Chola Bronze

Shiva Nataraja
Chola period, 11th - 12th century
Government Museum, Madras
 s 'Ananda-tandava'. 'Tandava'' is the dance that Shiva performs to dissolve but destruction being the forerunn
Shiva performs it with delight, and hence, the 'Ananda
Ananda-Tandava'. The Shiva's dance 'Tandava' is venerated in
as the most outstanding expression of the divine rhythm, ecstasy, energy and cosmic balance and harmony. A
s metaphysical tradition, 'Tandava' represents 'panchakrityas
panchakrityas' - five essential acts that Shiva performs: 'Srishti'
, 'Sthiti' - preservation, 'Samhara' - destruction, 'Tirobhava
Tirobhava' - veiling, and 'Anugraha' - grace, and it is this cosm
stitutes the central motif of Shiva's 'Tandava'.
d in deep copper tint the statue represents the king of dancers, as the term Nataraja means, with his right foo
e of Apasamarapurusha,, and the left, turned diagonally to right and flung into space with foot up in air denot
alvation. A circular 'prabhavali' or 'prabhamandala' - fire-arch:
fire a large ring with flames of fire bursting from its
ected over a lotus pedestal and a 'Kirti-mukha'' like form of lotus atop frames the divine dancer. There enshrin
ace a divine bearing and in its anatomy - unfurling locks of hair and various body parts, the ecstasy of dance.
arms of the figure are gesticulated in tune with the dance-move,
dance each has been conceived to reveal also its ind
and significance. In his upper right hand the figure is carrying a 'damaru'
' - double-drum representing the pow
, while the upper left, holds 'agni' - fire, denotative of the power of destruction the lower right hand reveals t
of 'abhaya' - redeeming from fear, and the lower left, the gesture known as 'dandahasta'
' or 'gajahasta' denoti
on.
arm of the lower right hand has around it a 'bhujanga-valayavalaya'. The 'jata-mukuta' that adorns the head of Lord
signed like a crown different in its look. It has been adorned with a snake, jewels, flowers, crescent and a hum
rgy waves that the friction of body moved in dance creates best reflect in 'jatas'' - locks of hair, unfurling horizo
de. The female figure on their right side is obviously the river goddess Ganga. Every alternate jata carries on it
of dhutura or arka,, or some other flower. Shiva is adorned with a pearl necklace, a 'yajnopavit',
' a 'uras-sutra' -
ngs in the hands, anklets, a 'makara-kundala'' on right ear and 'patra-kundala'
' on his left. Excellent anatomical
ons and well-defined
defined features define the image of the great Lord.
Period: Chola period (880–1279)
Date: ca. 11th century
Culture: Indian (Tamil Nadu)
Medium: Copper alloy
Dimensions: H. 26 7/8 in. (68.3 cm); Diam. 22 1/4 in. (56.5 cm)
Classification: Sculpture
As a symbol, Shiva Nataraja is a brilliant invention. It combines i
single image Shiva's roles as creator, preserver, and destroyer of
universe and conveys the Indian conception of the never-ending
never
of time. Although it appeared in sculpture as early as the fifth ce
its present, world-famous
world form evolved under the rule of the Ch
Shiva's dance is set within a flaming halo. The god holds in his u
right hand the damaru (hand drum that made the first sounds o
creation). His upper left hand holds agni (the fire that will destro
universe). With his lower right hand, he makes abhayamudra (th
gesture that allays fear). The dwarflike figure being trampled by
right foot represents apasmara purusha (illusion, which leads m
astray). Shiva's front left hand, pointing to his raised left foot, sig
refuge for the troubled soul. The energy of his dance makes his
to the sides. The symbols imply that, through belief in Shiva, his
devotees can achieve salvation.
Shiva Nataraja

Chola period, 11th - 12th century

Government Museum, Madras

Other Examples

This Nataraja lacks its aureole, but is a powerful example

nonetheless. Bronzes like this were typically meant to be
carried in festival processions of the god. Their bases usua
have handles or sockets for attachment to a movable platf
although none is visible in this photo.
Shiva Ardhanarishvara

Chola period, 11th century

Government Museum, Madras
Other Examples

Iconographically, attention is drawn to the right (male) and left (female

Iconographically
the body. Most obviously, the right breast is male (although full), the le
is female. The left side displays a gently rounded belly, feminine hip, an
leg encased in sheer "trousers;" the right leg is cocked and poised, its s
calf and thigh muscles shown off by "shorts." Differences, if any, betwe
right and left sides of the face are not evident in this photo. There are t
arms, the upper holding a southern "Shiva Axe," and a single left arm. T
right hand points towards - and thereby emphasizes - the masculine rig
while the left hand similarly gestures towards the left breast. (But the p
attributes, and numbers of arms can vary in this form - see for example
sculpture in Jaipur city palace.)
Artistically, male and female postures and physical forms have been co
very successfully in this statue. The image is well-known,
well and has been
reproduced in many art history books.
Interpretatively, the androgyne form of Shiva can be described in sever
(equivalent) ways:
Shiva+Parvati
Shiva+Shakti
Shiva+Devi
This form expresses the Godhead as the unity of the male an
female principles, an idea which we have also seen at Elepha
Although a true (metaphysical) unity is implied, such a conce
only be expressed in art by a physical union or joining.
India conceptualizes the male and female principles differen
than most other cultures. In India, the male principle is pass
female shakti is active. In China, as in the West, the male pri
(yang) is active and the female principle (yin) is passive. How
the additive cultures of the Far East, and unlike the West, th
polarity is nondualistic - an opposite which is not in oppositi

Male--female polarity with its associated categories (male/fe

hot/cold, active/passive, wet/dry, etc) is almost certainly a c
universal, but we have seen above that particular attributes
distributed across these categories in a culturally-specific
culturally wa
 This sculpture represents Shiva seated with his consort Uma (Parvati)
( and thei
Skanda (now missing) in the centre. This subject was especially popular in shri
the Pallava period (about 300-888
300 AD) and continued into the Chola period (a
850-1267
1267 AD) in processional icons.

Here the figures rest on a rectangular base with upright projections for the su
an arched-surround (‘prabha
prabha’) and rings for securing the image with cord duri
processional use. Both figures have a projecting disc (‘sirascakra’)
(‘ at the back o
head. This was used for hanging garlands during pujas (worship) and processio

Shiva sits majestically erect, displaying four arms. An antelope leaping from th
left arm has turned its head to look at Pasupati, ‘Lord of the Animals’. The upp
maskanda, Figure group hand has an axe (‘parasu
parasu’), similarly poised. The lower left is in ‘vitarka-mudra
adras, India (made) denoting Shiva as the expounder of subtle knowledge. The lower right hand is
te 10th century-early ‘abhaya-mudra’,
mudra’, bestowing protection.
1th century (made)
His ear-ornaments
ornaments are characteristically distinctive. The circular ear-lobe
ear plug
nknown, Copper kundala’)
’) on the left and the pendant ‘makara
‘ kundala’ on the right emphasis
dual nature. Parvati sits inclined towards Shiva, holding a lotus-bud
lotus in her righ
while her left hand bestows grace (‘varada-mudra’).
(‘
 th Uma and Skanda
th Uma and Skanda, 950-975, India: Tamil Nadu, Shivapuram,
Shivapuram bronze.
states that Vishnu, desirous of progeny, worshipped Shiva at Tiruvarur and that Shiva blessed him with a male
arvati,, who was enraged by the fact that Vishnu had not included her in his worship of Shiva, inflicted a curse
hnu's child would be burnt to death by Shiva. Upon realization of the curse, an aggrieved Vishnu created a com
eaturing Shiva, Uma and Skanda (Somaskanda,, symbolic of fertility) and offered worship to it. Parvati alleviate
aced on him stating that despite being burnt to death, Kama would live on to create the forces of attraction b
e and the female that would ensure the continuation of the human race.
son why Saiva poets brought in this concept is that during the 4th to 5th century, part of the Khalabra-ruled d
Nadu, Jainas and Buddhists were influential and they propagated the idea that celibacy was required to reach
d. Saivites thought that this was dangerous to the population and advocated that even householders can atta
To point out that even Shiva is a householder, they brought about the concept of Soma-Skanda-Uma.
Soma Somaska
were intended to emphasize the importance of the child in family life. The earliest stone versions dated from t
period in the 7th century, but the bronze sculptural groups did not appear until the medieval Chola period of t

he greatest patrons of tenth century Chola art was Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi. Widowed at a young age, she
her life as a dowager queen. From 941 until her death in 1006, she sponsored the building of numerous stone
out the Cholas’ realm. The bronze workshop that Queen Mahadevi established continued to produce some o
onic images of the Chola period, of which this sculpture is an example. The pattern of the fabric worn by Shiva
articulated by bands of circles, triangles and scrolls, is identical to images attributed to Queen Sembiyan Mah
op.
 Indian civilization has a very ancient tradition in the representation of the Mother Goddess, as the little terracotta figures
figure from
Valley culture (c. 8000-2500
2500 BCE) attest. The wood nymphs, or yakshis, depicted on the early Buddhist stupas (first centuries B
corroborate the Indian compulsion to give visual form to the feminine in all its specific qualities. But it is from the tenth centur
in the bronzes of southern India, that woman is given her most natural and at the same time most sensuous shape. Parvati, the
Shiva, is the pre-eminent
eminent expression of this. She is the nourishing, the life-giving,
life the beautiful (sundari), the sensual. While Sh
in the most diverse forms, Parvati is always the lovely embodiment of womanhood, standing or seated at Shiva’s side. She is th
shakti, the energy of Shiva.

This exceptionally beautiful sculpture portrays Parvati in the posture of ‘royal ease’, rajalilasana, with her right leg raised and h
pendant over the side of the pedestal. Her right hand is in katakamukha, and so was probably intended to hold a blue lotus; he
reaches out in the gracious gesture of bestowal, varadamudra. Perhaps this figure was once part of a Somaskanda group, such
catalogue number 4, where Parvati sits in the same position. The possibility is enhanced by the fact that the goddess turns her
to the right, in Shiva’s direction. But this could just as easily be an individual image. And indeed, what an image. The enchantin
ench
goddess sits graceful and composed, her torso filled with the dynamic breath of life, her firm and rounded breasts perfected by
set nipples. Her ornaments seem only to emphasize the lines and curves of her body. She wears a triple necklace, the outermo
with tiny dangling pendants. Her armbands are of the makara type, and the motif is repeated in her headdress. Generally, Parv
karandamukuta,, a tiara resembling a conical pile of pots. Here, however, her hair has been gathered up, as if in a linga, in a dia
four makarakeyuras.. Delicate locks of hair brush her shoulders and arc in a garland of curls around the back of her neck. Her lo
are adorned with ornaments in makara form. A triple yajnopavita, the handspun sacred thread, wends from her left shoulder b
breasts to the right of her broad hips. The closely fitting garment conceals nothing of the sensuous curves of her body but offe o
vati elements for decoration, such as the end of the garment that is tucked between her legs and through her girdle at the back. Th T
a, Tamil Nadu made up of several strands, caught together below her belly in an ornamented clasp, from which a few decorative loops emerg
between her thighs. This Parvati is a sensuous figure from whichever direction she is viewed, be it the front, in profile, or from
la period, 10th century diagonal movement of her limbs give a hint of tension and dynamism to the restful pose. Many elements, such as the shape of
nze with its small mouth and full lips, the creases above the navel, the three double bracelets, the unpatterned garment, the neckl
coiffure and the perfection of the casting indicate the early Chola period (c. 950?). The clarity and harmony of the forms radiat
7.0 W. 23.0 D. 27.0 external beauty which, as with great beings, reveals the beauty within. The artist who made this sculpture must indeed have b
inspired individual.
Standing Parvati
Period: Chola period (880–1279)
Date: ca. first quarter of the 10th
century
Culture: Indian (Tamil Nadu)
Medium: Copper alloy
Dimensions: H. 27 3/8 in. (69.5
cm)
Classification: Metalwork
Parvati is the consort of Shiva and
mother of the elephant-headed
elephant
god Ganesha.
Ganesha This magnificent
statue is one of the finest Chola
representations of Parvati found
outside India. The genius and
obvious skill of the sculptor
produced a timeless image of the
goddess as well as a female figure
of surpassing beauty and grace.
Her lyrical, rhythmic carriage and
the soft yet firm lines of her body
suggest the ideal of the divine
and eternal female.
Standing Vishnu
Period: Chola period (880–1279)
Date: ca. third quarter of the 10th century
Culture: India (Tamil Nadu)
Medium: Copper alloy
Dimensions: H. 33 3/4 in. (85.7 cm)
Classification: Metalwork
Vishnu the Preserver is most often portrayed holding the
militant attributes that symbolize his protective role: in h
upper right hand, a chakra (war discus), and in his upper
shankha (conch battle trumpet). In addition, his lower lef
makes the gesture of resting on a gada (mace). His lower
hand is held in abhayamudra (the gesture that allays fear
upright prongs at either side of the pedestal originally
supported a halo.
Hanuman Conversing
Period: Chola period (880–1279)
Date: 11th century
Culture: India (Tamil Nadu)
Medium: Copper alloy
Dimensions: H. 25 3/8 in. (64.5 cm)
Classification: Sculpture
Hanuman, adviser to King Sugriva of the great monkey c
one of the most appealing Hindu deities. His bravery, co
and loyalty throughout the Ramayana are renowned. He
Hanuman gestures obeisance to Rama with his raised le
while engaging in animated discussion with his Lord. Th
sculpture was part of an ensemble at the center of whic
Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana. It was included among an
assemblage of processional icons kept by Vaishnava tem
south India for festival use. Typical of Chola-period
representations, Hanuman has assumed anthropomorp
form, with only his face and tail confirming his monkey i
Among the finest bronze images of Hanuman to have su
from the Chola kingdom of south India, this work embod
noble, virtuous character with great sensitivity.
A Chola bronze of Kaaraikkaal Ammaiyaar, who is said to have
assumed a skeletal form during her lifetime. She was a strong
feminist symbol of the Tamil devotional movement.