Chapter 8

HEATING AND WELDING CONTROL

8.1 INTRODUCTION OF HEATING AND WELDING CONTROL

Electrical heating is the most convenient method from its operational viewpoint. Here,
the heat can be controlled accurately. In infrared heating, electromagnetic radiation at infrared
frequencies radiating from the filament of an incandescent lamp is focused on the object to be
heated. An industrial application of infrared heating is in quick drying of fresh layers. The
infrared waves penetrate the layer resulting in quick and uniform drying without wastage of
heat. Heating methods are broadly classified into:

i. High frequency heating

ii. Power frequency heating

In high frequency heating, heat transfer takes place inside the material. Here, the heat transfer
rate is as much as 10,000 W/cm2 which is very useful for high-speed production. High
frequency heating can be applied to (i) ferromagnetic or nonmagnetic materials and (ii)
insulating materials. High frequency heating is divided into:

i. Induction heating
ii. Dielectric heating

8.1.1 Advantages of Electrical Heating

There are various methods of heating a material but electrical heating is considered to
be far superior because of the following advantages:

Cleanliness

Cleanliness in the charges (materials) to be heated can be maintained to a very high

standard because of the absence of dust and ash. The material does not get contaminated.
Because of the absence of flue gases, provision for their exit need not be provided and the
atmosphere around, therefore, remains clean and pollution free.

Ease of control

It is possible to control and regulate the temperature of a furnace easily by the provision
of automatic devices.

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Uniform heating

In all other methods of heating, a temperature gradient gets set up from the outer surface
to the inner core, the core remaining relatively cooler. But in electric heating, the heat is
uniformly distributed and the charge is evenly heated. Even nonconducting materials
(insulators) can be heated uniformly.

Low attention and maintenance

Electric heating equipment does not normally require much attention and, therefore, the
maintenance cost is very low.

8.2 INDUCTION HEATING

When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, it gets

heated up by the eddy currents flowing through the charge and the hysteresis loss occurring in
the charge. The hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of a magnetic field which brings about a
magnetic molecular friction and results in the heating of the charge. The hysteresis loss
increases with increase in frequency. The operating frequencies are in the order of 200 kHz to
500 kHz. The induction heating process has low efficiency because the circuit leads to a large
amount of heat dissipation.

8.2.1 Theory of Induction Heating

If a high frequency current flows through a coil surrounding a workpiece (magnetic

material), there is a tendency of the resulting eddy current in the workpiece to concentrate near
its surface. The eddy emf induced in the outer loop is more because of its higher inductance.
In induction heating, as the frequency of the heating current increases, a greater part of the
induced heating current tends to concentrate close to the metal surface (workpiece). This is
referred to as the skin effect.

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Fig. 8.1(a) General pattern of the numerous closed and concentric inductive paths for eddy
currents in a cylindrical workpiece (metal).

8.2.2 Principle of Induction Heating

Induction heating is based on the principle of transformer. There is a primary winding

through which alternating current is passed. This winding is magnetically coupled with the
metal piece to be heated. An eddy current is, therefore, induced in the metal piece when
alternating current is passed through the primary heating coil. The value of the induced eddy
current depends on

i. the magnitude of the primary current,

ii. the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and secondary circuit, and
iii. the coefficient of magnetic coupling.

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 Fig. 8.1(c) Solid metallic cylinder heated by induction heating.

Fig. 8.1(d) Electrical representation of the circuit shown in Fig. 8.1(c).

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Equation

1. Ip N = IS □ 1
2. IS = IP N
3. P = IS2 R
𝜌𝜋𝐷
4. P =𝐼𝑝2 𝑁 2 𝛿𝐿
𝑃 𝜌 I2p N2 πD 1
5. Ps = = . 𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝜋𝐷𝐿 𝛿𝐿
I2p N2 𝜌
6. Ps = 𝐿2𝜎

1 𝜌 × 107
7. 𝜎 = 2𝜋 √ 𝜇,𝑓

𝐼𝑝2 𝑁2 𝜇𝛾 𝑓
8. Ps = 𝜌 2𝜋 √𝜌 ×107 W/m2
𝐿2

𝐼𝑝𝑁
9. H = ampere-turn/ meter
𝐿

10. Ps = 2𝜋 H2 √10−7 𝑓 𝜌𝜇𝛾 W/m2

𝑃 𝐻2
11. PV = 𝜋 = 8𝜋 √10−7 𝑓 𝜌𝜇𝛾 (since PV = PS 𝜋𝐷𝐿 )
( )𝐷2 𝐿 𝐷
4

4𝐻 2 𝜌
12. PV = .𝛿 W/m3
𝐷

13. 𝑧Wh □ fB1.6

14. We □ f 2 t2 B2 max

Where,
Ip=primary current
Is=secondary current
N=number of turns
P=power loss
R=resistance of the eddy current
D=diameter of the cylinder in meters
d=depth of penetration in meters
Ps= power entering the material per square meter of the surface
𝜇𝛾 = relative permeability of the material
H= magnetic intensity or magnetizing force
PV=power density per unit volume
B=flux density (Wb/m2)

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 f=frequency

Bmax=maximum flux density

8.2.3 Effects of Supply Frequency on Induction Heating

The effects of supply frequency on induction heating are enumerated below:

i. From Eq. (8.11) it is clear that for a given magnetizing force H, resistivity r, and
relative permeability mr, heat input per unit volume is proportional to the square
root of the frequency.
ii. At high frequencies, the heat contributed by the hysteresis losses becomes very
small compared to that contributed by eddy currents [compare Eqs. (8.13) and
(8.14)]. Heat contributed by hysteresis is up to a certain temperature.
iii. The depth of penetration for a given material is inversely proportional to the
frequency of supply [see Eq. (8.7)]. The penetration of flux at high frequencies into
the workpiece is small owing to the shielding effect of the eddy currents. The flux
density varies exponentially and drops rapidly from the surface to the interior.
Therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses are small because of the small depth
of penetration.
iv. The flux density in a magnetic material is higher than that in a non-magnetic
material.
v. Therefore, the frequency required to produce the same amount of heat in magnetic
materials will be less.
vi. For a greater resistivity of the material, the frequency required will be less.
vii. For a greater thermal conductivity of the material, the frequency required will be
high.

8.2.4 Effects of Source Voltage on Induction Heating

The effects of increasing the source voltage on induction heating are given below:

i. The flux owing to eddy currents in the workpiece will increase if the supply voltage
is increased. So, the power loss owing to the eddy currents which is proportional to
the square of the maximum flux density, produces heat at the surface of the material.

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 Hence the production of the surface heat will be more if the applied ac voltage is
increased.
ii. Hysteresis loss will be more if the applied ac voltage is increased.

8.2.5 Choice of Frequency for Induction Heating

1. Size of the object

2. Permeability
3. Depth of penetration
4. Resistivity of material
5. Thermal conductivity

8.2.6 Advantages of Induction Heating

Induction heating is superior to the conventional methods of heating used in industry. The chief

advantages of induction heating are as follows:

i. The heat is concentrated near the surface of the workpiece. This characteristic is
useful in surface hardening of steel.
ii. The rate of heating the workpiece is very high. It is of the order of 0.5 W/m2.
iii. The extent of the heating surface can be controlled rigidly, resulting in less wastage
of heat.
iv. The heat transferred to the workpiece can be controlled by electronic timers.
v. Induction heating of metals can be satisfactorily done in vacuum, or in an inert gas
or any other gas.
vi. The temperature of the workpiece can be controlled accurately by automatic means.
vii. Relatively unskilled personnel may be used for operation of the induction heating
equipment.

8.2.7 Applications of Induction Heating

Some of the industrial applications of high frequency induction heating are as follows:

i. Surface hardening of steel

ii. Annealing of brass and bronze items
iii. Soldering or brazing of copper
iv. Melting of metals.

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8.2.8 Surface Hardening of Steel or Surface Heating of a Small Cylindrical Rod

Fig. 8.2(a) Surface heating of a small cylindrical rod.

8.2.9 Source of High Frequency Power Supply for Induction Heating

Fig. 8.2(b) Source of high frequency power supply for induction heating.

8.3 DIELECTRIC HEATING

1. Electronic Theory of Dielectric Heating

2. Principle of Operation of Dielectric Heating
3. Dielectric Heating in Materials of Irregular Shapes
4. Limitations of the Use of Extremely High Frequency for Dielectric Heating
5. Effect of Variation of Voltage of the Power Supply on Dielectric Heating
6. Effect of Variation of Frequency of the Power Supply on Dielectric Heating
7. Applications of Dielectric Heating
8. Source of High Frequency Power Supply for Dielectric Heating

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Describe the four types of dielectric heating among eight dielectric heating.

1. Dielectric Heating in Materials of Irregular Shapes

In irregular-shaped dielectrics, uniform heating can be achieved by designing

the shape of an electrode in such a way so as to get the same voltage gradient
throughout. This is achieved by making the electrodes into sections and introducing air
gaps in between sections, and the material at thin sections. Non-uniform heating occurs
at the edges owing to fringing effect of the electric field. To reduce the non-uniform
heating at the edges, it is desirable to use electrodes somewhat larger than the material
to be heated.

2. Limitations of the Use of Extremely High Frequency for Dielectric Heating

For maximum power transfer, the output impedance of the high frequency
source must equal the impedance of the inter-electrodes which keeps on varying with
the change in frequency. The impedance of the workpiece also varies with the change
in mass of the same material or with different materials having the same mass. As there
is a fixed frequency for a particular workpiece and a particular voltage, therefore, the
power transfer can be maximum. It is practically not possible to have different sources
for different workpieces. Therefore, additional units of electrical capacitance or
inductance must be used either in series or in parallel or a combination of both with the
workpiece in order to match the load impedance with that of the source.

3. Effect of Variation of Voltage of the Power

Supply on Dielectric Heating To achieve high heating rates, it is always

desirable to use a high voltage since dielectric loss is directly proportional to the square
of the applied voltage. However, the magnitude of the applied voltage is limited by the
breakdown voltage of the thin dielectric which is to be heated. Breakdown voltage of a
dielectric is further influenced by the moisture content of the dielectric and the
mechanical stresses to which the dielectric is subjected. Corona at high voltage is
another limiting factor. As such, under normal conditions the voltage gradient used is
limited to 0.18 kV/m.

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 4. Effect of Variation of Frequency of the Power Supply on Dielectric Heating

The choice of frequency depends upon the loss factor of the dielectric. Higher
frequencies are used for dielectrics having low loss factor K' (= Krd). As the capacitive
current iC increases with increase in frequency resulting in low phase angle d of the
dielectric, it is apparent that the dielectric loss is proportional to the frequency of the
power supply. To obtain maximum power output from the supply oscillator, the
impedance of the oscillator should match with that of the load. By increasing the
frequency of the resonant circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, the load
impedance decreases. So, initial matching does not exist. Hence it becomes essential to
incorporate a special matching circuit at higher frequencies. The higher frequencies
may disturb the nearby radio station services because of interference caused by
electromagnetic radiation. Hence special care should be taken to ensure that no
radiation is emitted into the atmosphere.

Some uses of dielectric heating are as follows:

i. Gluing of wood
ii. Preheating of plastic preform
iii. Sewing of plastic films
iv. Food processing
v. Diathermy

EXAMPLE 8.1

A slab of insulating material 0.015 m2 in area and 0.01 m in thickness has relative permittivity
of 5 and power factor of 0.05 and is to be heated by dielectric heating. The power required is
400 W at 30 MHz Determine the voltage required and the resulting current that will flow
through the material. If the voltage were to be limited to 650 V, what would be the value of the
frequency for the same power requirement?

Solution;

Area of the slab, A = 0.015m2

Thickness of the slab, d = 0.01 m

Relative permittivity. Kr = 5

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Power factor, cos f = 0.05 (leading)

Power required, i.e. dielectric loss, P = 400W

Frequency of the supply, f = 30MHz

Absolute permittivity, K0 =8.85 10-12 F/m

Capacitance of the dielectric is given by

𝐴𝐾0 𝐾𝛾
C= 𝐹
𝑑

0.015 ×(8.85 ×10−12 )×5

= 0.01

= 66.375 pF

Capacitive reactance is given by

1 1
Xc = =
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝐶

1
= 2𝜋 × 30 ×106 × 66.375 ×10−12

= 79.93Ω

Now,

𝑖𝐶 𝜈𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝐶
tan f = = 𝜈𝑖𝑛 = 𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑖𝑅
𝑅

or,

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
R= = tan∅ × 79.93
𝜔𝐶

𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 0.9975
= 19.95 × 79.93 = 1594.6 Ω (∵ tan∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = = 19.95)
0.05

Power required is given by

2
𝑣𝑖𝑛
P= 𝑅

or
2
𝑣𝑖𝑛
400 =
1594.6

Hence the voltage is given by

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 vin = √400 × 1594.6 = 799 volts

Capacitance current is given by

𝑣𝑖𝑛
iC = 𝑋𝐶

799
= 79.93 = 9.99A

Leakage current is given by

𝑣𝑖𝑛
iR = 𝑅

799
= 1594.6 = 0.5A

Therefore, the total current is given by

i = √𝑖𝑅2 + 𝑖𝑐2

= √0.52 + 9.992 = 10A

If the voltage were to be limited to 650 volts, then

2
𝜈𝑖𝑛
R= 𝑃

6502
= = 1056.25W
400

Now,

tan f = wCR

or,

19.95 = 2pf □ 66.375 □ 10-12 □ 1056.25

Therefore, the frequency for the same power requirement = 45.3 MHz

EXAMPLE 8.2

A wooden board 40cm □ 20cm □ 2cm is to be heated from 15°C to 170°C in 8 minutes by
dielectric heating. The frequency of supply is 30 MHz. Specific heat, density and relative
permittivity of wood are 0.35 cal/g □ ℃,0.00055kg/cm3 and 5, respectively. Power factor is
0.05. Estimate the voltage across the specimen during heating. Assume the loss of energy by
conduction, convection and radiation to be 10%.

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Solution;

Specific heat of wood, s = 0.35 cal/g □ ℃

Density of wood, s = 0.00055 kg/cm3

Permittivity of wood, Kr = 5

Power factor, cos f = 0.05 (leading)

Initial temperature, t1 =15℃

Final temperature, t2 = 170℃

Time required, t = 8 min = 8/60 h

The weight of board, w = (40 □ 20 □ 2) 0.00055 =0.88kg

Heat required to raise the temperature from 15°C to 170°C is

H = ws (t2 – t1)

= 0.88 □ 0.35 □ (170 – 15) = 47.74kcal

Therefore, the power required

P = 0.055/ (8/60) =0.055 □ (6/8) = 0.4125kW = 412.5W

Since the loss of energy by conduction, convection, and radiation is 10%, the actual power
input from the source will be (412.5/0.9), i.e. 458.33 W.
Capacitance of the specimen is given by

𝐴𝐾0 𝐾𝛾
C= 𝐹
𝑑

(40 ×20 ×10−4 )( 8.85 ×10−12)×5

= = 177pF
0.02

Since the power factor, cos f = 0.05, the phase angle d is given by

d =90°- f = 90 – 87.13 = 2.87°

Now the power is given by

2
P = 𝜈𝑖𝑛 𝑤 𝐶 tan 𝑑

Or

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 2
458.33 = 𝜈𝑖𝑛 □ 2p □ 30 □ 106 □ 177 □ 10-12 tan 2.87

Therefore, the voltage across the specimen is

𝜈𝑖𝑛 = 524.13V

8.3.9 Differences between Induction Heating and Dielectric Heating

The differences between induction heating and dielectric heating are as follows:

Induction Heating Dielectric Heating

Induction heating is caused by eddy currents Dielectric heating depends on the
in imperfect dielectrics. electrostatic effect.
The operating frequencies are of the order of The operating frequencies range from 1 MHz
200 kHz to 500 kHz to 50 MHz.
Induction heating is termed surface heating. Dielectric heating is termed volume heating.
The cost of equipment required is low The cost of equipment required is
comparatively high.

8.4.1 Theory of Resistance Welding

𝑡
H = 0.24 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 cal

where,

r is the resistance of the entire circuit, in W

i is the instantaneous current, in A

t is the duration of welding, in s

8.4.2 Classification of Resistance Welding

Electrical resistance welding can be divided into:

• Spot welding
• Seam welding
• Butt welding
• Flash butt welding
• Projection welding

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Spot welding

Fig. 8.7 Spot welding: (a) basic arrangement and (b) water cooling arrangement.

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