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The Optimal Position of a Motorcyclist - CFD and Experimental Approach

Experiment Findings · May 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.12121.62560

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 The Optimal Position of a Motorcyclist – CFD And
Experimental Approach
Steffan Caines
Zienkiewicz Centre for Computational Engineering Centre
College of Engineering
Swansea University
Swansea UK
830089@swansea.ac.uk
Abstract—Motorcycles have a relatively small frontal area in
comparison to other motor vehicles however they are still
considered to be very poor aerodynamically. This paper discusses
not only the aerodynamic performance of a motorcycle but also
how a motorcyclist and their positioning effects it. This paper uses
two approaches to investigate and establish the optimal position of
a motorcyclist. The first method is using CFD simulations where a
motorcycle and motorcyclist were modelled in Solidworks and put
through various flow simulations to calculate aerodynamic values.
The second method is the use of a wind tunnel, where a scaled
version of the motorcycle and motorcyclist were put through
several wind tunnel tests to again calculate appropriate
aerodynamic values.
I. INTRODUCTION
There are currently over 200 million motorcycles in use
worldwide [1] and this number continues to grow. Motorcycles
have been travelling along the face of the Earth since 1885 and
it was in this year that German engineers Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach invented the first ever gas engine motorcycle.
The motorcycle was simply a wooden bicycle with a one-
cylinder Otto cycle engine attached to it [2].
As time has progressed, so has the development of
motorcycles. Modern day motorcycles not only look more
impressive, but due to considerable engineering advancements
over time, their performance as a whole has improved
dramatically. It has been over 130 years since the motorcycle
was invented, however regardless of the continued
developments and improvements in this time, a realistic solution
as to how to make motorcycles aerodynamically sound is yet to
be found. Unlike cars and other motor vehicles, motorcycles are
inherently very poor when it comes to the aerodynamics [3],
regardless of their shape or size they continue to be
aerodynamically weak. The average car has a drag coefficient of
around 0.3, however a motorcycle ridden by a professional
motorcyclist in a crouched down position has a drag coefficient
of 0.5 [3]. This demonstrates the poor aerodynamic performance
of a motorcycle. The reason for motorcycles being so bad
aerodynamically is solely due to the motorcyclist. When looking
at the aerodynamics of a car, for example, the driver is inside the
car and therefore does not disrupt any airflow. Motorcyclists,
however, are positioned on the bike and are exposed to the
airflow. Therefore, when the motorcycle is travelling, the
airflow is quickly disturbed by the motorcyclist and this causes
very large air turbulence. As previously discussed, over the last
130 years there has been a limited amount of progress in the
aerodynamic competence of motorcycles. This can largely be
attributed to the motorcyclist disrupting smooth air flow and the
lack of clean laminar air. Regardless of advancements and
changes in motorcycles intended to improve aerodynamics, the
presence of and positioning of a motorcyclist will continue to
negatively impact the aerodynamics.
Due to the motorcyclist being the main factor as to why
motorcycles aren’t aerodynamically sound [4], it is very
important that the motorcyclist does as much as it can to help.
This project will investigate and discuss whether or not the
position of the motorcyclist can improve the aerodynamic
efficiency of a motorcycle and furthermore use the
methodological results to find the optimal position of a
motorcyclist. This project will not only include information on
the motorcyclist’s optimal position but it will also compare
values to a similar test found online [5]. Within this project there
will be a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) approach,
where CFD simulations will be run on a model of a motorcycle
and motorcyclist, recording aerodynamic values. As well as a
CFD approach, there will be a Wind Tunnel approach, where a
scaled model of a motorcycle and motorcyclist will again be
tested to discover aerodynamic values. These will also aid hand
calculations which will be needed to calculate various values
such as the coefficient of drag. The results and data will be
analysed and compared to draw a conclusion on how the
positioning of a motorcyclist affects the aerodynamics of a
motorcycle and most importantly, confirming the optimal
position of a motorcycle rider.
The defining purpose of this report is to investigate how a
motorcyclist’s position on a motorcycle can affect and impact
one of the key aerodynamic parameters which is the coefficient
of drag 𝐶𝐷 .
II. AERODYNAMICS
A. Motorcycle Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is defined as the study of the way in which a
solid object moves through the air [6]. Any object that is moved
through the air, or is subjected to air moving over its body will
face the concept of aerodynamics.
 Just like any other vehicle, aerodynamics plays a substantial
role in the production and use of motorcycles. Unlike any other
motor vehicle, however, the size and shape of both the
motorcycle and motorcyclist affects the aerodynamic values of Airflow
lift and drag. At medium to high speeds, the drag and lift
produced by a motorcycle has a significant effect on its
performance and fuel efficiency as the majority of a Figure 2. Flow around a tear drop shape with a steep angle.
motorcycles’ engines power is used to counteract these forces
[7]. Even at low speeds the drag and lift produced by a
motorcycle affects its controllability and stability [5]. This is a
lot more multifaceted on motorcycles as unlike cars for example, Airflow
it is not self-balanced and yaw, pitch and roll occur. Yaw, pitch
and roll, as well as the lift force acting on the front wheel of a
motorcycle can lead to a number of complications with the
control and stability [5]. Controlling the stability of a Figure 3. Air flow around an aerodynamically bad shape
motorcycle is just as important as managing the drag produced,
as a motorcycle with bad stability can put a motorcyclist at a [5]
serious risk, especially if encountering side winds or travelling
around a corner or bend. It is for these reasons motorcycles are so bad
aerodynamically. The flow is steady and relatively laminar up
until it reaches the motorcyclist, then due to the sudden change
B. Drag in surface area the air separates from the motorcycle and
Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes on a motorcyclist causing a massive wake and turbulent flow as
motorcycles motion through the air. There are two types of drag shown in figure 4. With an aeroplane wing or car, this sudden
that act against a motorcycle and motorcyclist; pressure drag change in cross sectional area is a lot less and the gradient after
and skin fiction drag. These two types of drag accumulate to the frontal area is a lot more gentle meaning the air flow is more
give the total drag [5]. attached to their surfaces and the resulting wake is smaller, thus
less drag generated.
Pressure drag is the biggest thief of a motorcycles power
and is the main type of drag that acts against a motorcycle and
motorcyclist [5]. Pressure drag is caused by differences in
pressure, with the pressure at the front surfaces being
compressed and the pressure at the back surfaces not being
compressed but spaced out [8]. This difference in pressure is
caused when the layers of clean laminar air separate from the
surface. When the laminar air is separated from the surface
Figure 4. Solidworks CFD flow simulation showing air flow around a
there is a sudden change in the flow and it begins to swirl, this
motorcycle and motorcyclist.
is the wake and its size is proportional to the drag force [5]. The
drag force is produced as the air particles are acting on the front Skin friction drag is a drag caused by the friction of a
surface more than the back surface. The size and shape of an moving object and the fluid it moves through. Near to the
object impacts its aerodynamics massively. An example of a surface of an object the air does not act like an ideal gas, this is
good aerodynamic shape is that that represents a tear drop with due to internal friction which is caused by viscosity [9]. As an
a gentle angle after the frontal surface. This is due to the air object moves through the air, the air particles which are located
finding it easier to follow the shapes surface meaning the in the layer closest to the objects surface strike with the objects
resulting wake will be small hence less drag, this is show in surface. At this surface, the moving air particles completely
figure 1. This shape is a popular shape and is used for aeroplane stop and are equal to the velocity of the object. These air
wings. If the tear drop shape has a steep angle after the frontal particles then collide with air particles just outside of that layer
surface, early separation from the surface will occur resulting which makes them slow down, these particles then collide with
in a bigger wake and more drag as shown in figure 2. A cuboid the air particles next to them and this happens to a number of
is an example of a shape which is bad aerodynamically. This is layers close to the objects surface. As you get further away from
because the air separates from the surface very quickly meaning the surface, the air will be less and less affected. At the surface
there will be a very large wake and hence large amounts of drag, of the object, the velocity of air particles is equal to the velocity
as seen in figure 3. of the object and as you get further away the velocity of air
particles is equal to that of the surrounding air. This layer
between both where the collisions occur is known as the
Airflow
boundary layer [10]. Skin friction drag acts on a motorcycle just
like it would on any other object. The best way to reduce skin
Figure 1. Clean laminar flow around a tear drop shape with a gentle angle.
friction drag would be to keep surfaces as smooth as possible
which can be achieved with the motorcycle but not so much
with the motorcyclist due to clothing, although wearing tight
smooth clothing like cyclists would reduce friction drag a small
amount.
Drag is defined as:
1
𝐹𝐷 = ∗ 𝐶𝐷 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉 2 (1)
2
Where, 𝐹𝐷 = Drag Force
𝐶𝐷 = Drag coefficient
𝐴 = Frontal area of motorcycle
𝜌 = Density of air
𝑉 = The speed the motorcycle is travelling at
[11]
From the drag equation (eq1) it shows that there are number
of factors that affect the drag force. The relationship between
drag and frontal area is directly proportional. If the frontal area
of a vehicle halves, the drag force produced also halves. If the
frontal area doubles, the drag force produced doubles. Due to
this, it is very important to have a frontal area as small as
possible. When a human is sat on a motorcycle, the frontal area
increases a great deal, thus meaning there will be more drag. If
a human is sitting on a motorcycle sitting up right, the frontal
area will be a lot larger than the frontal area if he/she was
crouched down with his/her back parallel to the seat. This
indicates that a motorcyclists positioning on the motorcycle is
important to reducing drag and increasing fuel efficiency. The
drag force is proportional to the square of the motorcycles
velocity hence an increase in speed, increases the drag a great
amount, especially at high speeds.
In aerodynamics the coefficient of drag is a dimensionless
quantity that measures the resistance of a body in a fluid or air
environment. It is always related with a specific surface area.
The coefficient of drag is defined as:
2∗𝐹
𝐶𝐷 = 𝜌∗𝐴∗𝑉 2
(2)
The surface area (A) can be simply defined for vehicles such as
a car or aeroplane, but for motorcycles the surface area becomes
a little more complicated as the area changes depending on the
sitting position of the motorcycle. Due to this, a reference area
is made and used for the area in (eq2). For this reason, a
parameter 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 is introduced, this parameter is the coefficient
of drag multiplied by the frontal surface area and is measured
in the same units as the area,( 𝑚2 ). Coefficient of drag is useful
for comparing how the various drag values affect the coefficient
of drag but it ignores a main factor of drag- the frontal surface
area, as a reference area is used rather than the actual frontal
area. 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 takes the frontal surface area into consideration and
the higher the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴, the higher the drag value. If two objects
have the same 𝐶𝐷 , the object with the lowest frontal surface area
will produce the least drag. This can be shown in the drag
formula (eq1).
C. Lift
A motorcycles various masses can be grouped together in to
one exact point called the Centre of Gravity (CoG). This can
also be done for the forces acting on a motorcycle. There is one
point where these forces are applied to and that is known as the
Centre of Pressure (CP). The horizontal component will
represent the drag force and the vertical components will
represent a downward force or lift. Motorcycle lift can be very
dangerous. The Centre of Pressure of a motorcycle is normally
in front of and above the Centre of Gravity causing lift to act on
the front wheel which can be dangerous due to it reducing the
load on the wheels and minimising the grip between the road
and tyres [12]. This can be seen in Figure 5. This can also
happen to the rear wheels if the lift Centre of Pressure point is
behind the Centre of Gravity. Due to most motorcycles
generating lift at the front wheel, fairings are designed to
counter this force and keep lift force to a minimum, keeping the
motorcycle in balance.
Sum of total forces acting
Centre of Gravity
through centre of pressure
(CoG)
(CoP)
Figure 5. Diagram showing that if the Centre of Pressure is in front of the Centre
of Gravity lift will occur on the front wheel. [13]
III. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD)
A. Introduction to CFD
Computational Fluid Dynamics is the use of computational
software along with physics and mathematics to simulate
realistic fluid or gas flows as well as showing how a gas or
liquid effects an object as it flows past [14]. CFD is used by
many engineers around the world. It is not only used to describe
the flow around a vehicle but also used for numerous other
reasons such as predicting heat exchange and predicting
pressure distributions. It is even used in the biomedical industry
to measure the flow of breathing, blood and any other fluid or
gas that travels through the human body [15].
CFD is based on the governing equations of fluid dynamics,
which are the conservation laws of momentum, energy and
mass. The conservation laws of momentum and mass are the
Navier-Stokes equations in CFD. The Navier-Stoke equations
describe how temperature, velocity, density and pressure of a
fluid are related [16]. The Navier-Stokes equations comprises
of a time dependent conservation of momentum equation in
three directions X, Y and Z, and a time dependent conservation
of mass continuity equation. These four equations can be seen
at this site [16].
These four equations are Partial Differential Equations and
are too difficult to solve theoretically so computers are used.
Computational Fluid Dynamics is the principle of discretizing
these equations and solving them using discretization methods
such as Finite Element Method, Finite Volume Method and
Finite Difference Method [16].
Solidworks Flow Simulation was used in this project to
carry out CFD simulations on the motorcycle. Solidworks uses
both the Finite Element Method and Finite Volume Method
[17] but in this investigation Finite Volume Method was used
as the Finite Element Method is usually used on basic
rectangular or square models and not complex models like a
motorcycle. Finite Volume Method splits the CAD model into
small non-overlapping cells called control volumes, this is the
mesh. The governing equations are integrated over each of the
cells balancing the fluxes across the boundaries of each control
volumes, these integrations give algebraic equations. The
algebraic equations are then solved to give dependent variable
values for each control volume. The flux entering a volume is
identical to the flux leaving the adjacent volume [18].
B. Benefits and drawbacks of using CFD
CFD is usually used if it is difficult or too expensive to test
via experiments. With CFD a real life object is not needed,
instead only a CAD model is needed, this is the main reason as
to why CFD is so popular. If you have a model that needs any
sort of alterations after each test, CFD is a lot more efficient to
use as it is a lot faster and easier to modify a CAD model than
it is to modify a real life model. This meaning that CFD can
save a lot of time and money. When designing CAD models it
is possible to model real life sizes, this diminishes any scaling
issues which can occur if testing large models such as
aeroplanes. CFD is usually more adjustable at accounting for
the unique features of each project. There are a lot of tests which
can be very difficult to carry out in wind tunnels but simple in
CFD, an example of this is chemical reactions and radiation
tests. High performing computers are needed to run complex
CFD simulations and these can be relatively expensive but this
is still a lot cheaper than using a wind tunnel. Unfortunately, the
complexity of the model being tested can lead to inaccuracy in
the results and reports have shown that results from CFD
simulations can differ even if using the same computational
domain and inputs. To limit these differences, thorough
knowledge of CFD, atmospheric initialisation and meshing is
needed. Even with high performing computers, CFD
simulations and meshing can take a very long time depending
on the detail and complexity of the design. CFD simulations can
be very accurate but they are never 100% reliable, mostly due
to the computing power limiting the accuracy of the results and
the input data having too many estimated values [19].
IV. WIND TUNNEL
A. Introduction to Wind Tunnel testing
Wind tunnels are a very important experimental method of
studying aerodynamics. A wind tunnel studies the effect of air
on an object and reflects how the object would behave in the
real world. Wind tunnels were initially invented to test
aircrafts, but this method was quickly adopted by many other
engineering industries to test a wide range of objects/vehicles.
Testing vehicles or parts of vehicles are the main use of wind
tunnels but they are even used to test non-automotive objects
such as cricket balls and buildings. There are two main types of
wind tunnels and these are an open return wind tunnel and a
closed return wind tunnel. The open return tunnel gathers air
from the room it is located in and sends it through the test
section, whereas in a closed return tunnel the air is led through
ducts from the exit of the wind tunnel back to the contraction
section (front of the wind tunnel). These two types of wind
tunnels can then be split in to three sub-types depending on the
velocity which is required. These three types are; Subsonic
wind tunnels which are used for objects being tested at
velocities below Mach 1, Supersonic wind tunnels which are
used for testing objects at speeds greater than Mach 1 and
Hypersonic wind tunnels which are used for testing objects that
require speeds between Mach 5 and Mach 15 [20]. The wind
tunnel used in this investigation was a subsonic open return
tunnel.
Figure 6. Labelled diagram of an open return wind tunnel. [20]
Wind tunnels have powerful fans to move air continuously
past an object being tested in the test section. Engineers have
control of the wind tunnel and can set the flow conditions to
what they like. For a small subsonic wind tunnel, the quantity
of air in the tunnel is constant. The conservation of mass can
be used to relate the velocity in the tunnel to the area (cross
sectional). At every location in the wind tunnel the following
equation is true:
𝜌 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (3)
The density in the tunnel remains constant throughout meaning
we can simplify (eq3) and any two places in the wind tunnel can
be described by:
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 (4)
This shows that by decreasing the area, the velocity is increased
[20]. It is for this reason that small subsonic wind tunnels follow
the Venturi effect and have the test area to have the smallest
cross sectional area.
The aerodynamic forces acting on the model being tested
are measured by beam balances which are connected to the
model by cables or a beam. When the air acts on the model, the
model will move slightly resulting in the beam balancer to be
moved. This movement determines the aerodynamic values
such as drag.
B. Benefits and drawbacks of using a wind tunnel height in the United Kingdom [23]. The motorcyclist was
The main benefit of using a wind tunnel is that it is very designed to have joints like a real human, so the limbs of the
accurate and almost always more accurate than CFD. A wind motorcyclist could be rotated easily, meaning different
tunnel does not depend on the complexity of the geometry so positions could be achieved and the same model could be used
whether the model being tested is complex or basic, the throughout the simulations.
accuracy will be the same. Unlike CFD, supercomputers are not
needed and hours long simulations don’t need to be run. If a
user does not have access to a large wind tunnel, scaling may
be needed. Scaling a model adds a lot of complexity as this
changes its aerodynamic characteristics. A lot of work has to be
done to match the Reynolds Number of the scaled model to the
real size model. In some wind tunnels this is not possible as they
Figure 7. Solidworks CAD model used for testing
may have relatively low max speeds and may not be able to
change the density of the air. Unfortunately, wind tunnels are
Seven different rider positions were tested on Solidworks and
very expensive. It is only big companies and universities who
at two different speeds; 40 m/s and 20 m/s. The riding positions
tend to have wind tunnels, especially large wind tunnels [19].
varied from 90 degrees (rider sitting completely upright) to 5
V. TESTING degrees (rider crouched down as far as possible). The goal of
the tests was to find the drag values for different riding
A. Testing introduction positions. These drag values could then be used to calculate the
As previously stated, two methods were used in this 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 for each position. The rider’s position angle was
investigation to calculate aerodynamic values of a motorcycle determined by measuring the angle between the motorcyclist’s
with a motorcyclist at different positions. The first being the use torso and the seat as shown in Figure 8. The flow simulation
of CFD, the second being conducting an experiment using a used air as the gas and the thermodynamic parameters were;
wind tunnel. Two different motorcycles were used to make sure 101325 Pa pressure and 293.2 K temperature. These were used
the pattern of the results was for motorcycles in general and not as they are realistic values and best represent a real life
just for a specific motorcycle. In both tests the motorcyclists atmosphere. A relatively fine mesh was used to ensure the
had no clothing or helmet on as this added complexity to results were as accurate as possible.
designing them and finding a model rider with clothes on. This
information is relevant as the presence of clothing and a helmet
can further hinder the aerodynamic performance.

In the CFD tests the motorcycle used was a KTM RC 200.

This is a sports motorcycle and was manufactured by KTM in
2014. It has a mass of 154 kg when dry, contains a four-stroke,
liquid-cooled engine and can reach top speeds of 144 km/h or
40 m/s. The dimensions of the motorcycle are; height 1098 mm, Figure 8. Diagram showing how the riders sitting angle was determined
width 688 mm and length 1978 mm [21]. The motorcycle used
in the wind tunnel testing was a slightly different model named To calculate the Reynolds Number of the CFD tests the
KTM RC 390. This is also a four-stroke, liquid-cooled engine reference length was the height of the motorcycle; 1.098 m. The
but it weighs a little less at 147 kg dry and can reach a greater Reynolds Number for the 20 m/s and 40 m/s tests were as
top speed of 169 km/h or 47 m/s. Even though the motorcycle follows:
𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(20)(1.098)
weighs less than the KTM RC 200 the motorcycle is bigger. The 𝑅𝑒 = = −5 = 1486243.1 (5)
𝜇 1.81∗10
dimensions of the motorcycle are; height 1267 mm, width 873 𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(40)(1.098)
mm and length 2002mm [22]. 𝑅𝑒 = = = 2972486.2 (6)
𝜇 1.81∗10−5
When calculating the 𝐶𝐷 of the motorcycle, the reference area
used was the frontal area of the motorcycle with no
B. CFD Tests motorcyclist. This was measured on Solidworks by making a
The motorcycle model and motorcyclist were designed on sketch around the front area of the motorcycle and using the
Solidworks. The motorcycle was designed to be the exact size measure tool to calculate the area in 𝑚2 . The reference area
as the real life motorcycle so no scaling was needed. Every used was 0.5 𝑚2 .
external part of the motorcycle was carefully looked at to
attempt to make the Solidworks model as realistic and accurate
as possible. Many internal parts of the motorcycle were left out 0.5 𝑚2
due to the simulations being run on the external bodies only,
therefore the internal bodies would not impact the testing. The
motorcyclist was designed and dimensioned with a height of
1750 mm. This height was chosen as this is the average male Figure 9. Frontal reference area of the motorcycle
After the 𝐶𝐷 was calculated, these values were then multiplied
by the real frontal area of the motorcycle with the motorcyclist
on it, this gave a 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 value for each motorcyclist riding
position. These values were compared to a similar test found
online [5].
C. Wind Tunnel
The motorcycle tested in the wind tunnel was an exact
scaled down version of the KTM RC 390. The scale was 1:12
and had the same shape and features as a real life KTM RC 390.
The model had a height of 105.6 mm, width of 72.8 mm and a
length of 166.8 mm. The motorcyclist had fully adjustable
limbs so its position could be easily altered. It had a height of
140 mm which is almost the United Kingdom’s average male
height when scaled up by a factor of 12. Four different positions
were tested, 90̊, 60̊, 30̊ and 5̊. These positions were tested at
three different speeds, 10 m/s, 20 m/s and 30 m/s. The local
temperature and pressure were gathered from a data logger
instrument and these were; 100395 Pa pressure and 294.55 K
Temperature, these values were inserted in to the computer to
be used as the thermodynamic parameters of the wind tunnel.
To make the test as accurate as possible, it was suggested that
the blockage must be lower than 10%. Blockage is calculated
by dividing the frontal area of the model being tested by the
frontal area of the wind tunnel testing section. The blockage for
the test was around 0.5% so it was acceptable for the motorcycle
to be tested in a wind tunnel of that size.
An AF100 Subsonic wind tunnel was used to carry out the
test. The wind tunnel had a honeycomb grid inlet at the entrance
of the wind tunnel to help the incoming air to be as uniform as
possible to provide a more laminar flow rather than a turbulent
flow. The fan was positioned at the outlet of the wind tunnel
rather than the inlet, this meant the pulsations of the fan blades
did not influence the working area where the model was tested.
The wind tunnel had a glass testing area which allowed for
viewing. As the wind tunnel had only been used for aerofoils in
the past, a connection bar needed to be designed and built to
attach the motorcycle to the wind tunnel. Engineering drawings
were made and the connection bar was manufactured. Figure 10
shows a drawing of the part which was made.
Bar Rod
Figure 10. Engineering drawing of the connection bar
As shown in Figure 10, the part was made up of two
components, a base and a rod. The base had three holes in it so
it could be screwed to a beam balancer underneath the wind
tunnel. The beam balancer was pushed back when the
motorcycle was pushed back by the air, this is how the drag was
measured. The rod was attached to the motorcycle and was
designed to be able to fit in to the base and be small enough to
fit through a small hole at the bottom of the wind tunnel. There
were two holes in the base, this was so that two screws could be
inserted and act as clamps to tighten the rod to the base. This
meant the rods height could be adjusted so that the motorcycles
position in the wind tunnel could be altered. The motorcycle
was positioned slightly higher than the wind tunnel floor, this
was so that the wheels could turn just like they would in real
life. Figure 11 shows how the motorcycle was attached to the
wind tunnel.
Base which is
screwed to the
beam balancer
Bar attached to
motorcycle
Beam balancer
Figure 11. Image showing how the motorcycle was attached to the wind
tunnel.
To calculate the Reynolds Number for the wind tunnel test
the reference length was the height of the model motorcycle;
0.0915 m. This was calculated as the model was an accurate
scaled down model of the real motorcycle, so the model height
was calculated by dividing the real sized height by 12. The
accuracy of the scaled model was checked by measuring the
scaled model and confirming it was 12 times smaller than the
real motorcycle. The Reynolds Number for the 10 m/s, 20 m/s,
30 m/s and 40 m/s tests were as follows:
𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(10)(0.0915)
𝑅𝑒 = = −5 = 61926.8 (7)
𝜇 1.81∗10
𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(20)(0.0915)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 123853.6 (8)
𝜇 1.81∗10−5
𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(30)(0.0915)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 185780.4 (9)
𝜇 1.81∗10−5
𝜌𝑉𝑙 (1.225)(40)(0.0915)
𝑅𝑒 = = = 247707.2 (10)
𝜇 1.81∗10−5
As shown in equations 7, 8, 9 and 10 the Reynolds Numbers are
a lot smaller than the Reynolds Numbers on the CFD tests. This
was because realistic speeds wanted to be run on the CFD tests
to get drag values which would occur in the real world. Due to
the Reynolds Numbers being so high in the CFD tests, to get a
similar value in the wind tunnel, a very high velocity or density
would be needed. Unfortunately, this was not possible as the
wind tunnel had a maximum speed of 30 m/s and the density
could not be altered.
To calculate the 𝐶𝐷 at each position, equation 2 was used. The
reference area used was again the frontal area of the motorcycle
with no motorcyclist on. To calculate this, the real motorcycle’s
front area was found, this was calculated to be approximately
0.68𝑚2 . The scaled version was then calculated by finding the
1:12 area of the fully sized motorcycle which was 0.0047𝑚2 .
The wind tunnel gave drag values and these were converted to
𝐶𝐷 values and then multiplied by the frontal area of the
motorcycle and motorcyclist at each of the four positions. These
𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values were compared to the CFD results and results from
the online test found at this site [5].
 VI. RESULTS A reference area of 0.5 𝑚2 was used. The drag and 𝐶𝐷 of each
position is shown for the both speeds in Table 1. The 𝐶𝐷 values
A. CFD Results
were then multiplied with the frontal area of the motorcycle
with the motorcyclist on it. This gave the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 for each position,
TABLE 1. DRAG AND 𝐶𝐷 VALUES AT EACH RIDING POSITION these values are shown in Table 2. Figure 12 is a graph showing
Angle Solidworks Drag Force (N) how increasing the riders position, increases the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 . This
(Deg) model
𝑪𝑫 graph was made as it gives a clear visual of how the riders
40 m/s 20 m/s
position affects the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴. Figure 13 was plotted as it gives a good
90 graphic of how both the rider’s position and speed affects the
drag.
430.20 104.84 0.88

75

411.4 100.98 0.84

60

384.04 90.74 0.78

45

334.19 80.98 0.68

Figure 12. Graph of rider’s position against 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
30

301.36 71.7 0.61

15

279.11 69.8 0.56

274.08 66.8 0.55

TABLE 2. 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 VALUES FOR EACH RIDING POSITION Figure 13. Graph of drag against rider position for 20 m/s and 40 m/s

Angle Area 𝑪𝑫 𝑨 In Section II it is said that pressure drag is produced by a

𝑪𝑫
(Deg) (𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒎𝟐 ) difference in pressure between the front and back of an object.
90 0.75 0.88 0.66 Two diagrams were made on Solidworks to show this
difference in pressure on a motorcyclist sitting at an angle of 90̊
75 0.72 0.84 0.60 and a motorcyclist sitting at an angle of 5̊. This is shown in
Figure 14.
60 0.68 0.78 0.53
45 0.65 0.68 0.44
30 0.60 0.61 0.37
15 0.58 0.56 0.32
5 0.55 0.55 0.30

As previously stated, the CFD tests were done to capture

drag values at the seven different riding positions. These drag
values were used to find the 𝐶𝐷 at each position, the 𝐶𝐷 values
were calculated using the 𝐶𝐷 equation, Equation 2 in Section II. Figure 14. Pressure Distribution on a motorcyclist at 90̊ and 5̊.
It is also stated in Section II that the size of the wake is directly TABLE 4. DRAG AND 𝐶𝐷 VALUES FOR FULL SIZE MOTORCYCLE
proportional to the amount of drag produced. Figure 15 shows AND MOTORCYCLIST
the wake sizes for a motorcyclist sitting at 90̊ and 5̊.
Rider Drag (N)
Position 𝑪𝑫
(deg) 30 m/s 20 m/s 10 m/s
90 286.46 127.32 31.83 0.76
60 262.40 116.62 29.16 0.70

Figure 15. Vector plot for a motorcyclist at 90̊ and 5̊. 30 235.38 104.62 26.15 0.61
5 212.23 94.325 23.58 0.55
B. Wind Tunnel Results
Values from Table 4 were used to plot a graph of the drag values
TABLE 3. DRAG VALUES PRODUCED BY WIND TUNNEL for the three different speeds, as shown in Figure 16.

Rider Drag (N)

position
(deg) 30 m/s 20 m/s 10 m/s
90 1.98 0.90 0.22
60 1.83 0.81 0.19
30 1.58 0.68 0.16
5 1.43 0.63 0.13

In the wind tunnel tests, due to a scale model being used, the
drag values had to be scaled up to what a real size model would Figure 16. Riders position against drag for various speeds.
produce. To achieve this, the 𝐶𝐷 for each position was
calculated using the 𝐶𝐷 equation (Equation 2), the reference Like the CFD tests, the 𝐶𝐷 of each position was multiplied by
area used in these calculations was the frontal area of the scaled the frontal area of the motorcycle and motorcyclist to give 𝐶𝐷 𝐴
motorcycle, 0.0047 𝑚2 . After the 𝐶𝐷 was found for each values. These values are shown in Table 5 and Figure 17.
position, the 𝐶𝐷 formula could be rearranged to give the drag
TABLE 5. 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 VALUES FOR EACH RIDING POSITION
equation (Equation 2). Due to 𝐶𝐷 being the same for a scaled
model as it would for a real size model, this 𝐶𝐷 could be used Angle Area 𝑪𝑫 𝑨
to find the drag values of each position and speed. To calculate 𝑪𝑫
(Deg) (𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒎𝟐 )
the real size motorcycles drag, the reference area used was the
frontal area of the full sized motorcycle, 0.68𝑚2 . An example 90 0.93 0.76 0.71
of the calculations used to get the wind tunnel drag value of the 60 0.86 0.70 0.60
model motorcycle to the drag values of the real size model are
shown below, this example is for speed 30 m/s and riding 30 0.78 0.61 0.48
position 90̊ where a drag value of 1.98N was recorded: 5 0.73 0.55 0.40
Velocity = 30 𝑚/𝑠
Scaled Model Frontal Area = 0.0047 𝑚2
Full Sized Model Frontal Area = 0.68 𝑚2
Wind Tunnel Drag Value = 1.98N

2𝐹𝐷 2(1.98)
𝐶𝐷 = = = 0.7642 (11)
𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 (1.225)(0.0047)(302 )
𝜌𝑉 2 (1.225)(30)2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 = (0.76)(0.68) = 286.46𝑁 (12)
2 2

Table 4 shows the drag and 𝐶𝐷 calculated by using the method

shown in Equations 11 and 12.

Figure 17. Graph of riders position against 𝐶𝐷 𝐴

C. Results Comparison
The results gathered from the wind tunnel tests and CFD tests
were compared with values from a similar test online. The data
can be found at this site [5]. The test online stated 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values
for a number of different motorcycles with a motorcycle in a
sitting position (60̊) and a crouched position (5̊). This data was
recorded and compared to the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values of the motorcyclist at
5̊ and 60̊ gathered from the wind tunnel test and the CFD tests.
Figure 18 and Figure 19 show how the CFD tests and wind
tunnel test compared to the online test with respect to 𝐶𝐷 𝐴.
Figure 18. 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values for different motorcycles with a motorcyclist at
60̊
Figure 19. 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values for different motorcycles with a motorcyclist at
5̊
VII. RESULTS DISCUSSION
The results obtained from both the wind tunnel and CFD
were very realistic when compared to a test online [5]. In Figure
18 the average 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 of all the motorcycles was 0.61𝑚2 . The
KTM RC 390 and KTM RC 200 were close to this average
meaning the results were sensible and accurate. In Figure 19, it
is shown that the KTM RC 390 has a very similar 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 value to
the majority of the motorcycle whereas the KTM RC 200 has a
slightly lower value. This is possibly down to the KTM RC 200
having a lower frontal area, this was not the case at 60̊ as the
majority of the frontal area was the motorcyclist. To summarise
the accuracy of both tests, the wind tunnel was very accurate,
whereas the CFD tests were relatively accurate but not quite as
accurate as the rest. This was expected due to the reasons
mentioned in Section III Part A and Section IV Part B.
As said in Section II Part A, the drag produced by a
motorcycle or any other object is directly linked to the size of
its frontal area and the velocity it is travelling at. In the CFD
tests the simulations were run at 20 m/s and 40 m/s. At 40 m/s
the drag values were a lot higher than the values produced at 20
m/s as seen in Figure 13. A motorcyclist travelling at 40 m/s
and at 5̊ produced more drag than a motorcyclist travelling at
20 m/s at 90̊. This is because the drag is proportional to the
square of the velocity unlike the frontal area which is directly
proportional to the drag. This was also shown in the wind tunnel
test, as the velocity increased, the drag produced increased
dramatically. Figure 16 shows that when a rider’s position is at
5̊, the drag produced at 30 m/s is 286.4N, this value is 800%
greater than the drag produced at 10 m/s (31.83N). This proves
that velocity has the biggest impact on the drag produced.
Even though velocity has the biggest influence on drag, the
frontal area also plays a big part. Table 1 gives a good visual as
to how the 𝐶𝐷 and drag decrease as the frontal area of the
motorcycle and motorcyclist decrease. This is due to there
being a greater difference in pressure between the frontal area
and the back of the motorcyclist. As seen in figure 14 there is a
larger area of high pressure at the front of the motorcyclist when
at 90̊ compared to 5̊, this results in more pressure drag acting on
the motorcycle. As the motorcyclist crouches down, the less
pressure drag is produced. Furthermore, when the motorcyclist
is at a position of 90̊ the size of the wake produced is a lot larger
than the wake produced at 5̊. This is due to the air finding it
more difficult to follow the shapes surface as there is a sudden
change in area, whereas at 5̊ the gradient of the motorcyclist is
a lot gentler meaning the air finds it a lot easier to follow the
motorcyclist surfaces resulting in a smaller wake and hence less
drag. At 5̊ the motorcyclist represents the tear shape in Figure 1
a lot more than at 90̊. Figure 15 shows how much larger the
wake is when the motorcyclist is at 90̊. This is a strong
representation of the wake in Figure 3, where the relatively
clean laminar air is quickly disrupted and turbulence is
produced. Figure 4 gives a visual as to how the laminar air is
quickly disrupted at a riding position of 90̊.
The aerodynamic parameter 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 is the best way of judging a
motorcycles ability of counteracting drag. It is evident from the
CFD tests that when a motorcyclist reduces its position, the
𝐶𝐷 𝐴 drastically decreases. In table 2 and Figure 12, it shows
that if the motorcyclist can crouch down as far as possible rather
than sitting upright, he/she can reduce the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 by over 50%
resulting in over 50% less drag. This can be proven by using the
drag equation (eq1) and using 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 instead of using 𝐶𝐷 and a
reference area. The wind tunnel test followed the same pattern,
the more the motorcyclist crouched down, the less it’s 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 was.
With the motorcyclist completely upright the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 was almost
double the value of 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 when fully crouched down. This all
shows the importance of maintaining a crouched down position
and reducing the frontal area as much as possible to reduce drag.
 Although motorcycles have a lower 𝐶𝐷 value than a car [4],
when the 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 values of both are compared it is clear that a
motorcycle will have a lower value and therefore will produce
less drag.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper shows that both an experimental and CFD
approach can be used to predict motorcycle aerodynamics and
to find the optimal position of a motorcyclist. Both approaches
are accurate but a wind tunnel test is the more accurate of the
two.
The positioning of a motorcyclist plays a big role in the
amount of drag produced. Although speed has the biggest
impact on drag, most motorcyclists will not want to travel at
very low speeds to prevent high drag. It is for this reason that
adjusting your sitting position can be a great way of reducing
drag. By sitting in a fully upright position, you will produce the
most drag possible and therefore more power will be required
resulting in more fuel being burnt. By crouching down and
minimising your frontal area this can reduce drag by a great
amount, hence the reason motorcycle racers adopt this position.
For casual motorcyclists who are not interested in racing or
reaching top speeds, a sitting up position may be preferred due
to it being more comfortable and drag may not be a worry to
them. Motorcycle racers or people who want to maximise their
fuel efficiency however should crouch and try to implement a
streamline position.
The results from both the CFD tests and experimental tests
have shown that the optimal position of a motorcyclist to reduce
drag, is to sit crouched down at an angle as close to 0̊ as
possible.
IX. FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS
An approximation method was used in this project to
calculate the frontal projected area of the scaled motorcycle
with the motorcyclist on it. To make the accuracy of the wind
tunnel test even closer to 100%, it is suggested that a CAD
model of the scaled motorcycle and motorcyclist is created.
This way an exact value of the frontal area can be calculated.
X. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges the support and would like to thank
Dr. Z. Jelic of Swansea University for his guidance and help
throughout this project and Mr. Jeremey Davies for his
guidance with setting up the wind tunnel.
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