 220 260 300
Vel[2] [m/s]
8-44
8-55 Steam is decelerated in a diffuser. The mass flow rate of steam and the wasted work potential during the process are to
be determined.
Assumptions 1 The diffuser operates steadily. 2 The changes in potential energies are negligible.
Properties The properties of steam at the inlet and the exit of the diffuser are (Tables A-4 through A-6)
P1  10 kPa  h1  2611.2 kJ/kg


T1  60C  s1  8.2326 kJ/kg  K
h2  2591.3 kJ/kg
T2  50C 
 s 2  8.0748 kJ/kg  K 375 m/s H2O 70 m/s
sat.vapor 
v 2  12.026 m 3 /kg
Analysis (a) The mass flow rate of the steam is
1 1

m A2V2  (3 m 2 )(70 m/s) = 17.46 kg/s
v2 12.026 m / kg 3
(b) We take the diffuser to be the system, which is a control volume. Assuming the direction of heat transfer to be from the
stem, the energy balance for this steady-flow system can be expressed in the rate form as
E  E  E system0 (steady) 0

inout
   
E in  E out
m (h1  V12 / 2)  m (h2 + V22 /2) + Q out
 V 2  V12 
Q out  m  h2  h1  2 
 2 
 
Substituting,
 (70 m/s)2  (375 m/s)2  1 kJ/kg 

Q out  (17.46 kg/s)2591.3  2611.2     1532 kJ/s
 2  1000 m 2 / s 2 
The wasted work potential is equivalent to exergy destruction. The exergy destroyed during a process can be determined
from an exergy balance or directly from its definition X destroyed  T0Sgen where the entropy generation Sgen is determined
from an entropy balance on an extended system that includes the device and its immediate surroundings so that the boundary
temperature of the extended system is Tsurr at all times. It gives

   
Q out Q
m s1  m s 2   S gen  0  S gen  m s 2  s1   out
Tb,surr Tsurr
Substituting, the exergy destruction is determined to be
 Q 
X destroyed  T0 S gen  T0  m ( s 2  s1 )  out 
 T0 
 1532 kW 
 (298 K) (17.46 kg/s)(8.0748 - 8.2326)kJ/kg  K + 
 298 K 
 711.1 kW
8-45
8-56E Air is compressed steadily by a compressor from a specified state to another specified state. The minimum power
input required for the compressor is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Air is an ideal gas with variable specific heats. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.06855 Btu/lbm.R (Table A-1E). From the air table (Table A-17E)
T1  520 R 
 h1  124.27 Btu/lbm
s1o  0.59173 Btu/lbm R 100 psia
T2  940 R 
 h2  226.11 Btu/lbm 480F
s 2o  0.73509 Btu/lbm R
Analysis The reversible (or minimum) power input is determined from AIR
the rate form of the exergy balance applied on the compressor and 22 lbm/min
setting the exergy destruction term equal to zero,
X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system0 (steady)  0

in   14.7 psia
by heat, work, and mass destruction of exergy 60F
X in  X out
m  1  Wrev,in  m  2
Wrev,in  m ( 2   1 )  m [( h2  h1 )  T0 ( s2  s1 )  ke0  pe0 ]
where
P2
s air  s 2o  s1o  R ln
P1
100 psia
 (0.73509  0.59173)Btu/lbm R  (0.06855 Btu/lbm R) ln
14.7 psia
 0.01193 Btu/lbm R
Substituting,
W rev,in  (22/60 lbm/s)(226.11  124.27)Btu/lbm  (520 R)(0.01193 Btu/lbm R)

 35.1 Btu/s = 49.6 hp
Discussion Note that this is the minimum power input needed for this compressor.
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suddenly awoke to the exigencies of the situation, and quietly trotted
out of harm’s way.
As we proceeded, smooth patches of black lava showed
themselves above the surface of the sand, and quartzose rocks
occurred here and there. Half a mile further on rose a plateau about
25 feet high, apparently composed of some black substance. It lay
right in our path, and we pushed forward towards it in order to more
closely examine it. When we arrived at the foot, we found, to our
dismay, that it was composed of blocks of black vesicular lava,
varying in size from a football to an ordinary trunk. It stretched in
either direction, left and right, as far as the eye could see, and there
was no alternative but to attempt to cross over the top, which we
were very loth to do, although we consoled ourselves with the
thought that it would only be for a few hundred yards. We therefore
scrambled to the summit, and only then got a faint idea of what was
before us.
The whole country round was covered with loose blocks of lava to
a depth of 30 to 50 feet. The surface was not even fairly level, but
was irregularly disposed in heaps, forming little hills and valleys of
loose and often insecurely poised stones. There was a great and
ever-present risk of a careless movement bringing two or three tons
of stuff rolling down, and obliterating the unfortunate individual who
had disturbed the status quo. The hard slag-like blocks were
perforated by innumerable holes caused by air-bubbles when the
lava was fluid, giving them the structure and appearance of a dark
brown, or black, petrified sponge, the ragged edges of which soon
reduced our boots to ribbons. The men who were wearing sandals
suffered severely, as did the animals. It was, of course, impossible to
ride, the mules having painfully hard work even to get along alone.
Imagine a tiny ant endeavouring to clamber across a newly laid,
unrolled cinder-track, and you will have our position precisely. There
was, however, no help for it; the cinder-heap, as we dubbed it, had to
be crossed. We advanced slowly and painfully for over two hours,
but, to our inexpressible disappointment, saw no signs of nearing the
other side. The heat of the sun was terrific. Its rays, beating vertically
down, were readily absorbed by the lava, seemingly almost causing
it to glow in the intense heat, which, radiating afresh from under our
feet, gave us the feeling of being slowly baked in an immense oven.
At the end of the second hour we halted for a space, dead beat.
Sitting still in the sun we found was much worse than walking, so we
resumed our painful march, climbing slowly and wearily over the
interminable lava-heaps, following a faint track made by wandering
rhinoceros. Here and there a few stunted thorn bushes made a pitiful
struggle for existence, though how they managed to live we could
not imagine, seeing that the closest scrutiny failed to show any
traces of soil, their roots seemingly going straight down between the
blocks of lava. As we walked, El Hakim suddenly jogged me in the
ribs with his elbow, thus calling my attention to a couple of giraffe
which were standing about fifty yards ahead watching us. Strange to
say, they did not exhibit the least alarm, but watched us till we had
approached to within twenty yards, when they turned and shambled
off, with their ungainly heads swaying to and fro like the masthead of
a ship in a seaway.
A few minutes later we walked round a corner right on to a
rhinoceros. He faced round, and we instantly scattered. I made for
the lee side of a convenient lava-heap, and loaded my ·303; El
Hakim and George following suit. The slight noise we made in doing
so scared the brute, for he suddenly turned and trotted away over
the loose lava as if it were a lawn, and, notwithstanding his bulk,
without a sound.
We toiled onwards for another couple of hours, when our hearts
were gladdened by an appearance of smoothness underfoot. It was
only temporary, however, and soon we were again continuing our
unequal struggle with nature. Slowly and mechanically we toiled
along, El Hakim, George and I, and our personal servants; the rest of
the safari had long since tailed off, and were scattered in twos and
threes along the path in our rear.
The sun rose higher and higher as the morning advanced, and
scorched us till it seemed as if we had not a single drop of moisture
left in our bruised and wearied bodies. I feebly wondered if we were
doomed to be a sort of modern edition of the “Wandering Jew,” with
Dante’s “Inferno” as the sphere of operations. When I suggested the
idea to my companions in a vain attempt at a joke, it did not provoke
even a smile. Our boots were ruined, and our feet sore and cramped
from springing from one piece of loose rock to another. The lava
rolled and slipped from under us, bruising our ankles; we were
parched with thirst, hot, dog-tired, and altogether in a most miserable
plight.
Suddenly George gave vent to a feeble hurrah! El Hakim and I
gazed wonderingly at him, trying to grasp the reason for such a
singular demonstration. He indicated by a gesture that we should
look ahead. We did so, and immediately endeavoured, as well as our
parched and swollen tongues would permit, to follow his example,
though the attempt was more or less a failure. There before us was a
sharp dip; at the foot stretched one of the familiar, gravelly, sandy
plains covered with thorn trees. We had grumbled enough at them
heretofore, but after that terrific “cinder-heap” the thorn-covered plain
seemed a veritable paradise.
As if to make amends for our sufferings, we at that moment caught
sight of Mount Sheba, which was our objective on leaving camp that
morning. It was, alas! still some miles distant, but it meant water.
Away we went at a quick walk, animated by only one desire—the
desire for water. There were no signs of our safari, but we knew that
they could easily follow our tracks, so we hurried on. Hour after hour
we pushed on, now walking and anon half running, in our eagerness
to reach the river. We met several rhinoceros, but such was our
hurry we did not stop to speak. Suddenly a group of the thrice-
blessed Doum palms appeared at the bottom of a valley. We raced
down the slope, and there at the bottom lay a pool of beautiful, cool,
clear, sparkling water. Ye gods! what pen can hope to adequately
describe the supreme delight of a long, long draught of cool, pure
water, after hours of such a sun as we had been exposed to on the
“cinder-heap?” We lay down on our stomachs, and, plunging our
faces beneath the surface, drank our fill of the life-preserving fluid.
When we were satisfied, we laved our chests, and, playing with the
water, watched the sparkling crystal drops drip from our fingers and
fall with a musical splash into the parent pool. It was not such a long
time, after all, that we had been without water, but the sun was
terribly fierce on the heaps of lava, and, in addition, the horrible
uncertainty as to whether we were not going further and further away
from water, increased our thirst to quite an abnormal degree.
Afterwards we despatched the two or three men who had
accompanied us on the backward track, to communicate the joyful
news to the rest of the safari, and to relieve of their burdens those on
whom the long and arduous march had had most effect. In the
course of an hour or so some of the men began to arrive in twos and
threes. The others, we found, were not far behind, so we went on,
and in another half-hour reached the river.
Whether it was the contrast to what we had just undergone or not,
the river appeared to us to be as near an approach to Paradise as it
is possible to get in this world. The swift water rushing past, here
over rocks in miniature cataracts, and there over smooth gravel
beds, gave forth a musical murmur in the highest degree conducive
to slumber. As our tents, eatables, and, indeed, all our personal
equipment were somewhere behind, halfway between the river and
the “cinder-heap,” we slumbered accordingly under the grateful
shade of the palms.
A curious fact which I have often noticed on a long and fatiguing
march is that, as in this instance, when the first of one’s men get into
camp, they are invariably the men who are carrying the loads of
trade goods, the cloth, or, unkindest cut of all, the cooking utensils!
Towards evening the rest of the safari staggered in, some of the
men having been twelve hours on the road. One man had fallen from
exhaustion and died on that awful “cinder-heap,” his load having
been brought on by Jumbi. We had made, I suppose, about six miles
in a bee line from our last camp, though how much ground we had
actually covered in our laborious march it is difficult to say.
At the conclusion of our breakfast-dinner-supper we turned in,
thoroughly tired out; but, as it happened, we were destined not to
enjoy a quiet night’s repose. First Ramathani came into the tent; he
held an egg in his hand—a guinea-fowl’s egg.
“The men found this, Bwana,” said he.
Now, I fancied an egg very much, so I awakened George. “I’ll go
halves with you,” said I, when I had induced sufficient wakefulness in
him to understand what I was saying.
Ramathani was accordingly ordered to boil the egg. I lent him my
watch, so that he should boil it for exactly three minutes, neither
more nor less. Meanwhile I secured two spoons and the pepper-box,
and we waited expectantly till Ramathani reappeared bearing the
precious egg cooked to a turn. I took it and rapped it with my spoon.
Hardly had I touched it before it exploded with a loud report, and flew
to pieces. It was empty inside, at least it appeared empty; a second
after it blew up George looked blankly at me, and I returned the
compliment, and we were still gazing at each other when the after-
effect, so to speak, struck us. Then, choking, we made a dive for the
open air. Hastily summoning Ramathani, we bade him penetrate to
the interior of the tent, open both ends, and then wave a blanket till
the sewer gas, or whatever it was, had dispersed, a proceeding
which occupied some time. We then turned in again, and slept
peacefully, though odorously, till somewhere about midnight.
Suddenly a cry of “Moto! moto!” (Fire! fire!) rang out, accompanied
by a terrible roaring and crackling. Out we rushed, clad only in our
shirts—the night was warm—to find one portion of the camp in a
blaze. We seized blankets, sacking, anything we could get hold of,
and furiously attacked the flames.
The dry grass and reeds burned like paper, but the great danger
lay in the palm trees. If once they caught fire, our tents, stores, and,
in fact, everything, would be utterly destroyed. We fought, therefore,
for our very existence. Fortunately we managed, by the most
strenuous exertions, to keep the flames clear of the palms, and, after
an hour’s hard work, to entirely subdue them. Our bare feet and legs
were slightly burnt, and my shirt was scorched, but beyond that no
serious damage was done. We turned in again at 2 a.m., and slept
undisturbed till 7 a.m., when we once more resumed our march.
We intended to go only a short distance, in order to give the men a
rest after their fatiguing exertions of the previous day. The country
was by no means level, and here and there showed a tendency to
produce more lava-blocks, but we met with nothing that seriously
impeded our progress. We saw a herd of zebra in the distance, but
they were very shy and wary. Our men, with that reckless
improvidence which distinguishes the Swahili “pagazi” (porter), had
already consumed the twelve days’ store of grain and flour which we
had brought from M’thara, and had now (six days after leaving that
place) only a few pieces of buffalo-meat left. It was imperative,
therefore, that we should shoot some meat for them.
Smooth patches of sand, interspersed with bare rock, now
became the predominant features of the landscape, and game was
very hard to approach in consequence.
The river, which we sedulously followed, was distinguished by the
line of palms which fringed the banks. It flowed in places at the foot
of frowning cliffs of gneiss, their rugged scarps inhabited by
countless monkeys and baboons which chattered incessantly,
skipping from ledge to ledge, apparently the only animated creatures
in the whole sun-baked, dun-coloured landscape. I successfully
stalked and shot a grantei, which, in my opinion, is the very best
eating of all East African gazelles. Saddle of grantei, after being
hung two or three days, is a joint fit for a monarch. We were very
anxious to shoot a rhinoceros for the men, which was probably the
reason why we saw none, notwithstanding that they had been so
indecently numerous during the previous few days.
We camped at ten o’clock in the forenoon on the bank of the river,
which here flows over gigantic boulders of gneiss, and sometimes
white sandstone or granite. In the afternoon we saw large herds of
game a mile or so from camp, principally oryx, zebra, and grantei.
They were strangely shy, and, the country being perfectly open, I
found it impossible to get nearer than 800 yards to them.
The following day we were off again soon after sunrise. El Hakim
shot a small grantei soon after starting. We also saw a herd of
buffalo, but could not get within range, as they took alarm, plunged
into the river, and, swimming across, retired to the safety of the
country on the other side. We also saw some giraffe on the opposite
bank, but this portion of the river was unfordable. El Hakim went out
in the afternoon to try to shoot meat for the men, but could not get
within range of two rhinoceros, the only animals he saw. Food for the
men was getting rather a pressing question, and when we resumed
the march on the following morning, George and I took a different
path from that of the safari, but parallel to it, in the hope that we
might see game.
During the whole march we never saw a single head, and we
arrived at the place where the safari had halted, thoroughly tired and
disgusted. As we got in, El Hakim had just sighted a rhinoceros, and,
seizing his rifle, he mounted the mule and gave chase. The
rhinoceros, however, retreated, followed at full speed by El Hakim,
while George and I had an opportunity of enjoying the unique sight of
a mounted rhinoceros hunt. When it came to speed, however, the
rhino was an easy first, and El Hakim returned, hot, weary, and,
worse still, unsuccessful.
CHAPTER X.
RETURN TO THE “GREEN CAMP.”
The “Swamp Camp”—Beautiful climate of the Waso Nyiro—Failure to

obtain salt at N’gomba—Beset by midges—No signs of the
Rendili—Nor of the Wandorobbo—We decide to retrace our steps
—An object-lesson in rhinoceros-shooting—The Green Camp
once more.
On account of the animals, El Hakim had directed that the camp
should be pitched on a tongue of grass-land adjoining a large
swamp. This swamp extended over an area of quite two square
miles, probably more. The water, being impregnated with mineral
salts, was so brackish that it was absolutely undrinkable. A hundred
yards from our camping-place the Waso Nyiro foamed and tumbled
past at the bottom of a deep gorge, which, in the course of countless
centuries, it had cut through the solid rock (gneiss). The sides of the
gorge were perfectly perpendicular. Two or three little streams,
emanating from the swamp, drained over the summit, falling in
clouds of spray upon the rocks a hundred feet below. There were
several wild date palms (Phœnix sp.)—the only specimens I saw in
the whole of North Kenia—growing at the side of the cliff; they were
bearing fruit, which, however, was quite green and very small. The
Swahilis name this palm “m’tende,” and the fruit “tende.” We found
the side of the gorge extremely precipitous, and had to go up-stream
for quite a quarter of a mile for a suitable place to descend.
The weather was glorious. It was so dry that the intense heat of
the day passed almost unnoticed. The evenings I shall never forget;
they were simply idyllic. As the sun set, a cool breeze sprang up;
cool, yet not cold. After our frugal supper, we usually donned our
pyjamas, lit cigars, and sat out in the open air, now carrying on a
desultory conversation, and anon sitting silent, wrapt in
contemplation of the manifold beauties of the tropical night. The
atmosphere was so dry that no dew fell, and it was perfectly safe in
that beautiful climate to sit out in the open air when only partially
clothed. The clearness and purity of the deep blue-black of the
heavens, studded with its myriads of brilliant stars, was such as I
have seen only in Egypt and the Southern Seas. At such times the
only sound which broke the stillness was the far-off musical roar of
the Waso Nyiro, as, hurrying to its unknown destination, it tumbled
over its rocky bed; or the murmur of subdued conversation from
where the men sat round their fires, resting after the toil and labour
of the day. As the evening advanced the animals lay down one by
one, an example soon followed by the men. Presently, our cigars
finished, we also would reluctantly retire, not at once to sleep,
however, but instead, opening both ends of the tents to the fullest
extent, to lie down and gaze out into the calm and silent majesty of
the night, drinking in the beauty of the scene with its atmosphere of
restfulness and peace, and requiring, for the moment, nothing further
from the Author of all things.
In the morning the order of things changed somewhat. As the first
signs of dawn appeared in the eastern heavens, Jumbi aroused the
sleeping porters with his cry of “Haya! haya! safari! safari!”
Ramathani next arose, and, blowing into a blaze the embers of
yesterday’s fire, proceeded to boil the kettle for our matutinal coffee
—that is, when we possessed any. A rattle of buckets outside our
tent, as the boys poured fresh water into our wash-basins, roused
us, and we waited with half-closed eyes for the appearance of the
boy Bilali with our freshly greased boots.
Juma waited on El Hakim, and sometimes he was a little slack in
the performance of his duties. George and I, quietly dressing, would
hear something like this from El Hakim’s tent—
El Hakim (in a muffled voice): “Juma!”
No answer.
El Hakim (in raised accents): “Juma-a!”
Still no answer.
El Hakim (in a very loud voice): “Juma-a-a!” (Sotto voce): “Where
the devil is that boy? Oh! here you are. Wapi viatu?” (Where are my
boots?)
An interval of silence.
El Hakim (evidently getting angry, and alternating English with the
vernacular): “Ju-ma-a! Have you got those boots yet? Eh? Wapi
viatu? Eh? Wewi sedui? (You don’t know?) What the dickens do you
know? Tafuta sana, maramoja!” (Search well at once!)
(A moment’s silence, broken by sounds of searching among kit-
boxes, etc., followed by an indistinct murmur from the unhappy
Juma.)
El Hakim: “You can’t find them, eh? Now, I’ll tell you what I’m going
to do with you! I’m going to give you a hiding! Wewi sikia? (Do you
hear?) Wha—at! They’re under my bed, where I put them last night!
Hum—m—m! Nenda Kuleta maaji! Oopace! (Go and get some
water, quickly!) If you don’t do better than this in future you shall
carry a load!”
After we had washed and dressed, the tent-bearers, who were
already waiting, pulled up the pegs, and in a trice the tents were
lying flat on the ground, leaving the blankets and kit exposed, waiting
to be packed up ready for the march by Ramathani’s deft fingers.
Donkeys trotted skittishly round, colliding with everything and
everybody, waywardly declining to be saddled and loaded by the
perspiring Jumbi and his assistant, and skilfully evading all attempts
at capture. The command, “Funga mzigo yako!” (Tie up your loads)
having been given, the men selected their loads from the pile in
which they had been stacked overnight, and proceeded to bind their
effects to them with lengths of rope of native manufacture, either of
skin or fibre. El Hakim, George, and I having finished our tea or
coffee, and seen that the tents and kits had been properly packed
and ready for the march, prepared in our turn. Ammunition was
slipped into side pockets, water-bottles filled, and weapons
examined. When Jumbi reported that the donkeys were ready, I
raised my voice, “Watu wote tayire?” (Are all the men ready?)
“N’deo! tayire, Bwana” (Yes, all ready, master!) would be shouted in
reply. A last look round to see if anything had been forgotten or
overlooked, a critical examination of the donkeys’ pack-saddles, or a
dispute between two porters summarily disposed of by the judicious
application of a boot, and “Chikua mzigo yako!” (Take up your loads)
would ring out. Immediately after Jumbi, shouting “Haya! haya! safari
twende!” (Hurry up! hurry up! go on your journey!) would “chunga”
his donkeys, and El Hakim, mounting his mule, would set out,
followed by the porters, George and I staying behind to see the last
man out of camp, and safely on the road; thus another day’s march
commenced.
We made up our minds to stop a day or two at this “Swamp
Camp,” as we called it, in order to give the animals a much-needed
rest; there were also sundry small matters which required attention,
and which could not be done very well on the march.
An hour or two after the camp was pitched we despatched Jumbi,
accompanied by three other men, to Mount N’gombe to look for salt.
Mount N’gombe was placed on my map as due north of Mount
Sheba, which we had passed two days before. It is really some thirty
or forty miles to the east of Sheba, as it (N’gombe) lies some thirty
miles south-south-east of our “Swamp Camp,” which was itself some
twenty miles due east of Sheba. It was also marked on the map as a
salt crater, and in it lay our only hope of obtaining salt during the next
four months, the small supply I obtained from Ismail Robli, in
M’thara, being already finished.
In the afternoon George and I went down to the river and indulged
in a most delightful swim, in spite of the supposed presence of
crocodiles. Towards evening the mosquitos troubled us somewhat,
and prevented us sleeping at all well.
VIEW ON THE WASO NYIRO, NEAR “SWAMP CAMP.”
CUTTING UP A RHINOCEROS FOR FOOD. (See page 190.)
We were up very early on the following morning, but it was not our
own fault. At sunrise we were assailed by myriads of midges; they
were very, very small, but they possessed a most venomous sting,
the mosquitos being, in fact, quite harmless by comparison. They
settled down in clouds on man and beast, and drove us all nearly
frantic. Our faces, necks, and arms were soon covered with
innumerable bites, which itched with a malevolence beyond anything
I had hitherto experienced. George and I seized our rifles and fled
from them as from a pestilence. We were out all the morning looking
for game, and never once caught sight of a single animal. The men
were badly in want of food, and we ourselves were in great need of
raw hide wherewith to repair our boots. George and I had each
attempted to buy an extra pair before leaving Nairobi, but there were
no boots our size in the town at the time. We had been walking with
our feet showing through those we were wearing, which were almost
dropping to pieces. The country was so rough and stony underfoot
that a long march was an event to be painfully remembered.
Jumbi and his companions returned in the evening from M’gomba,
having discovered no traces of salt! They brought us samples of
carbonate of soda, which, they said, was the only kind of salt there,
but there was plenty of that. They had seen no natives, which was
both surprising and disappointing, as there are generally a few
Wandorobbo wandering up and down the Waso Nyiro. We were the
more anxious to meet some of these people, as they generally have
news of the Rendili.
The Wandorobbo are a nomad tribe of native hunters, who wander
round the country at their own sweet will in search of wild honey and
elephants. One or two Wandorobbo are to be found living in or near
all the permanent settlements of both the Masai and the A’kikuyu.
They live entirely by hunting; cultivating nothing. They are very skilful
hunters of the elephant, which they kill with a poisoned spear. This
spear consists of a heavy shaft about five feet long with a socket in
the top, into which the poisoned barb is loosely fitted. Stealthily
approaching his unconscious quarry, the naked hunter, with poised
spear, watches his opportunity. At the right moment a quick
movement of the arm launches the heavy spear, and the keen barb
penetrates the elephant’s vitals. The hunter instantly dives into the
bush; sometimes he is caught and killed. Accidents will happen, but I
do not know that such an occurrence spoils the appetites of his
companions. The elephant on receiving the thrust generally rushes
away through the bush, and the spear-shaft, falling off, leaves the
poisoned head in the wound to do its deadly work. They spear
hippopotamus in the same way, but leave the rhinoceros severely
alone unless they happen to catch him asleep. The origin of the
Wandorobbo is still somewhat of a mystery. It is generally supposed
that they are the offspring of degenerate Masai, with admixtures of
other tribes. To a certain extent this is the case, but there are pure-
blooded Wandorobbo who, in the opinion of Professor Gregory as
recorded in his book,[8] are of very different descent. He says, “I
suggest that they should be called the Wa’doko, for they agree in
habits, appearance, and position with the tribe thus named by
Harris[9] and Avanchers.[10] The Doko were said to occur on a high,
cold, misty plateau in the neighbourhood of dense bamboo forests.
Their home is about six weeks’ march from Mombasa, and between
a snow-covered mountain called Obada and Lake El Boo or Bari.
The mountain must be Kenia, and the lake Baringo. Hence it seems
safe to conclude that the Doko or Wa’berikimo of Harris, Avanchers,
Krapff,[11] and Rigby[12] are the elephant-hunting Negrillos on the
plateau of Lykipia and the district to the north.”
When discussing the Wandorobbo with El Hakim, I learned that
the Wandorobbo have a language of their own, though it is only
spoken among a few of the tribe on Mogogodo (a hog-backed ridge
north-west of the Doenyo lol Deika), where some of the pure-
blooded Wandorobbo—or Wa’doko—have a permanent settlement.
They were very unwilling to let strangers hear it, a fact also
mentioned by Prof. Gregory. El Hakim had heard scraps of it, and it
was unlike anything else he had ever known. He was ignorant of the
language of the South African Bushmen, and therefore could not say
if there was any resemblance.
As we had now been two days at the “Swamp Camp,” and had
seen no natives, and consequently had no news of the Rendili, we
thought it unlikely that they were encamped down-stream as we had
supposed. We decided, therefore, to retrace our steps to the “Green
Camp,” and from thence try up the river in the direction of Lololokwe
and Wargasse, and thence onwards to Koma and Seran. Having
once been over the ground between our present camp and the
“Green Camp,” we were to some extent familiar with the
topographical aspect of the intervening country. We calculated,
therefore, to be able to make several short cuts, thereby making the
return journey in a day or perhaps two days less than we had taken
on our journey hither.
The next morning we started very early, being encouraged thereto
by our implacable little foes, the midges. They made matters very
unpleasant for a while, and we were quite half a mile on our road
before finally getting rid of them. Taking a short cut across the mouth
of a big curve made by the river hereabouts, we travelled to our
camp of July 31st, missing the one of August 1st, passing on the
way the remains of a vast Rendili encampment several years old.
Soon afterwards our men were gladdened by the sight of a
rhinoceros accompanied by a m’toto (young one), and El Hakim and
George immediately set off in chase of her. Suddenly, to our
astonishment, we heard the sound of a shot from the other side of a
ridge in front. The chase of the rhinoceros was at once abandoned,
and we raced up the slope, expecting we knew not what. Nothing!
absolutely nothing! met our eager gaze; the country stretched at our
feet was the usual gravelly, stony abomination studded with the thorn
trees we were so accustomed to; the course of the river showing in
the distance as a darker green line in the brown landscape. Strain
our gaze as we might, nothing in the way of a safari met our eyes. It
was inexplicable. We could have sworn we heard a shot, and so also
could the men; but nevertheless the landscape appeared absolutely
deserted. I fired a shot from my own rifle, but, beyond the
multitudinous echoes, there was no response. We treated the
occurrence as we would any other riddle, and gave it up, and once
more proceeded on our way.
Presently another rhinoceros hove in sight, and El Hakim started
for him. He had almost got within comfortable range of the brute,
which, unconscious of its danger, was busily feeding, when the men,
discovering what he was after, raised yells of delight at the prospect
of a feed at last, and to El Hakim’s intense annoyance startled his
quarry, which made off at a gallop. He returned in a towering passion
—“Wewe Kula mejani sassa” (You can eat grass now), said he. “I’m
not going to be made a fool of when I am trying to shoot meat for
you,” and mounting his mule he resumed his place at the head of the
safari.
Towards evening we reached our old camp of July 31st, and on
arrival we immediately sent men back to try to discover if there were
any signs of another safari in the neighbourhood. One of the men
also was missing, together with his rifle and a valuable load of cloth.
We thought that he might have sat down to rest and fallen asleep,
and let the safari pass on, so we sent Jumbi up the summit of a lofty
hill near the camp, with a gamekeeper’s flare which burnt for five
minutes with a brilliant blue light, and would be visible in that clear
atmosphere and at that height for several miles. As he did not turn
up that night or the next morning in spite of the most diligent search
by the parties of men we sent out, we concluded that he had
deserted and gone back to M’thara. The other men whom we had
sent to look for and report on the possible presence of another safari
in the neighbourhood returned, stating that they had seen no signs of
a safari whatever. We questioned the men as to whether any of them
had fired the shot, but they each and all denied it; besides, the shot
had seemed to come from the front. It was a mystery which we never
solved.
Next morning I left camp half an hour before the safari, in order to
try to shoot some meat before the caravan, with its varied noises,
frightened the game away. A mile or so out of camp I saw a solitary
oryx (Oryx beisa) feeding in the open. There was no cover, and the
need was urgent, so I sank my scruples about shooting at a long
range, and crawling to just within two hundred yards I let drive at it
with the ·303. My bullet struck it in the ribs, but failed to knock the
beast over. A second shot clean through the shoulder did the
business, however. I waited till the safari came up with me, and
joined them. The flesh of the oryx is tough and tasteless, and when
dried the hide is extraordinarily hard, and as stiff as a board.
At the end of a two and a half hours’ march we reached the camp
at which we had such a narrow escape from destruction by fire on
July 30th. It was now completely burnt out, having evidently caught
fire again after our departure. The fire had spread very much, the
palms for over two miles along the bank being reduced to a
collection of mere blackened poles, in many places still smouldering.
Camping was out of the question, so we went on again for another
hour and a half. As we were crossing a small sand river which ran
across our path, a herd of water-buck dashed out from among the
palms forty yards ahead, racing across our front in fine style. It was a
chance not to be missed, and raising my ·303 I took a snapshot and
brought one down with a bullet through the shoulder. Two or three
hundred yards further on I unexpectedly came upon a small herd of
grantei, and another lucky shot laid low a fine buck; not at all a bad
morning’s work in a district so devoid of game as that through which
we were passing.
Soon after I shot the water-buck we deviated to the right, and,
entering the belt of palms, selected a shady spot a few yards from
the river and halted for a meal which we called breakfast, though it
was past midday. At three o’clock in the afternoon we were again on
the road, and remembering the “cinder-heap,” kept close to the river-
bank. It was no use, however, as we discovered to our intense
disgust that the lava came right down to the river, and there ended
abruptly, as there were no traces of it on the opposite bank. Its
difficulties, were, however, modified to a great extent by the fact that
it was possible at intervals to descend to the water’s edge, and
march for sometimes a quarter or even half a mile along the smooth
sand.
After more than two hours’ wearisome tramp, we got into the open
plains stretching away to the “Green Camp.” It was then growing
dusk, and as we had still some miles to go, we hurried forward.
Presently a solitary rhinoceros appeared, quietly feeding, about three
hundred yards away to our right. El Hakim inquired if I would shoot it,
but as I was hot, tired, and perhaps a little short-tempered, I
declined, hinting that I was anxious to see him put his precepts on
short-range shooting into practice. It was an ungracious speech, and
El Hakim would have been quite right to have ignored my remark. As
it was, he merely sniffed, but dismounted, and taking his ·577 from
Juma pointedly asked George if he would like to accompany him, an
offer George accepted with alacrity. El Hakim walked down, followed
by George, and, then advanced cautiously to within twenty yards of
the unsuspecting rhinoceros. He then raised his rifle, and, pausing a
moment to aim, pulled the trigger. A puff of dense white smoke
appeared, followed an instant later by a heavy report. The stricken
rhinoceros jumped, then galloped madly away, with a bullet through
the lungs, falling dead before it had gone fifty yards.
It was a pretty exhibition, and it looked so absurdly simple that
when, on the report of El Hakim’s rifle, a second rhinoceros jumped
up from the grass between us, where it had been lying unobserved, I
snatched the Martini from Ramathani, and slipping a cartridge into
the breech, ran up to within sixty yards of it, and kneeling down
banged off at its shoulder. I admit that sixty yards was a long and
unsportsmanlike range, but I was anxious to bag the beast before El
Hakim, who was approaching it on his return from the dead
rhinoceros, in a direction at right angles to my line of fire, could get
within range. Of course my rhino, when hit, behaved quite differently
to El Hakim’s. It galloped madly, it is true, but in my direction. It came
straight for me, its head lowered and tail up, and I slipped another
cartridge into my rifle, fully expecting to see fireworks within a very
few seconds. Nearer and nearer it came, but just as I braced myself
up for the shot that should decide my fate, my antagonist swerved
aside and commenced what Neumann calls the rhino’s death-waltz,
which consists of backing round and round with its head in the air,
until it succumbs. In another moment he was down, and as I
surveyed my prostrate quarry I mentally patted myself on the back
for what I considered a good performance.
My self-congratulations, however, were rudely dispelled by El
Hakim, who had come silently behind me, remarking in his quiet
voice, “H’m-m, just the sort of thing you would do,” thereby covering
me with confusion; I ventured to remonstrate, and he then asked me
where I had hit the beast. I showed him: the bullet had missed the
shoulder and struck the neck, severing the main artery and the wind-
pipe—cutting the beast’s throat, in fact. “Does not that emphasize
what I have told you?” he inquired. “If you had gone close enough to
be certain of placing your bullet in the shoulder, you would not have
run the risk you did. As it is, it is a very lucky thing for you that your
bullet struck the artery; so you see you owe your freedom from
accident more to good luck than good shooting.”
I admitted the justice of the rebuke, and determined to manage
things better next time.
On the next occasion I tackled a rhinoceros I endeavoured to put
into practice the lesson I had learnt, though it could hardly be
considered a happy attempt. This time the fault lay in carelessness
due to over-confidence. It was in this way. We were going across a
piece of open country in the near neighbourhood of the Waso Nyiro,
when we saw a rhinoceros just within a fringe of stunted thorn bush,
some four hundred yards to the right. El Hakim looked at me
inquiringly. I nodded, and, taking the Martini, placed a couple of
cartridges in the pocket of my shirt and set out, never doubting but
that one cartridge would be sufficient. By careful stalking I got to
within fifteen yards of the rhino, and aiming at the shoulder pulled the
trigger. To my horror I saw the blood appear on his withers, the bullet
striking too high up, just wounding sufficiently to annoy, but not
disable him. The rhino at first stood still, and then slowly walked
away. I was unwilling to risk my last cartridge on a doubtful shot, so I
remained passive. Presently he stopped again a few yards further
on, and loading up again I made a move to try to get nearer. In so
doing I unavoidably made a slight noise on the loose stones
underfoot, which was apparently what the rhino was waiting for, as
he came round like a flash and charged me. I went hot and cold by
turns as I remembered how much depended on my solitary cartridge,
and as further disguise was useless, I dashed to leeward of a small
heap of stones two or three feet high, which lay a yard or two away
on my right. Round came the rhinoceros after me, and I dodged to
the other side, and, a favourable opportunity presenting itself, I put
my bullet fairly into his spine, dropping him dead not three yards
from me. I breathed a great sigh of relief, and walking back to El
Hakim and George, who had been watching the performance,
assumed an air of great nonchalance, and casually asked El Hakim
for a cigar. That gentleman gazed steadily at me for a moment, but
said never a word, and we resumed our interrupted march in silence.
Having now bagged two rhinoceros, we determined to push on to
the “Green Camp,” though darkness had already fallen and the bulk
of the safari were still some distance behind. Leaving the mules in
charge of Ramathani, El Hakim, George, and I pushed forward on
foot. We marched on and on, but no sign of the camp we were
looking for appeared, and we were inclined to think that we had
mistaken our way in the darkness. At seven o’clock in the evening,
however, we reached it. It seemed almost like coming home. I had
been on my feet since half-past five in the morning, and was
thoroughly done up. El Hakim and George were not much better, as
riding a mule at a walk becomes very tiring after some hours in the
saddle. We three gathered some dry wood and lit a large fire to

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Thermodynamics An Engineering

Approach 8th Edition Cengel Solutions

Solutions Manual for

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

Exergy, Irreversibility, Reversible Work, and Second-Law Efficiency

8-1C The dead state.

The minimum number of windmills that needs to be installed is

The heat transfer during the process is

The entropy generation associated with this process is

The work potential (exergy) of the steam stream is

Exergy increase of steam:

The net exergy destruction:

PE 5 10 6 kWh  3600 s  1000 m 2 / s 2 

I  W rev,out  W u,out  283.6  120  163.6 kW

TL [K] W rev [kJ/s] I [kJ/s] II [%]

275 320 365 410 455 500

W in  Q out  Q H  50,000 kJ/h = 13.89 kW

I  W u,in  W rev,in  0.70  0.20  0.50 hp Freezer

Exergy Analysis of Closed Systems

The entropy change of air is

PV (100 psia)(15 ft 3 ) Air

RT (0.3704 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(710 R)

RT0 (0.3704 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(537 R)

The specific closed system exergy of the air is then

We now repeat the calculations for helium:

RT (2.6809 psia  ft 3 /lbm  R)(660 R)

RT0 (2.6809 psia  ft /lbm  R)(537 R)

The exergy of steam is

v  v f @ 20C = 0.0008160 m 3 / kg R-134a

 (8 kg){(274.03  248.81) kJ/kg  (293 K)(1.0257  1.0919) kJ/kg  K

 (8 kg){(78.85  248.81) kJ/kg - (293 K)(0.30062  1.0919) kJ/kg  K

X X  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

Wrev,in  X 2  X 1  308.6  197.8  110.8 kJ

Analysis (a) The mass of the steam is

 Qout  U  m(u 2  u1 ) (since W  KE = PE = 0)

or Qout  (0.01851 kg)(2654.6  1015.6) kJ/kg = 30.3 kJ

X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

"Conservation of energy for closed system is:"

T_L = 273 [K]

QH Qout T2 Wrev 120 Maximum

v  v f  x1v fg  0.01708  0.25  (11.901  0.01708)  2.9880 ft 3 / lbm

v 2  v 1  u 2  u g @ v g = 2.9880ft 3/lbm = 1110.9 Btu/lbm

S in  S out  S gen  S system

"Conservation of energy for closed system is:"

800 158.7 631.1 200

v 1  v g @ 0.6 MPa = 0.03433 m 3 / kg

The mass of the refrigerant is R-134a

X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

 (0.8738 kg)[(241.86  216.69) kJ/kg + (100 kPa)(0.03433  0.12053)m 3 / kg[kJ/kPa  m 3 ]

Tavg  (T1  T2 ) / 2  (75  525) / 2  300F 

Analysis The entropy change of oxygen is

X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system  Wrev,in  X 2  X1

P1V1 (100 kPa)(0.002 m 3 )

X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system

Tavg  (T1  T2 ) / 2  (275.0  371.3) / 2  323.1 K 

Wpw,in  U  mcv (T2  T1 )

X  X out  X destroyed0 (reversible)  X system  Wrev,in  X 2  X1