5.

HARMONIC OSCILLATOR SYSTEMS

I many physical s y s t e m s , the potential energy V(q) will have a minimum a t some n
, value of the coordinate q, s a y q,
which c l a s s i c a l l y would b e the r e s t position of the s y s t e m .

In many c a s e s of i n t e r e s t , w h e r e the excitation energy of the s y s t e m (measured from expansion V(q) V,), we c a n approximate the potential i n the vicinity of q,

E i s small
by a Taylor

V, +

VM(q0 - q0ja + )(q

. . .. .
m i n this potential then becomes

The Lagrangian f o r the motion of a p a r t i c l e of m a s s

where x i s measured from

q o , i. e. x = q - 90
J

and where
W2

Vu(qO) , The constant V,

which we can identify a s the c l a s s i c a l frequency ( s q u a r e d ) of oscillation.

i s n o t included i n the Lagrangian a s not affecting the equations of motion, appearing only a s a shift in the origin i n the m e a s u r e m e n t of the energy. F r o m the Lagrangian of equation 5. 2 we then define t h e Hamiltonian

5. 1.

Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions The transition to Quantum Mechanics m a y be m a d e by replacing the conjugate momentum

to the coordinate x

by
p=-ifia ax

(5. 6 )

leading to the ( t i m e independent) Schrgdinger equation

To solve this equation we introduce the n a t u r a l dimensionless v a r i a b l e s

i n t e r m s of which the schrb;dinger equation b e c o m e s

We have encountered this equation before i n the context of the minimum joint s p r e a d problem in chapter 2. that the eigenvalues I t s analytical solution i s d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix C. a r e d i s c r e t e and given by T h e r e we found

so that the e n e r g i e s

a r e given by

E~

= (n +

$) bur

The wavefunction, corresponding to the ntn eigenvalue was a l s o found to be given by

where

h ( 5 ) i s the nth H e r m i t e polynomial, defined by n

and

An

i s the normalization factor, given by

An = ( r 1 / 2 ~ n n ! ) 112

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l noteworthy f e a t u r e s of this solution:

(i)

The lowest energy l e v e l (ground s t a t e ) i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a non-zero energy, i. e. 1 Eo=Zhw

a s expected f o r a s y s t e m localized to a region i n space,

(ii) Subsequent excited l e v e l s a r e spaced uniformly by

hw

above

E,,

Recall

# that f o r a n infinite s q u a r e well

E~

- E ,

(n+l)=

&En

En

En-l

= 2n+l

( i i i ) T h e ground s t a t e wavefunction ( a normalized Gaussian) s a t i s f i e s the minimum joint s p r e a d condition a s was shown i n c h a p t e r 1. harmonic o s c i l l a t o r Hamiltonian, The r e a s o n f o r this is that the

whose expectation value i s minimized by the

ground s t a t e wavefunction, is i n f a c t the s u m of the m e a n s q u a r e deviation i n p and

x

s p a c e respectively.

5.2.

Ladder o p e r a t o r s . In discussing the behavior of s y s t e m s described by a harmonic o s c i l l a t o r Hamiltonian,

i t i s useful to define the H e r m i t i a n adjoint o p e r a t o r s

where

i s defined i n equation 5. 8 and

i s given by

We then have, by d i r e c t substitution, that the commutator

[a,at]

i s given by

and the Hamiltonian i s given by

o r , using the commutation relation 5. 15 1 H = hw ( a t a + Z) We know, however, that

H operating on a wavefunction

un (x) yields

and can t h e r e f o r e identify the o p e r a t o r product

a a

a s the number operator,

i. e.

What i s the r e s u l t of operating on a n eigenvector with the o p e r a t o r s

or

at

alone?

t Consider the quantity ( a a ) a ( n ) , w h e r e # [eigenfunction un(x)]. Then we have

In)

denotes the nth normalized eigenvector

o r since (a a ) \ m ) = m \ m ) the r e s u l t of a In)

,
In

m u s t b e a s i m p l e multiple of the s t a t e

1).

We accordingly w r i t e

and consider the s c a l a r product

Substituting equation 5. 18, we have (nla,aln) since (n

= (n

I~C;,

cnln

1 ) = jcnla

,
a and at

Iln

1 ) = 1.

We c a n a l s o u s e the fact, however, that the o p e r a t o r s

a r e H e r m i t i a n adjolnts of each other t o obtain

w h e r e we again have used that the s t a t e s and 5.20 we m u s t then have lcnla = n

In)

a r e normalized.

Comparing equations 5.19

= n 1/2

(5. 2 1) Conse-

within a phase f a c t o r which without l o s s of g e n e r a l i t y may be s e t equal to unity. quently, we have

'note

f r o m equation 5. 15 that

aat

a a = 1.

We s e e that the r e s u l t of the operation of lowest s t a t e o r , equivalently, c a l l the o p e r a t o r s e e that at/n) The o p e r a t o r at a

on the s t a t e

In)
hru.

i s to produce the next F o r this r e a s o n we

to annihilate a quantum of e n e r g y

the annihilation o p e r a t o r .

Combining equations 5. 17 and 5.22 we a l s o

= (n+l)1/21n+l)

.
The operators a

(5.23) and

a T i s correspondingly called the c r e a t i o n o p e r a t o r .

a r e called l a d d e r o p e r a t o r s b e c a u s e they c a n be used to go up and down the l a d d e r of They a r e useful in p r o b l e m s p o s s e s sing a uniformly spaced eigenvalue

eigenvalues. spectrum.

Using t h e s e o p e r a t o r s , we c a n solve the ~ c h r g d i n ~ e r equation r a t h e r effortlessly. p a r t i c u l a r , the ground state, corresponding to n=O, m u s t b e the solution to the equation

In

which we may solve i n o u r coordinate representation,

5. 13a f o r the annihilation o p e r a t o r , i. e.

if n e c e s s a r y ,

by substituting equation

whose d i r e c t solution v0(5) = const. e ,

was obtained much m o r e painfully by solving the second o r d e r differential Schrgdinger equation i n appendix C. Having the ground s t a t e , we may obtain a l l the higher excited

s t a t e s by repeated application of the c r e a t i o n o p e r a t o r , i. e.

If i t is n e c e s s a r y to obtain the eigenfunctions i n the coordinate representation, we

substitute equation 5. 13b to obtain, f o r example,

which i s c o r r e c t including the p r o p e r normalization constant Al = 2 - l i 2 A o .

7

'

' ~ o t e that

h,

(5) =

25.

See appendix C.

T h e r e is a one-to-one

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between the

s p a c e with the eigenfunctions

un (x) and the s c a l a r product a s defined i n c h a p t e r 1, and t h e occupation number s p a c e with eigenvectors cussion, i. e. In) and the s c a l a r product that w a s implicitly defined i n the preceding d i s -

1
X

u m i ( x l d ( ~ ,^p) un(x) d x = (mldc;(a

ar. $(at, a ) ] I n )

(5. 2 6 )

where, by inverting the defining equations,

and

mhw = i(-j,-)

1/2

(a

a)

We can think of the sequence of eigenvectors

( n ) a s forming the b a s i s of a n infinite

O p e r a t o r s in this s p a c e a r e m a t r i c e s .

By way of example

whereas

It can easily be verified by d i r e c t substitution that t h e s e b a s i s v e c t o r s and m a t r i x o p e r a t o r s satisfy the fundamental relations a s given by equations 5.22 and 5.23. 5.3. Harmonic o s c i l l a t o r s i n t h e r m a l equilibrium. Any s t a t e a harmonic oscillator can a s s u m e c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d by a superposition of t h e eigenfunctions un(x), i. e.

n or, equivalently,

where

and

cn(0) can be determined f r o m the initial conditions, i. e. ,

The energy of the s t a t e i s then given by

(E) = ( $ I H I $ )

Now f o r a s y s t e m i n t h e r m a l equilibrium with t h e surroundings a t a t e m p e r a t u r e

T , we

and t h e r e f o r e ( E ) = hw
1

where x = hw/k T.

Now

and t h e r e f o r e

Note that a t high t e m p e r a t u r e s ,

i. e . ,

tiw/kgT

<< 1,

IE)- k g T ,
i n a g r e e m e n t with c l a s s i c a l Maxwell-Boltzmann s t a t i s t i c s and the correspondence principle.

5. 4

S y s t e m s of uncoupled harmonic o s c i l l a t o r s . We can w r i t e the Hamiltonian of a s y s t e m of N uncoupled harmonic

oscillators a s a sum N

where H.(p. q . ) J J J and and

1 - P.2 + - m.w? 2m; J 2 J

J

a r e the N-dimensional v e c t o r s

Note that if the o s c i l l a t o r s of the s y s t e m w e r e coupled, the Hamiltonian could not be s e p a r a t e d into the s u m of such t e r m s , t e r m s between the coordinates. By way of example, but would involve c r o s s
if the interaction between

the various coordinates i s a p a i r coupling, the Hamiltonian would be given by

See p r o b l e m 5. 8. The Schrgdinger equation f o r the s y s t e m of the N uncoupled o s c i l l a t o r s i s given by

ifi

a q(9,t j

= H q(9,t )

Equation 5.39 c a n be solved by separation of v a r i a b l e s , and i n p a r t i c d a r , by assuming a wavefunction of the f o r m

q(9,t) =
where

n
j

+j(qj, t )

,
i = l,N

ih;i5 4'.(q.,t) = H . $.!q.,t) ; J J J J J

The o v e r a l l s y s t e m i s i n an eigenstate, i s in a harmonic o s c i l l a t o r eigenstate,

i. e . ,

if e v e r y one of the N o s c i l l a t o r s

where

and

The vector 2 i s an N dimensional index that l a b e l s t i e eigenstate of the total s y s t e m , i. e. , n -

= ( n l , c2,.. . . . , nN)

Ve can now define, a n a l t e r n a t e s e t of b a s i s eigenvectors, by analogy to the single harmonic oscillator, in particular,
nN)

Ir,)

lnl,na,.

. . . .,

(5.45)

and a l s o annihilation and c r e a t i o n o p e r a t o r s , corresponding to e a c h p a i r of conjugate coordinates pj, qj, i. e . ,

and

such that aj and atll?) j

) ;1

= n j 1 /2 In1,

"0,.

. . . . ,n.J

1,.

. . . . ,4) . . . ,n

= (n. + 1 ) 1 / 2 / n 1 , % ,. . . . . , n + I , . .
J j

~ )

The total Hamiltonian can then be e x p r e s s e d quite simply a s

Any s t a t e of the s y s t e m c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s a l i n e a r superposition of the

1")

eigenstates, i. e . ,

n where

o r , equivalently

o r , using equation 5.40,

we have f o r uncoupled o s c i l l a t o r s ,

cn =

IT
j

u nj

* 4J 1.J ( 9 J. , 0 ) d q1. .l

The energy of such a s t a t e c a n then be computed by

or,

since

we have

5. 5

Systems of uncoupled harmonic o s c i l l a t o r s i n t h e r m a l equilibrium.

I this s y s t e m of o s c i l l a t o r s i s in t h e r m a l equilibrium a t s o m e t e m p e r a then the probability of finding the jth o s c i l l a t o r a t a l e v e l n . would be J given by a Boltzmann f a c t o r t u r e T,

which,

substituting i n equation 5. 54,

yields

We note that each one of the t e r m s in the summation o v e r j, i s equal to the energy a t t h e r m a l equilibrium of a n isolated harmonic o s c i l l a t o r and therefore, taking the r e s u l t of equation 5.35, we have,

The f i r s t s u m i s the ground s t a t e energy fixed.

EG of the total s y s t e m , which i s

T h e second sum, if the o s c i l l a t o r s a r e many with closely spaced we can approximate by a n i n t e g r a l o v e r w,

00

frequencies ,u j'

i. e . ,

where p(w)dw is the number of o s c i l l a t o r s whose angular frequency i s between

3

and

m + dw.
(3

'U+'id

I
Ln any event, the summation c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m the i n t e g r a l using

f o r the density of oscillators. The integrand

i s called the spectrum of the energy.

Note that if we substitute f o r the density of oscillators electromagnetic radiation in a box, i. a.

~(uJ), the density of modes of

s e e problem 2. 16, we obtain the black body spectrum of Planck, i. e. equation 2. 130.

This

r e s u l t suggests that the light quanta of Planck behave like the excitation levels of harmonic oscillators whose fundamental frequency
JJ

i s that of the corresponding photon!

Taken a t At f i r s t

face value i t i s a l e s s than obvious model to assocaate w i t h light, to be sure. sight, i t would be difficult to assign a

mass

and a spring to a photon whlch is m a s s l e s s and Nevertheless, we will

not bound to any obvious equilibrium position by a quadratic potential!

show that there exlst a s e t of coordinates f o r the photon field, in t e r m s of which the Hamiltonian is given bv equation 5. 36, o r equivalently, equation 5. 48. To show that, of

course, would b e sufficient and we will then have derived Planck's formula through a r a t h e r unexpected route.

5. 6

Quantum mechanics of a fluid.

Phonons.

W e can always treat a matter a s a continuum when the smallest length scale of interest,

say

a, i s much larger than the (mean) spacing between the constituent particles.

In other

words, we can neglect the atomic nature of gases, liquids and solids if

where

pm

is the mass density and

i s the m a s s of each particle.

This approximation i s

usually associated with a classical description of matter.

It should be noted, however, that

the limit of equation 5. 6 1 is quite different from the reasons that dictate a quantum v e r s u s a classical description of a phenomenon. (Planck's constant) i s negligible o r not. The l a t t e r decision i s based on whether the size of F o r many systems, especially a t low temperatures
h

where only the lowest energy levels a r e excited, a quantum mechanical treatment of the continuum behavior i s in fact appropriate. This we will do by following the usual procedure The transition to

of deriving the Lagrangian, the conjugate momenta and the Hamiltonian.

Quantum Mechanics i s then made by selecting a representation for the conjugate coordinatemomentum pairs such that
Cqj, pj1

* i

* .

(5. 6 2 )

In describing the motion of the medium, consider the displacement q along the x-axis,
of a medium element which has a r e s t position a t x.

If we now compare q(x), the displacement of the element f r o m x , to q(x+6x), the displacement of the element from x+6x, we have that the difference in the displacements 6q i s given

Now, i f the density of the medium a t r e s t i s given by

pd,

we must also have that

P 6x = P W ,
where

,
x + q and
x + d x + q + 6q.

(5. 6 4 )
Combining

p i s the resulting density o i the medium between

equations 5.63 and 5. 6 4 we have

L we now consider a m o r e general displacement in three dimensions, of a medium element

originally a t r e s t a t 5, i. a.

3k) = C , x , qy(x), q,(x)I q()

we can show by s i m i l a r arguments that

where

.3

i s the divergence of the displacement field.

Consider now the caae of s m a l l d e p a r t u r e s of the density f r o m its equilibrium value.

W e then have

o r , using equation 5. 66,

To define the Lagrangian, we note that the kinetic energy p e r unit volume of the medium i s given by
1 Z p ( 5 t ) I&
t)la

and therefore the total kinetic energy of the madium i s given by

IS. 69)

o r , to lowest o r d e r i n the displacement field,

We will now r e s t r i c t the discussion to matter that

(i)

posaeases an equilibrium density, independent of container boundaries (i. e. not

a gar),

(ii)
and

is isotropic

(iii)

cannot support static s h e a r (i. 4.

a fluid).

These conditionr a r e m a t by a liquid, f o r which we can consider the potential energy p e r unit volume a s possessing a minimum a t the equilibrium value
p a po , a s sketched below.

For small deviations from the equilibrium density we can then approximate tho potential energy per unit volume by a Taylor expansion about its e q d i b r i u m value
Y(p)

po,

i. e.

Y(po

1 7 (P

- p,Ia

V4(P,)

and therefore U--$F'(R,I or, using equation 5. 68, U

1 X

C P ( ~ ~ ) - P O ] ~ ~ ' E ,

~ C ~ ( & , I[&.3(3t)la

{
X

dai

Combining equations 5. 70 and 5.73 we then have for the Lagrangian

Let us now assume that the displacement field satisfies periodic boundary conditions a t the edge planes of a rectangular box of volume
V o

Lx Ly L 2' i.
2,

a.

q(- L,/2, Y, 2, t) = 9(Lx/Z.y.

q(x,

t)

(5. 75a) (5. 75b)

- Ly/2,

2.

t) = 9(x. Ly/2,

Z, t)

and
q(x, Y,

- LZ/2, t) = q(x, y, LJ2,

t)

.
a -xq ax
n 0,

(5.75~) we can

ff

we now assume that the displacemant field i s irrotational, i. e.

expand the space dependence of q(=, t) into a Fourier series of the form

where, from the periodic boundary conditions (equation 5. 75), the permissible wavevectors a r e given by

where

Note that .the orthogonality relation i s given by

where

i s the volume, and

is the Kronecker delta, and therefore, the Fourier coefficients Qk(t) a r e given by

Note that the Fourier coefficients a r e complex, i. e.

Qk

iQk
2

where

and

Using tha Fourier s e r i e s axpansion for the displacement field, we now have

and

where k have

I&\.

Substituting these in the expression f o r the Lagrangian (equarion 5. 74), we

(5. as)

where

M =
i s the total mass of the medium, and cs i s a constant with units of velocity. then have

&V

1 CiJo~"(po)la

Substituting the r e a l and imaginary parts of

Qk,

we

where

J = 1,2.
There i s a slight complication that a r i s e s f r o m the fact that the coordinates and j in fact, f r o m the defining equations 5.82a and 5.82b we see that
Q~

Q-Lj
and

a r e not independent.

Q&~ Q-b~ a
Qba

(5. 89a)

- Q-ba

(5. 88b)
not ail the

consequently, even though the Lagrangian is c o r r e c t l y given by equation 5.88,

'5,

can be used to f o r m a s e t of orthogonal coordinates. In particular, if we use Q j Lj a s a coordinate, we must exclude Q - k j. The Lagrangian can be expressed, however, a s a
d

sum over some positive halt space of

symbolically sketched below f o r two dimensions,

where the summation over the positive k-(haU) space is denoted by the plus sign prefix of the

k -

summation index.

Using equation 5.90,

Qbj, i-e.

we can now define the conjugate momenta

Lj

to the coordinates

P
o r , substituting for the Lagrangian,

&,j

=-

aL

w,,
= M"

'

PLj

hj

'

Using these momenta, we can now e x p r e s s the Hamiltonian of the system, i. e.

where

We see that the fluid,

in this continuum approximation, behaves

like a system of uncoupled can be identified with

harmonic oscillators of m a a s the speed of sound.

M and frequency ak = csk, where c

See problem 5. 14.

In other words

where

We can now compute the energy of the liquid in thermal equilibrium a t a temperature

using the r e s u l t s of the preceding section.

In particular, using equation 5. 57 we have

where n(w) is the density of states p e r angular frequency. To compute the density of states, we note that there a r e two modes f o r each wavenumber

&

corresponding to j = 1 and

2, the real and imaginary p a r t of the complex

Recall however,

F o u r i e r coefficient Qk a halt space of

of the displacement field.

that we must include only

in counting the independent modes. 2 7 sk3(u)

T h e r e f o r e the number of modes with

frequency ,ul<ur i s given by

N(ol<cu) = 2
o r , since k

( 2 ~/V ~ )

= s/cS

and therefore

aad therefore

or, changing to a dimensionless integration variable x

= hw/kgT,

The definite integral i s a pure number and given by ( s e e for example F. Reif, Fundamentals of Statis tical and Thermal Physics, Appendix 1 1)

The energy i s then given by

(E)

EG =

~ T ' V ( ~ ~ T ) ~
30(cSh)'

and we find the heat capacity p e r unit m a s s , 2ra

Cv =

h15(lcs)"

which i s seen to be proportional to the cube of the temperature. Substituting for the Boltzmann and Planckl s conatants,

and, for liquid ' ~ e t low temperatures (T 6 0.6"K) a

po

= 0. I450 g/cm3 = 239 rn/sec = (0. 0205

we have the theoretical prediction f o r the heat capacity of liquid ' ~ e t low temperatures a c

0. O O O ~ ) ( T / O K )(~ , / ~ ) " K ~ J

where the uncertainty in the theoretical prediction r e s u l t s f r o m the finite accuracy with which the speed of sound is known. to be [J. Wiebes, C.C. The measured heat capacity of liquid 4 ~ below 0. b0?S i s found e

Niels-Hakkenberg and H. C. K r a m e r s (1957), Physica 23, 625-6321, c,

= (0.0204

* 0.0004)

(TPK)"

(J/g)

OK-'

This expression f o r the heat capacity fails a t temperatures higher than 0. 6 ' ~ o r a n f interesting reason: our continuum assumption fails! As the temperature i n c r e a s e r higher

frequency states become occupied and since

states with higher and higher wave numbers become occupied.

You will recall, however, requires that

that our original assumption of a continuum, a s given by equation 5.61,

since, f o r a mode of excitation of wavenumber k, the appropriate length scale (wavelength) goes like

In(.

The interesting thing i s that the model of a system of uncoupled harmonic The effect of the d i s c r e t e particles

oscillators continues to be valid even beyond that limit.

(helium atoms) comprising the liquid, however, i s to produce a slightly m o r e complicated

dispersion relation

[u = m(k)].
on

The Hamiltonian, a s given by equation 5.92, i s a s sketched below. See problem 5.18.

i s still c o r r e c t

but the dependence of ur

(&I

Problems

5. 1

Derive the eigenfunctions and energy levels of a two-dimensional harmonic o s c i l l a t o r whose potential i s given by V(x,y) =
1 7 k[xacosaa +

yasinaa]

T h i s i s a good model f o r the vibrations of the c e n t r a l a t o m of a p l a n a r molecule of the type sketched below

5.2

Show that the o p e r a t o r f o r

'C,

a s defined by 5. 14, is given by

A

a R=-ix.

5. 3

Show that the o p e r a t o r of the o p e r a t o r

a , a s defined by equation 5. 13b, i s the Hermitean adjoint

a.

5. 4

Show t h a t

[a,al = 1 w h e r e the a and at

a r e defined by equation 5. 13.

5. 5

P r o v e that the harmonic o s c i l l a t o r Hamiltonian c a n be written a s H = hw ( a a + ~ . )

t 1

5. 6

Using the o p e r a t o r s

fc

and

$, e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of the l a d d e r o p e r a t o r s (equations
( m ( z ( n ) and (m\$ln). C o m p a r e with the c o r -

5. 27), compute the m a t r i x elements

responding p r o c e d u r e a s outlined in problems C. 4 and C. 5 of Appendix C. 5. 7 Write down the m a t r i x representation corresponding to the b a s i s defined by equations 5.28 f o r

2 and $, the coordinate and momentum o p e r a t o r s .

5. 8

Consider a line of identical m a s s e s connected to e a c h o t h e r by identical s p r i n g s .

L e t q. be the equilibrium position of the ith m a s s , and m a s s f r o m i t s equilibrium position. system.

xi

be the d e p a r t u r e of the i th

Derive the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian f o r this

Problems (continued) 5. 9 Express the Hamiltonian of the preceding problem using the annihilation and creation operators defined by equation 5.46. 5. 10 Find the value of the commutators [ai, a . ] , [ai, a j 1, where J the annihilation and creation operators defined by equation 5.46. [ai, a.],
J

a.

and ai

t are

5. 11 Compute and plot the heat capacity of a single harmonic oscillator a s a function of
hm /kgT.

5. 12 Compute the heat capacity of a system of uncoupled oscillators, if the density of

oscillators p e r unit frequency intetpal i s given by

8

~(w)dw = What a r e the units of

~g

-($I

6Y

no?

5. 13 Prove equation 5.66

5. 14 Equation 5.73 can be written as

L
where

ddSE

i s called the Laarangim density.

Show that the principle of stationary action, i. e.

leads to the claesical equations of motion

where

Derive the classical equation of motion f r o m the Lagrangian density given by equation (ii) and show that

)Iz

should be identified with the speed of sound.

5.15 A point mass

m is executing harmoaic oscillations described by

x(t)

x, sia(wt+B)

(i)
(ii)

Compute the classical momentum

p(t). x,

Compute the classical average values of

2, p,

pa

and the energy E.

I s the

energy a function of time?

(iii)

Compare w t the quantum mechanical behavior a s ih

E/hm

ao.

Problems (continued) where

X(

lx-

5' 1)

can be written as
ca

P ( [ ~ - ~ ' I ) n 2Po ( 5 - x 1 ) 6
where cs is the speed of sourrd,
pd

- g ( l ~ - ~ l ,) (
i s the equilibrium density, 6 ( 5 - 4 l ) i s the three i s a function that possassea a peak at the g()x-x'))

dimensional delta function, and mean distance between atoms.

g(lE-fll) Nota that if

0,

we recover the continuum

model for the liquid a s given by the expression for the potential of equation 5.72
(i)

Derive the Hamiltonian for the system,

if the kinetic energy i s given by

equation 5. 70 and the potential energy is given by the expression above.

(ii) Derive the dispersion relation

~ ( k for )

this system.

(iii)

Invert t h i s relation to exprerr

Can you sketch

g ( r ) as a function of
as

~(k), where r
r

g(r)?

What muat its behavior be

0,

III-xll.

a?