Contents

9.1 Non Destructive Test ............................................................................................................................ 9.2

9.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (DPT) ........................................................................................................ 9.2
9.3 Magnetic Prticle Inspection (MPI) or (MPT) ......................................................................................... 9.4
9.4 Radiography of Metals .......................................................................................................................... 9.5
9.5 Ultrasonic Inspection ............................................................................................................................ 9.6
9.6 Eddy Current Inspection ....................................................................................................................... 9.9
9.7 Jominey End Quench Test ................................................................................................................... 9.11
9.8 References .......................................................................................................................................... 9.13
9.1 Non Destructive Test
 A nondestructive test is an examination of an object in any manner which will not impair the future
usefulness of the object.
 In most cases NDT test does not provide a direct measurement of mechanical properties, they are very
valuable in locating material defects that could impair the performance of a machine member when placed
in service.
 Such a test is used to detect faulty materials before it is formed or machined into components parts, to
detect faulty components before assembly, to measure the thickness of metal, and to discover defects that
may have developed during processing or use.
 Parts may be examined in service permitting their removal before failure occurs.

 Non-destructive tests are used to make more reliable, safe and economical.

 During and just after the world war-II the significance of imperfections to the useful life of the product
assumed greater importance. Example: In aircraft design, in nuclear technology and in space exploration,
high hazards and costs have made maximum reliability essential

9.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection (DPT)

 The principle of the technique is that a liquid is drawn by capillary attraction in the defects and after
subsequent development, any surface barking defects may be rendered visible to the human eye.
 In order to achieve good defect visibility, the penetrating liquid will either be colored with bright and
persistent dye or else contain a fluorescent component.
 In DPT the dye is generally red and the developed surface can be viewed in natural or artificial light but in
the latter case, the compound must be viewed under “ultraviolet light” if indications of defects are to be
seen.
 DPT is important to indicate the presence of defects such as cracks, laminations, laps and zones of surface
porosity in a wide range of components. It is employed for the inspection of wrought and cast products in
both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys, ceramics glass and some polymer components.
Five steps in liquid penetrant inspection:
1. Surface preparation
2. Application of penetrant
3. Removal of excess penetrant
4. Development
5. Observation and inspection

 The surface of a component must be free from oil, grease, and other contaminants if the successful
indication of defect is to be achieved.
 After surface preparation, liquid penetrate is applied by brush, spray or immersion so as to form a film of
penetrating over the component surface.
 Penetrant will seep into fairly large flows in a few seconds but it may take up to 30 min for the liquid to
penetrate into very small defects and tight cracks.
 After the penetration stage, it is necessary to remove excess penetrant from the surface of the component.
Some penetrants can be washed off the surface with water, while others require the use of specific solvents.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Material Science and Metallurgy (3131904) | Unit-9 Non Destructive Test
 Fig.9.1 - Major steps for in a fluorescent-penetration inspection

 The development stage is necessary to reveal clearly the presence of any defects. The developer is usually a
very fine chalk powder. This may be applied dry, but more commonly is applied by spraying the surface
with chalk dust suspended in a volatile carrier fluid.
 A thin uniform layer of chalk is deposited on the surface of the component. Penetrant liquid present within
defects will be slowed down by capillary action into the pairs of the chalks. There will be some spread of
penetrant within the developer and this will magnify the apparent width of defect.
 When dye penetrant is used, the dye color must be a sharp contrast to the uniform white of the chalk
covered surface.
 Dye penetrant inspection is carried out in strong lighting conditions, while a fluorescent penetrant
inspection is performed using ultraviolet light.
Advantage of DPT
1. DPT is simple as no electronic system is involved.
2. It is cheaper than other NDT tests.

Limitations of DPT
1. It can detect surface-breaking defects only.
2. This method is not suitable for naturally porous material such as unglazed ceramics and some
thermoplastic material as it affects by penetrant fluid.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Applications of DPT
 Aerospace, automotive and general manufacturing industries for the quality control of production and by
users during regular maintenance and safety checks.
Examples: Turbine rotor discs, blades, pistons, cast cylinder head wheel, forged components. Weld assembly.

9.3 Magnetic Prticle Inspection (MPI) or (MPT)

 Magnetic particle inspection is a sensitive method of locating surface and some sub-surface defects in
ferromagnetic components.
 When a discontinuity is open to the surface, the magnetic field leaks out to the surface and terms north and
south poles and that attract magnetic particles.
 When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie a direction approximately
perpendicular to the field direction will result in a formation of a strong leakage field. This leakage field is
present at and above the surface of the magnetized component, and its presence can be detected using
finely divided magnetic particles.
 The application of dry particles or wet particles in a liquid carrier over the surface of the component results
in a collection of magnetic particles at a discontinuity. This magnetic bridge indicates the location, size,
and shape of the discontinuity.

Fig.9.2 - Description

 As shown in the figure for longitudinal magnetization the magnetic field may be produced in a direction
parallel to the long axis of the workpiece by placing the piece in a coil excited by an electric current so that
the long axis of the piece is parallel to the axis of the coil. Very long parts are magnetized in steps by
moving the coil along the length.
 In the case of circular magnetization, a magnetic field transverse to the long axis of the workpiece is
readily produced by passing the magnetizing current through the piece along this axis.
 All machine parts that have been magnetized for inspection must be put through a demagnetizing
operation. If these parts placed in service without demagnetizing, they will attract filing, grinding, chips
and other steel particles which cause scarring of bearing and other engine parts.
 Radiography of metals may be carried out by using X-rays or gamma rays.

 Short wavelength electromagnetic rays capable of going through large thickness of metals.

 Gamma rays may be obtained from naturally radioactive material such as radium or radioactive isotope
such as cobalt-60

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Material Science and Metallurgy (3131904) | Unit-9 Non Destructive Test
 Fig.9.3 - Magnetic flaw detection

Fig.9.4 - Methods of magnetic flux test

9.4 Radiography of Metals

 Gamma radiation is more penetrating than that of X-rays but the inferior sensitivity limits its application.

 X-rays are produced when a matter is bombarding by a rapidly moving stream of electrons. When electrons
are suddenly stopped by a matter a part of their kinetic energy is converted into the energy of radiation or
X-rays.

Fig.9.5 - Schematic representation of the use of X-rays for the examination of a welded plate

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.9.6 - Types of Radiographs

The essential conditions for the generation of X-rays are:

 A filament (cathode) to provide a source of electron proceeding towards the target.

1. A target (anode) located in the path of electrons

2. A means of regulating tube current to control the number of electrons striking the target.

 X- Rays are potentially dangerous and adequate safeguards must be employed to protect an operating
person.
 Radiography is a shadow picture of a material more or less transparent to radiation. The X-rays darken the
film so those regions by lower density which readily permit penetration to appear dark on the negative as
compared with a region of higher density which absorbs more of the radiation. Thus hole or crack appears
as a darker area.
 Radiography of metals has been used for inspection of casting and welded products; it may be used to
measure the thickness of materials also. Figure 9.5 shows a simple radiation thickness gauge.
 The radiation from the source is influenced by the material being tested. As the thickness increases, the
radiation intensity reading the detector decreases.
 f the response of the detector is calibrated for known thickness, the detector reading can be used to indicate
the thickness of the inspected material with a suitable feedback circuit; the detector may be used to control
the thickness between predetermined limits.

9.5 Ultrasonic Inspection

Introduction
 It is used to detect and locate defects such as shrinkage, cavities, cracks, porosity and large metallic
inclusions wall thickness can be measured in a closed vessel.
 Ultrasonic vibrations can be used to locate defects in ferrous and nonferrous metals, plastics and ceramics.

 Ultrasonic inspection for flow detection makes use of acoustic waves with frequency in the range of 20
kHz and 20 MHz which can be transmitted through solids and get reflected by subsurface defects.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 The use of sound waves to determine a defect is a very old/ancient method. If a piece of metal is struck by
a hammer it will radiate certain audible/easy to hear notes, of which pitch and clamping may be influenced
by the presence of internal flows. However, this technique of hammering and listening is useful only for
the determination of large defects.
 Ultrasonic is a fast, reliable, nondestructive testing method which employs electronically produced high-
frequency sound waves that will penetrate metals, liquids, and other metals at a speed of several thousand
feet/sec
 This conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is known as the “piezoelectric effect”. If an
alternating electric field is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, the crystal will expand during the first half of
the cycle and contact when the electric field is reversed.
 By varying the frequency of the alternating electric field, we can vary the frequency of the mechanical
vibration (sound wave) produced in the crystal. Quartz is a widely used ultrasonic transducer. A transducer
is a device for converting one form of energy to another.
Ultrasonic Test Methods
1. Through Transmission Method

 This method uses an ultrasonic transducer on each side of the object being inspected. If an electrical pulse
of the desired frequency is applied to the transmitting crystal, the ultrasonic waves produced will travel
through the specimen to the other side.
 The receiving transducer on the opposite side receives the vibrations and converts them into an electrical
signed than can be amplified and observed on the cathode ray tube of an oscilloscope, a meter or some
other indicator.
 If the ultrasonic wave travels through the specimen without encountering any flow, the signal received is
relatively large. If there is a flow in the path of the ultrasonic wave part of the energy will be reflected and
the signal received by the receiving transducer will be reduced.

Fig.9.7 - The through-transmission and pulse-echo methods of ultrasonic inspection

2. The Pulse-Echo Method

 This method uses one transducer which serves as both transmitter and receiver. It is the same as the
transmission method.
 As the sound wave enters the material being tested, part of it is reflected back to the crystal where it is
converted back to an electrical impulse.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Material Science and Metallurgy (3131904) | Unit-9 Non Destructive Test
  This impulse is amplified and rendered visible as an indication or pip on the screen of the oscilloscope.
When the sound wave reached the other side of the material, it is reflected back and shows a pip on the
screen further to the right of the first pip.
 If there is a flow between the front and back surfaces of the material, it will show as a third pip on the
screen between the two indications for the front and back surfaces.
 Since the indications on the oscilloscope screen measure the elapsed time between the reflection of the
pulse from the front and back surfaces, the distance between indications is a measure of the thickness of the
material. The location of a defect may, therefore, be accurately determined from the indications on the
screen.
 For larger parts, a film of oil ensured proper contact between the crystal searching unit and the test piece.
Smaller parts may be placed in a tank of water, oil or glycerin. The crystal searching units transmits sound
waves through the medium and into the material being examined
 For larger parts, a film of oil ensured proper contact between the crystal searching unit and the test piece.
Smaller parts may be placed in a tank of water, oil or glycerin. The crystal searching units transmits sound
waves through the medium and into the material being examined.
 A close examination of the oscilloscope screen in the picture shows the presence of three pips. The left pip
indicates the front of the piece. The right pip the back of the piece and the smaller center pip is an
indication of flow.
Applications
1. It is used to detect and locate such defects as shrinkage cavities, internal bursts or cracks, porosity, and
large non-metallic inclusions.
2. Wall thickness can be measured in a closed vessel.

Fig.9.8 - Oscilloscope pattern for the pulse –eco-method of ultrasonic inspection

Fig.9.9 - Detection of crack with ultrasonic machine

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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9.6 Eddy Current Inspection
 Current techniques are used to inspect electrically conducting materials for defects, irregularities in
structure, and variations in composition. In eddy current testing, a varying magnetic field is produced if a
source of alternating current is connected to a coil. When this field is placed near a test specimen capable
of conducting electrical current, eddy currents will be induced in the specimen.
 The eddy currents, in turn, will produce a magnetic field of their own. The detection unit will measure this
new magnetic field and convert the signal into a voltage that can read on a meter or a cathode ray tube.
Properties such as hardness, alloy composition, chemical purity, and heat treat conditions inf luence the
magnetic field and may be measured directly by a single coil.
 -
ups. This application requires the use of two coils. (see fig.) A standard piece is placed in one coil and the
test piece in other coils. Acceptance or rejection of the test piece may be determined by comparing the two
patterns on the oscilloscope screen
 Eddy current testing may be used to detect surface and sub-surface defects, plate or tubing thickness, and
coating thickness.

Fig.9.10 - Eddy current test

Fig.9.11 - Eddy Current Inspection

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Table 9.1 - Major nondestructive testing methods

Inspection Method When to Use Where to Use Advantages Limitations

Eddy Current Measuring variations in Tubing and bar High speed, False
wall thickness of thin stock, parts of noncontact, indication
metals or coatings; uniform automatic. results from
detecting longitudinal geometry, flat many
seams or cracks in the stock, or sheet variables;
tubing; determining heat and wire. only good for
treatments and metal conductive
compositions for sorting. materials;
limited depth
of penetration.
Radiography Detecting internal flaws Assemblies of Provides High initial
X-rays and defects; finding electronic parts, permanent cost; power
welding flows, cracks, casting, welded records on source
seams, porosity, holes, vessels; field film; Works required;
inclusions, lack of fusion, testing of welds; well on thin radiation
measuring variations in corrosion sections; high hazard;
thickness. surveys; sensitivity; trained
component of fluoroscopy technicians
nonmetallic techniques needed.
materials. available;
adjustable
energy level.
Radiography Detecting internal flaws, Forgings,
Gamma X-rays cracks, seams, holes, castings, tubing,
inclusions, weld defects; welded vessels;
measuring thickness field testing
variations. welded pipe;
corrosion
surveys.
Magnetic Particle Detecting surface or Only for Economical, The material
shallow subsurface flaws, ferromagnetic simple in must be
cracks, porosity, materials; parts principle, easy magnetic;
nonmetallic inclusions, of any size, to perform, demagnetizing
and weld defect. shape, portable; fast after testing is
composition, or for production required;
heat treatment. testing. power source
needed; parts
must be
cleaned before
finishing.
Penetrant Locating surface crack, All metals, glass, Simple to Limited to
porosity, laps, cold shuts, and ceramics, apply, surface
and lack of weld bond, castings, portable, fast, defects; the
fatigue, and grinding forgings, low in cost; surface must

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 cracks machined parts, results easy to be clean.
and cutting tools; interpret; no
field inspections. elaborate
setup required
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Finding internal defects, All metals and Fast, Requires
cracks, lack of bond, hard nonmetallic dependable, contact or
laminations, porosity, materials, sheets, easy to immersion of
determining grain tubing, rods, operate; lends part;
structure and thicknesses. forgings, itself to interpretation
castings, field, automation, a of readings
and production result of the requires
testing; in- test training.
service part immediately
testing; brazed known;
and adhesive relatively
bonded joints. portable,
highly
accurate,
sensitive

9.7 Jominey End Quench Test

The usual method of purchasing steel is on the basis of chemical composition. This allows a considerable variation
in the carbon and alloy of the steel.

C = 0.38-.043% Ni = 1.65 – 2.0% Mn = 0.60-0.80%

Cr = 0.70 – 0.90% Si = 0.20 – 0.35% Mo = 0.20 – 0.30%

 Let’s determine the percentage variation in each alloying element.

For C
Difference between 0.43 and 0.38 = 0.05
So ,

So % variation for difference metal and alloy is given as.

Mn = 28.7% Ni = 19.1% Mo = 40% Si = 53.8% Cr = 25%
 This variation in chemical composition within a particular grade will cause a variation in the critical
cooling rate and in turn a variation in the response of the steel to heat treatment.
 Therefore buying steel according to chemical composition is No assurance that full hardness will be
attained under certain quenching conditions. It is, therefore, necessary o have a test that will predict the
Hardenability of the steel.
 In test has been standardized by ASTM, SAE & AISI. In conducting this test 1” round specimen 4” long is
heated uniformly o he proper Ausetnizing temperature. It is then removed from the furnace on a placed on
a fixture where a jet of water impinges on the bottom face of the specimen.
 The size of the orifice, from the orifice to the bottom of the specimen and temperature and circulation of
water all are standardized. So that every specimen quenched in these fixtures receives the same cooling
rate.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  After 10 minutes on the fixture, the specimen is removed and two parallel surfaces are ground
longitudinally to a depth of 0.015 inches. Rockwell C scale hardness reading is taken at 1/16” interval from
the quenched end. The results are expressed as a curve of Hardness Vs Distance from the quenched end.
 The end Quench Hardenability curve readily shows that how Hardenability varies with actual cooling rates
for particular steel.
Hardenability
 When a steel piece of the large cross-section is heated to an austenite temperature and then quenched, the
cooling rate decreases from the surface to the interior.
 Martensite is obtained at the surface due to the highest cooling rate. But it is not possible to get a
martensitic structure at the center due to the relatively slow cooling rate. Hence, a gradient of hardness
exists from the surface to the center.
 Since every grade of steel has its own transformation characteristics, the depth of penetration of hardness
across the cross-section differs. The measure of these properties termed as Hardenability of the steel.
 Hardenability is defined as the relative ability of steel to be hardened by quenching and it determines the
depth and distribution of hardness across the cross-section. Hardenability should not be confused with a
maximum hardness of steel.
 Hardenability is a very useful and important property of steel. It determines the rate at which the given
steel should be quenched. Maximum hardness is mainly a function of carbon content. Hardenability of steel
depends on
1. Composition of steel
2. Method of manufacture
3. Section of the steel
4. Quenching medium
5. Quenching method

In industry, a simple experiment called Jominey End Quench Test (named after Walter Jominey, American
Metallurgist) is used to determine the Hardenability of steel.
Objectives
 The objective of the experiment is to take readings in the Rockwell C scale along the flat surface of the
Jominey specimen and to plot the graph Hardness vs. Distance from the quenched end.
Equipment
1. Electric furnace
2. Jominey end quench test fixture
3. Jominey specimen (made as per ASTM standard)
4. Rockwell hardness tester

Test Procedure
1. Preheat the furnace to 1700° F (910°C-920° C)
2. Place the Jominey specimen in the furnace and soak for one hour.

Turn the water on at Jominey sink. Adjust the free water column about 2.5 inches. Swivel the baffle plate to
block the water column so that there is no contact between water and the test specimen when the test specimen
is initially placed on the fixture.

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.9.12 - Jominey End Quench Test set up

Fig.9.13 - Hardness variation in quenched Jominey bar

3. Remove the Jominey specimen from the furnace and placed in the fixture as shown in the figure. Swivel
the baffle out of position so that water impinges on the bottom of the specimen without wetting the sides of
the specimen. Leave the water running for about 15 minutes.
4. Remove the Jominey specimen from the fixture and grind a flat on the side of the specimen.
5. Mark points on the ground surface at an interval of 1.6mm distance from the quenched end as shown in the
figure.
6. Take reading at an interval of 1.6mm intervals. Near the quenched end, this interval is reduced to 0.8mm as
hardness values vary rapidly.
7. The results are expressed as a curve of hardness value vs. distance from the quenched end (Jominey
distance). This curve is called the Jominey Hardenability curve.

9.8 References
Sidney H Avner ” Introduction to Physical metallurgy 2nd Edition 2011 Tata Mc Graw- Hill Publication.
O. P. Khanna “Material Science and Metallurgy” Dhanpat Rai Publications

Prof. Ashvin J. Makadia, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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