PHYSICS Booklet Triple Award

BGCSE PHYSICS NOTES
Compiled by:
MR KEOAGILE
72742433
PHYSICS
What is meant by PHYSICS?
Definition: Is the study of properties of matter and energy.
Matter: refers to any materials which occupy space and can be examined by measuring,
weighing or experimental testing.
Energy: is something a body possesses which enables it to do work.
1.0 MEASUREMENT
We use measurements every day. The food we eat, the clothes we wear, the work we do and the
games we play involves measurements.
{All the measurements we do or use are known as Physical quantities}.
For measurement to be in use, standard units must be agreed upon. A standard must universally
accepted, accessible to laboratories and have a value that does not change with time.
What is meant by PHYSICAL QUANTITIES?
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES: refers to measurable features or properties of objects.
[To do this (any measurement) we need an internationally agreed system of units called System
International d’units. S.I system]
Types of physical Quantities
We got two types of physical Quantities namely: Fundamental/Basic and Derived.
1. Fundamental/Basic quantities: These are quantities that are easily measureable (e.g.
length, mass etc.)
 Basic quantities such as length, mass, and time are used to define all other quantities
which are known as Derived quantities.
Fundamental quantities with their units of the SI system are given in the following table.
Table 1.1 Name and Symbols for fundamental/basic units.

Physical quantity Name of SI base unit Symbol for unit
length Metre m
mass Kilograms kg
time Second s
electric current Ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela ca
Amount of substance mole mol
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2. Derived quantities: These are quantities that are built from several fundamental
quantities
 Using fundamental units it is possible to derive a system of units to measure all
other quantities.
Table 1.2: Name and for derived units
Derived quantity Symbol Unit symbol

Area A m2
Volume V m3
Density p kg/m3
Acceleration a m/s2
Frequency f Hz
Force F N
Velocity V, U m/s
Examples:
Quantity: Area = length * width
NB: length and width has standard units of meters (m) hence
S.I units: meter * meter = (meter)2 i.e m2
Exercise:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
IMPORTANT
Prefixes- a word or letter placed before another that partially indicates its meaning.
Example: centimetre - centi is a prefix

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Prefixes for SI units
The prefixes may be used to indicate decimal multiples or sub- multiples of both base and
derived units.
Table 1.3 Prefixes used in SI units.
Prefix Symbol Multiple/factor Value
pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001
nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001
micro μ 10 -6
0.000 001
milli m 10-3 0.001
-2
centi c 10 0.01
-1
deci d 10 0.1
deca da 101 10
2
hecto h 10 100
kilo k 103 1000
mega M 106 1000 000
giga G 109 1000 000 000
tera T 1012 1000 000 000 000
Conversion of units
1. Express the following measurements in the specified units

a. 500Km ……………………...m c. 10Mv ………………………...v
b. 50cm ……………………......m d. 1000mA ……………………...A
2. Convert the following

a. 2kg to mg
b. 1000µA into mA
Summary on conversion units
Length:
x 1 000 x 100 x 10
Km m cm mm
÷ 1 000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10
Area
x 1000 000 x 10 000 x 100
Km2 m2 c m2 m m2
÷ 1000 000 ÷ 10 000 ÷ 100

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Volume
x 1000 000 x 1 000
m3 cm3 mm3
÷ 1000 000 ÷ 1 000

Time:
x 24 x 60 x 60
days hours minutes seconds
÷ 24 ÷60 ÷ 60
Mass:
x 1000 x 1000 x 1000
Tonnes kg g mg
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
Scientific notation (Standard form)

Examples:
1. Write these numbers as powers of ten:
(a) 3335 = 3.335 * 103 (b) 0.3335 = 3.335 * 10-1 (c) 335 000 = 3.335 * 105
2. Work out the following
(a) 104 * 108 = 1012 (b) 106 * 10-3 = 103 (c) 6 * 106 ÷ 2 * 103 = 3 *103
Exercise
1. Write the following number in Scientific notation:
(a) 9765 (b) 0.000 123 (c) 150 million (d) 300 000
2. Work out the following
(a) 105 * 104 * 102 (b) (4.8 * 104 ) ÷ (3.0 * 102 )
3. Write the following in decimal form:
(a) 3.0 * 104 (b) 1.5 * 10-4 (c) 0.4 * 102 (d) 6.0 * 10-1
Accuracy and significant figures
1. How many significant figures are there in each of the following numbers
(a) 1800 (b) 96000 (c) 0.18 (d) 67 (e) 4960 (f) 0.00843
(g) 0.243 (h) 65.0 (i) 1800 (j) 0.6780 (k) 508.6 (l) 5.060
2. Calculate; and give the answers to the appropriate number of significant figures
(a) 264.68 – 2.4711 = (262.2089) = (262.21)…… Answer in 5 significant figures
5sig 5sig 7sig 5sig
(b) 2.345 * 3.56 = (8.3482) = (8.35)…… Answer in 3 significant figures
4sig 3sig 5sig 3sig
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Exercise:
1. How many significant figures are there in each of the following numbers:
(a) 4.02 (b) 0.008 (c) 8600 (d) 1049 (e) 0.0002 (f) 52.07 (g) 0.60
2. Write each the following numbers correct to the three significant figures:
(a) 42 857 (b) 52 561 (c) 100.25 (d) 0.002 357
3. The following values were taken as part of a set of experimental data: 34.7cm and 19.65mm.
How many significant figures would be present in the sum of these two figures?
4. A rectangular solar cell measures 2.73cm long and 3.2 * 10-2 cm wide. Calculate, giving the
answers with correct numbers of significant figures:
(a) The perimeter of the cell (b) The area of the cell
MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR MEASURING DEVICES
LENGTH:
To measure length depends on how large or small the length is and what accuracy we
need in our measurement.
IMPORTANT
 Each measuring instrument has its own accuracy
What is accuracy?
The accuracy of an instrument is the smallest division that an instrument can measure.
Instrument:
a) Solid rulers.- accuracy is 1mm
b) Measuring tape. Accuracy is 1mm
c) Vernier Callipers: Used when more accuracy is needed and can measure both
internal and external diameters of objects.
d) Micrometer Screw gauge. It is used for measuring external diameters of very

thin objects.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASURING LENGTH
Common Errors in Length Measurement
Any measurement made has degree of uncertainty (error) in its accuracy.

Basically these errors are caused by limitations of instruments, condition of
instruments and the state of the one using the instrument. Below are the types of
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errors encountered when measurements are carried out.

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(i) Parallax Error
This occurs due to wrong positioning of the eye of the person taking a
reading from the instrument.
To take an accurate reading the eyes position MUST be perpendicular to the scale
of the instrument and the end of the object being measured.
Exercise:
1. The diagram shows the scale of a top pan balance calibrated in kg.
What is the reading shown? Scale reading = ............................

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2. What is the volume reading shown in Figure below?
Volume reading = ............................
3. Write down the readings shown. Include appropriate units.
Current =............................................ Potential difference =.....................................
Mass of copper sulphate = .............................

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(ii) Instrumental (Zero) Error
This results when:
- an instrument has a worn out starting point of the scale, e.g. ruler having worn out ends.
- the pointer of the instrument does not start exactly at the zero of the scale. It can be either
before or after the zero of the scale. In this case, any reading taken must have zero error added
or subtracted respectively in order to get an accurate measurement.
N.B: This type of error is accumulative in the measurements taken.
ZERO ERROR:
It is when the instrument does not read exactly zero when no measurements are being
taken. We have Positive and Negative zero error.
NEGATIVE ZERO ERROR: This is when the pointer of the instrument or the number
displayed on the instrument is less than zero or appears b4 zero mark.
The zero error is –1.
POSITIVE ZERO ERROR. This is when the reading shown on the instrument is more
than zero or appears after zero.
The zero error is +2.
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NOTE: all zero errors are subtracted from the final scale reading
Exercise:
1. Figure 1.1 below shows part of a rule with a line A marked up to the scale.
Fig.1.1
What is the reading on the rule at the line A? Reading =…………………………..……
(a) Fig.1.2 shows the same rule used to measure the length of an object.
Fig.1.2
What is the length of the object? Length =…………………………….
(b) State one possible source of error when using a rule to measure length. ……………..………..
(iii) Random Error
This type of error is difficult to avoid because it involves many unidentified causes when
the measurement is being carried out. The causes are difficult to eliminate.
Possible causes include: noise, breathing, talking, movement, etc.
To eliminate it from our measurements, a measurement is repeated several times and the
average calculated.
Exercise
1. The diagram shows how the diameter of a tree might be measured.
What is the diameter of the tree? Diameter reading = ............................

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USING A METRE RULE/RULER/TAPE MEASURE
(a) Precautions
(i) Make the zero mark (or a convenient mark) to be at the start of the object being measured.
(ii) Place a metre rule parallel to the object being measured.
(iii) Keep the eye position vertically above the marks on the scale to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Repeat readings where necessary.
(v) Avoid using worn out edges of the scales.
(b) Accuracy of the measurements taken using a metre rule
It is ±1mm or ± 0.1 cm.

This means a reading taken must have no decimal place if expressed in mm and
one decimal place when expressed in cm; e.g. 45 mm or 4.5 cm respectively.
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH USING VERNIER CALIPERS AND MICROSCREW GAUGE
(i)Using a Vernier Calipers
(a) Structure
It has two scales:

(i) Main scale in which each division is 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
(ii) Vernier scale has ten divisions in which each division is 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
Has two types of jaws:
(i) Internal jaws that are for measuring inside lengths or diameters.
(ii) External jaws that are for measuring outside lengths or diameters.
(b) Accuracy of a vernier calipers
It is ± 0.1 mm or ± 0.01 cm.

Thus it is more accurate than a metre rule.
(c) Precautions
(i) Clean the jaws before using the vernier calipers.
(ii) Check for zero error and note it.
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(iii) Take the readings perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.

(iv) Lock the jaws after making them press gently against the object being measured.
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HOW TO READ A VERNIER CALIPER:
Consider the vernier caliper below
RULE FOR READING A VERNIER CALLIPERS SCALE:
1. Read or take the main scale reading just before the zero of the vernier.
In the given example above, the main scale reading is : 6.5 cm
2. Multiply the number on the vernier scale where that scale is most nearly coincident or
coincides with a main scale reading/graduation by 0.01 cm.
In the diagram given above the vernier scale reading is: 5 *0.01 cm = 0.05 cm
3. Add the vernier scale reading to the main scale reading to find total reading.
Total reading = 6.5 cm

+0.05 cm
= 6.55 cm
NB: The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.01 cm.
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(ii) Using a micrometer screw gauge
Useful for measuring small length such as diameters of wires, thickness of

paper, etc.
Generally used for distances less than 25 mm.
(a) Structure
Main Features:
- Sleeve with a scale marked in 0.5 mm intervals.

- Thimble has a circular scale having 50 divisions, each of 0.01 mm (0.001 cm).
- Ratchet for making a tight grip.
- Spindle and Anvil are jaws for gripping an object being measured.
- Locking nut to lock the spindle in position before a measurement required is read off.
(b) Precautions
(i) Clean the jaws (anvil and spindle) of the micrometer screw gauge.
(ii) Note the zero error.
(iii) Take the readings perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.
(iv) Gently grip the object with the ratchet to avoid deforming it.
(v) Repeat readings when necessary.
(c) Accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge
It is ± 0.01 mm or ± 0.001 cm.

It is more accurate than a vernier calipers and metre rule respectively.
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HOW TO READ A MICRO METER SCREW GAUGE:
Consider a micrometer screw gauge below.
Main scale (Sleeve) (Micrometer scale (Thimble)
RULE FOR READING A MICROMETRE SCREWGAUGE
1. Read or take the main (sleeve) scale reading just before the thimble scale.
In the diagram given above the main scale reading is 3.2 mm.
2. Multiply the value on the thimble scale that corresponds to the datum line by 0.01mm. In
the diagram given above the thimble (circular) scale reading is 37 * 0.01 mm = 0.37 mm.
3. Add the thimble (circular) reading to the main (sleeve) reading to find the total reading.
Total reading = 3.20 mm

+ 0.37 mm
3.57 mm
NB: The accuracy of a micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm.
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TIME
Time is defined as a duration for an event to take place e.g. a ball falling from a 10m tall
building to the ground.
S.I. unit: seconds (s)

The standard unit of time used in science labs is the second. To be more accurate we can measure
time in centiseconds, deciseconds and milliseconds
Other units: (i) Submultiple units (ii) Multiple units

millisecond (ms) = 10-3s 1 minute = 60 s
microsecond (μs) = 10-6s 1 hour = 60 minutes
nanosecond (ns) = 10-9s 1 day = 24 hours etc.
Every student is expected to know to convert from multiple units to s and vice versa; also from
submultiple units to s and vice versa.
EXERCISE ON TIME CONVERSION

Convert the following to seconds
(i) 10 minutes (ii) 1 hour (iii) 2 days (iv) 2.5 minutes (v) 2 ms
Instruments used
(i) Stop clock –Accuracy is ± 0.1 s
(ii) Stop watch – Accuracy is ± 0.01s
(iii) Clocks
(iv) Watches
(v) Sun dial
(vi) Atomic clock
Each instrument motioned above has a particular event for which it can be used to
measure accurately the time of its occurrence.
Instrument Used
(i) Stop Watch: The time recorded/measured is digitally displayed on the screen.
Stop Watches that are commonly used record time up to hundredths (1/100) of
a second.
Example: What is the time shown in the stop watch below, in seconds and minutes? 15
ANSWER: To be given in seconds: (3x60 + 28 + 75/100) = 208.75s

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EXERCISE ON HOW TO READ A STOP WATCH
COMMON ERRORS OF MEASURING TIME

When an event occurs, it is always not possible to get enough time to start or stop the stopwatch.
It is possible to start the stopwatch earlier or later at the start of the event and also stop the stop watch
earlier or later at the end of the event.
The error, which results is called REACTION ERRROR.
What is a reaction error?

Is an error due to early or late starting (stopping) of a stop watch when timing an event.
The other error that also occurs is ZERO ERROR.
EXERCISE:
1. A stopwatch is used to time a race. The diagrams show the watch at the start and
at the end of the race.
(a) How long did the race take?
(b) What type of an error do the stopwatch have?
Precautions (When using stopwatch)
(i) Always reset the stopwatch/clock to zero before taking a measurement.

Why? To avoid zero error.
(ii) Repeat time measurement readings.
Why? To avoid reaction error.
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(iii) Take readings perpendicular to the scale.

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Why? To avoid parallax error.

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
In Physics, the practice of accurate measurement of time using a stopwatch/clock is

done by measuring the oscillations of a pendulum.
Structure
Terminology of the simple pendulum
(i) Length of pendulum is the distance from the centre of the bob to the bottom of the split cork.
(ii) Complete Oscillation is the movement of the pendulum bob from one extreme position of
swing to the opposite extreme position and back to the starting extreme position.
Consider a case when a pendulum is slightly displaced from rest position and allowed to
swing/oscillate freely as seen below.
Movement from: A B A C A (ABACA)
C A B A C (CABAC) etc.
The movement must have four (4) equal parts.
(iii) Amplitude, a, is the maximum displacement of bob from its rest position.
(iv) Period of pendulum, T, is the time taken by pendulum to make one complete oscillation.
S.I. unit of T: seconds (s)
It is not easy and accurate to measure T by measuring time of one oscillation directly.
To be accurate, numerous (e.g. 20) complete oscillations are timed.

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Then period, T = Time taken to make 20 complete oscillations

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Number of complete oscillations (20)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERIOD OF A PENDULUM
(i) Length of a pendulum

(ii) Gravitational filed strength
The period of pendulum is not affected by

(i) Mass of the bob
(ii) Angle or displacement
Changing the mass or angle, this does not affect the period of the pendulum.
N.B:
Frequency of a pendulum, f: This is the number of complete oscillations (cycles) a
pendulum makes in one second.
S.I. unit: Hertz (Hz)
Relation between T and f: T = 1/f or f = 1/T
T is proportional to l (because when l increases, even T increases).
The period of pendulum depends on length of the pendulum.
The period of pendulum does not depend on amplitude and the mass of the bob.
NB: With time the oscillations of the pendulum decrease and eventually stops.
This is because of air resistance that makes it lose kinetic energy.
EXERCISE ON PENDULUM
1. It takes 17.6 s for a pendulum to swing from X to Y and back again 20 times.
What is the period of the pendulum?
2. The time taken for a period pendulum to swing from the rest position X to its maximum
displacement Y is 2.5 s.
What is the time taken for one complete oscillation?
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3. Fig. 3.1 shows a simple pendulum.
(a) Define an oscillation.
(b) The pendulum takes 8.0s to make 20 oscillations. Determine the period of the pendulum.
(c) A stopwatch was used to time a few oscillations to determine the period of the
pendulum. The time recorded by the stopwatch is as shown in Fig. 3.2.
(i) What is the time shown by the stopwatch?
(ii) Write down the accuracy of the stopwatch.
(iii) Explain why it is important to measure the time for several oscillations when
determining the period.
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GRAPHS
Graphs are plotted to show the relationship between two quantities. The
following points should be noted when drawing graphs.
(a) Title
(b) Correct orientation of axis
(c) Axis labeled with correct units
(d) A suitable ( unambiguous) scale with points covering more than ½
grid
(e) Points must be clearly marked with vertical crosses + and encircled
dots are recommended for plotting points
(f) Correct plotting of points
(g) Line of best fit
DEDUCTIONS FROM A GRAPH
1. QUANTITATIVE DEDUCTION
(a) GRADIENT
(I) Evidence (triangle) from graph and triangle covering more than
½ line
(II) Correct formula of gradient
(III) Correct substitution
(IV) Value of gradient to 1 or 2 decimal places ( 2 or 3 significant
figures)
(V) Correct unit of gradient
(b) EXTRAPOLATION: This is to estimate or infer by extending
or projecting known information from the graph.
(c) INTERPOLATION: This is constructing new data points
within the range of known data points from the graph.
2. QUALITATIVE DEDUCTION: This is a statement showing the

relationship between the variables e.g linear relationship, direct
proportionality, inverse proportionality e.t.c
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THE FOLLOWING SHOWS EXAMPLES OF DESIRABLE/ GOOD GRAPHS
= V/A
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THE FOLLOWING SHOWS EXAMPLES OF UNDESIRABLE (WRONG) GRAPHS
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EXERCISE ON GRAPH PLOTTING and ANALYSIS
1. The BGCSE class is investigating the stretching of a spring.

Fig. 1.1 shows the experimental set up.
Fig. 1.1
(a) On Fig. 1.1, measure the vertical distance d0, in mm, between the bottom of the spring
and the surface of the bench.
d0 = .......................................... mm [1]
(b) The diagram is drawn 1/10th actual size. Calculate the actual distance D0, in mm,
between the bottom of the spring and the surface of the bench.
D0 = .......................................... mm [1]
(c) A student hangs a 1.0 N load on the spring. He measures and records the distance D
between the bottom of the spring and the surface of the bench, and the value of the
load L.
He repeats the procedure using loads of 2.0 N, 3.0 N, 4.0 N and 5.0 N. The distance
readings are shown in Table 1.1.
Calculate the extension e of the spring, for each set of readings, using the equation
e = (D0 – D). Record the values of L and e in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
L/N D/mm e/mm
199
191
179
171
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160
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(d) Plot a graph of e / mm (y-axis) against L / N (x-axis).
(e) Determine the gradient G of the graph. Show clearly on the graph how you obtained
the necessary information.
G = ..................................................
(f) When making measurements, the student is careful to avoid a line-of-sight error.
Suggest one other precaution that the student should take when measuring the distance
D between the bottom of the spring and the surface of the bench.
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..........................................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................................
MOTION
Refers to change in position.
Distance is the length of path moved by an object while displacement is the distance
moved by an object in a straight line.
Speed is defined as distance/time or as the rate of change of distance. Speed is

measured in metres per second (m/s), and is a scalar quantity.
A body moving with constant speed has a constant rate of change of distance.
Velocity is defined as displacement per unit time or as the rate of change of
displacement. Both displacement and velocity are vector quantities, because they have
both magnitude and direction.
Velocity is also measured in metres/second, but direction should also be given when
stating velocities.
A body traveling with uniform velocity has a constant rate of change of displacement.
This means, it is moving with a uniform speed in a straight line.
Acceleration is defined as change in velocity per unit time or rate of change of
velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity and has units of metres per second per
second (m/s2).
Uniform acceleration is defined as a constant rate of change of velocity.

Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of a freely falling body. It does not
depend on the mass of the object. It has a value of 9.8 m/s2. In most calculations it is
approximated to 10 m/s2 or 10 N/kg. This value varies from place to place.
The Equations of Motion
For bodies traveling with uniform speed, v = s/t, where v is the speed, s is the distance
traveled and t is the time taken.
For bodies traveling with uniform velocity, v = s/t, where v is the velocity, s is the
displacement traveled and t is the time taken.
For bodies moving with uniform acceleration:

(i) v = u + at (iii)
(ii) ) (iv) v2 = u2 + 2as
where u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, a is the acceleration, s is the
displacement and t is the time taken.
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The four equations apply to a bodies moving in a straight line.

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Examples on applications of equations of motion
1. A car reaches a velocity of 20 ms-1 in 10 s after starting from rest.

Determine:
(a) its acceleration; and
(b) the distance traveled.
Answer
(a) u = 0 ms-1, v = 20 ms-1, t = 10 s, a = ? (b) s = ?
Using Equation 1: v = u + at Using Equation 2: )
)
) 10s
= 2m/s2 = 100m
Note: Do not use Equation 3 because a has to be found.
2. A body moves a distance of 90 m from rest with an acceleration of 5 ms-2.

Calculate the following:
(a) final velocity; and
(b) time taken to attain this velocity.
Answer
(a) s = 90 m, a = 5 ms-2, u = 0 m/s, v = ? (b) t = ?
Using Equation 4: v2 = u2 + 2as Using Equation 3:
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = (0 ms-1)2 + 2(5 ms-2)90 m
v2 = 900 m2s-2 (90 m) = (2.5 ms-2) t2
v = ± 30 ms-1 = 36
t =±6s
v = 30 ms-1 t =6s 27
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Distance - Time and Velocity - Time Graphs
These graphs can be used to solve problems where bodies are moving in straight lines.
From a Distance - Time graph, the speed can be found by determining the
slope(gradient) of the graph. A graph below illustrates the method.
The speed of the body = slope of AB = (10 m - 0 m)/ (4 s - 0 s) = 10 m/4 s = 2.5 m/s.
From a Velocity - Time graph, the acceleration can be found by determining the
slope(gradient) of the graph, and the distance traveled found by calculating the area
under the graph.
The figure below shows the Velocity - Time graph of a body that starts from rest,
reaches a velocity of 30 m/s after 10 seconds, then travels at this velocity for a further
10 seconds, and then is brought to a rest in a further 5 seconds.
The acceleration of the body in the first 10 seconds = slope of AB = (30 m/s - 0 m/s)/(10
s - 0 s) = 3 m/s2.
The distance traveled during the whole of the motion = the area of the shaded part
ABCD = Area of triangle ABP + Area of rectangle BPQC + Area of triangle CQD.
Area of triangle ABP = 1 x AP x BP = 1 x 10 s x 30 m/s = 150 m.
2 2
Area of rectangle BPQC = BC x BP = 10 s x 30 m/s = 300 m.
Area of triangle CQD = 1 x QD x CQ = 1 x 5 s x 30 m/s = 75 m.
2 2
The total area of ABCD = 150 m + 300 m + 75 m = 525 m.
The total distance traveled = 525 m.
The acceleration of the body in the last 5 second

= slope of CD = (0 m/s -30 m/s)/(25 s - 20 s) = (- 30 m/s )/5 s = -6 m/s2.
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This slope has a negative value. It is the deceleration of the body. A deceleration is a
negative acceleration.
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MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
An object moving towards the Earth or away from it in a vertical direction experiences a
force of gravity.
Every object in this motion experiences a uniform acceleration, called acceleration due
to gravity, g.
Definition: Acceleration a body experiences due to the force of gravity acting on it.
g = 9.8 ms-2 = 9.8 Nkg-1 (for calculations we use 10 ms-2 or 10 Nkg-1).
The equations of motion which can be used to calculate variables in the motion are:
(a) Downward Motion (b) Upward Motion
v = u + gt v = u – gt
) )
v2 = u2 + 2gh v2 = u2 – 2gh
N.B: a in the equations of linear motion is substituted by g, s by h and direction of g is

always towards the Earth.
Examples
1. A stone at rest falls from the top of a tall tower.
Calculate
(a) its velocity after 2 s; and
(b) the distance it falls after that time.
Answer
(a) u = 0 ms-1, g = 10 ms-2, t = 2 s, v = ? (b) s = ?
Using, v = u + gt Using:
v = 0 ms-1+ (10 ms-2) (2 s) s = 0 ms-1(2 s) + 1 (10 ms-2)(2 s)2

2
= 20 ms-1 = 20 m
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2. A mass is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 10 ms-1.
(a) What is the maximum height it reaches?

(b) What time does it take to reach the maximum height?
(c) Determine the time it takes for it to return to the ground.
(d) At what velocity does it hit the ground?
Answer
(a) u = 10 ms-1, v = 0 ms-1, g = 10 ms-2, s = h = ? (b) t = ?

Using v = u – 2gs
2 2
Using v = u – gt
02 = (10 ms-1)2 – 2(10 ms-2)h 0 ms-1= 10 ms-1- (10 ms-2)t
2(10 ms-2)h = (10 ms-1)2 (10 ms-2)t = 10 ms-1
h=5m t=1s
(c) t = 1 s (time to move up = time to move down). The motion is symmetrical.
(d) u = 0 ms-1, t = 1 s, g = 10 ms-2, v = ?

Using v = u + gt
= 0 ms-1 + (10 ms-2)(1 s)
= 10 ms-1
See below the graphs of motion of the object;
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Free Fall in Air
Free falling involves an object motion under the influence of only acceleration due to
gravity, g.
A free fall in a vacuum is unique because irrespective of the mass, size and shape, the
objects will move through a same distance (height) at the same time; e.g. a feather and
stone.
(a) If air resistance is neglected, the velocity of the falling increases uniformly until it hits
the ground. It will have a constant acceleration.
Graph of motion
(b) If air resistance is taken into account, the velocity increases as well as the air resistance.
The effect of air resistance in the motion is summarized below:
(i) It reduces acceleration of the falling object.
(ii) At a certain stage of fall, air resistance acting upwards will equal the weight of the
object acting downwards.
(iii) The resultant force (total force) on the object will become zero.
(iv) This will make the object fall with a constant velocity. This velocity is called
terminal velocity, vo.
The above effects are also observed in liquids but where we have air resistance, we
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should replaced it with viscous drag.

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Terminal velocity is defined as a velocity of a free falling object in a fluid (air or liquid)
when its weight balances the fluid resistance.
Graph of motion
(v) The value of vo depends on size, shape and weight.
(a) Small dense objects e.g. steel ball bearing/stone.

- Have high vo because they fall through a long distance at 10 ms-2 before
Fliquid = W.
(b) A parachute with large surface area.

- Has low vo because it falls through a short distance at 10 ms-2 before Fair = W.
An example to think about
1. The diagram below shows two forces acting on a raindrop, which is falling to the
ground.
(a) Name the forces A and B.
(b) State the cause of each of the forces named above.
(c) State and explain what happens to the raindrop when A = B.

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(d) At what velocity does the raindrop hit the ground?

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MASS, m
It is defined as a quantity (amount) of matter in a body.

It can be measured using bathroom scales, triple beam balances, lever arm balances, top
pan balances, etc.
S.I. unit: kilogram (kg); where 1 kg = 1 000 g.
The mass of an object is constant (remains the same no matter where it is located).
Mass is a scalar quantity.
WEIGHT, W
It is defined as a force of gravity acting on a body OR a gravitational force acting on a body.
In general, it results from the attraction which every object experiences above the Earth
surface due to acceleration due to gravity, g.
S.I. unit: Newton (N).
Instrument for measuring weight is a spring balance or force meter or newton meter.
Relationship between weight and mass
Weight is directly proportional to mass; W α m
Thus then W = mg
where g is acceleration due to gravity(or gravitational field strength).
Weight is a vector quantity - Always acts towards the centre of the Earth.
The weight of an object depends on g but the value of g depends on the distance from
the centre of the Earth (most times the surface of earth is considered).
Typical Examples on Variation of W
1. On Earth: since it is oblong (not completely spherical), g is not constant all over it.
Weight of a body is greater at the North or South poles to that at the equator.
2. Weight of a body on the moon < weight of a body on Earth.
Comparison between mass and weight - Summary
Mass Weight
Constant everywhere Varies with location on the Universe

S.I. unit: kilogram (kg) S.I. unit: Newton (N)
Measured using beam balances Measured using spring balance
33
A scalar quantity A vector quantity

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INERTIA and MASS
Inertia is defined as a property by which all bodies resist or oppose being moved by a force
OR
Reluctance (laziness) of a body to change its state of motion.
If the object has a larger mass, the greater is its inertia and the more difficult to
start or stop it into or from motion respectively.
Passengers in a bus which stops suddenly find themselves moving forward in an

attempt to continue moving with the speed of the bus but stopped by safety belts or seats
in front of them.
In some instances it is concluded that:
“Mass of a body is the measure of inertia.”
CENTRE OF MASS (GRAVITY), G
It is defined as a point in a body where the mass (weight) seems to be concentrated.
Depending on the shapes of bodies it is possible to have G at their geometric centres or

at other parts of the body or even outside the body.
Centre of mass for regular shaped lamina bodies
A lamina is a flat body with a uniform thickness. It can be approximated to a two

dimensional body.
Methods of locating G
(a) Balancing Method (b) Geometric Method (c) Pendulum Method
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Centre of mass for irregular shaped lamina bodies
It is determined by the plumb line method.
Fact used: When a body is suspended, the centre of mass falls directly below the
suspension.
Hang a body freely from a corner and by means of a plumb line mark a vertical line from
the point of suspension. This is repeated, hanging a body from another corner, and the
point of intersection of the drawn lines gives the centre of mass. To cross check the
accuracy, the body is again hang from another corner and the line drawn as before. If it
passes through the point already marked then G has been accurately located.
A body shaped as seen below has its G outside its body.
STABILITY
It is the ability for an body to remain at an equilibrium (balanced) state.

When the ability is overrun, the body topples (falls). This occurs normally when the
position of a vertical line through the centre of mass, G, falls outside the base of the
body; e.g.
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There are three states of stability or equilibrium.

(a) Stable Equilibrium
Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, it returns to the original position.

e.g. a bottle standing on its base.
If the bottle is tipped a little, G raises but stays vertically over the base. In order to
lower the force of gravity, the bottle falls back to its original position.
(b) Unstable Equilibrium
Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, it falls down to a new position.

e.g. a bottle standing on its mouth.
It balances for a short time because a small tip makes G fall outside the mouth.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium
Characteristic: When a body is slightly displaced, the height of G is neither lowered

nor raised but position changes.
e.g. a bottle lying on its side.
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When tipped, the bottle just rolls on its side to a new position. Height of G above the
ground remains the same.
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Factors affecting stability of bodies
(a) Position of G with respect to the base

N.B: G can be lowered by making the base of a body very heavy.
(b) Base area
A body with a large base area is more stable than that with a small area.
e.g. racing cars are more stable than the usual cars because they cover a big base
surface area.
DENSITY, ρ #TP
The density is defined as mass per unit volume.

Density = mass
volume
In symbols: ρ = m/V; where m is mass and V is the volume.
S.I. unit: kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).
Other unit: gram per cubic centimetre (g cm-3). This is a commonly used unit.
Examples: Density of water is 1 000 kg m-3 and Density of aluminium is 2 700 kg m-3
Density of water being 1 000 kg m-3 means: Volume of 1 m3 has a mass of 1 000 kg.
Relation between gcm-3 and kgm-3
To change densities in g cm-3 to kg m-3 we multiply by 1000.
Using ρ = m/V
1. A piece of steel has a volume of 12 cm3 and mass of 96 g.

Calculate its density in (a) g cm-3 (b) kg m-3.
Answer
(a) V = 12 cm3, m = 96 g, = ρ? (b) ρ = 8 x 1 000 kg m-3

Using ρ = m/V = 8 000 kg m-3
= 96 g/12 cm3
= 8 g cm-3
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2. Density of Gold is 19 g cm-3. What is the volume of 38 g of Gold?

Answer : 2 cm-3
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Simple Density Measurements
The methods adopted for measurement of density for various substances depend on
them being solid (regular or irregular), liquid or gas.
A. Density of regular shaped solids
Mass, m is measured using a suitable balance (triple beam balance).

The volume, V is found by measuring vital dimensions suitable for an appropriate
volume formula of the solid. Density is calculated using the formula ρ = m/V.
B. Density of irregular shaped bodies
(a) Measuring cylinder method
Measure the mass, m of the body.

Tie a string around the solid for easy immersion into a measuring cylinder.
Pour water of reasonable volume into measuring cylinder and note its volume, V1 cm3.
Immerse the tied solid into the measuring cylinder and note the new volume, V2 cm3.
Determine the volume of solid, V = (V2 – V1) cm3
Calculate the density of solid, ρ = m__ g cm-3
(V2 – V1)
(a) Displacement can method
Measured the mass, m of the solid using a triple beam balance. Tie a string around it.
Fill a displacement (eureka) can with water till it over flows from the spout.
Leave it for a few minutes till no more water comes from the spout.
Put a dry measuring cylinder under the spout and then immerse the solid gently into the
water in the displacement can.
Collect all the displaced water in the measuring cylinder.
Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface and the volume, V cm3 of water read off.
This gives the volume of solid immersed in water.
Calculate the density of solid, ρ = m/V g cm-3.
C. Density of liquids
Measure the mass, m1 of an empty dry clean beaker.

Pour a liquid into the dry clean measuring cylinder and note its volume, V cm3
Transfer the liquid in the measuring cylinder into the measured beaker and measure
the mass, m2 of the beaker and liquid.
Determine the mass of liquid, m = (m2 - m1) g
Calculate the density of liquid, ρ = (m2 - m1) g cm-3.
V
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D. Density of air
Using a top pan balance, measure the mass, m1 of a round-bottomed flask filled
with air but fitted
with a mechanism of closing or letting air out.
Connect the round-bottomed flask to a vacuum pump and empty it; then close.
Measure the mass,m2 of the emptied round-bottomed flask.
Fill the round-bottomed flask with water but with the closing mechanism removed.
Transfer the water into a dry measuring cylinder and note the volume,V cm3 as the
volume of
the air which was in the flask.
Calculate the density of air, ρ = mass of air/volume of air
= (m1 – m2) g cm-3.
V
Measuring Density Using a Hydrometer
Hydrometers are used to measure density of liquids directly and rapidly.

They work on the principle that a floating body displaces its own weight of a fluid it
floats. This is actually the Law of Floatation.
Structure of a hydrometer
The lower bulb is weighted with lead shots to keep the hydrometer upright.
The upper stem is graduated to read the density of liquid is made thin to give the
instrument a good sensitivity. The scale decreases upwards.
The bulb is allowed to sink in a liquid. It will do so till a certain level when it will float
upright.
The level of liquid outside the stem will correspond to a mark on the scale.
This will give the density of that particular liquid. The more it sinks; the liquid is of
lower density.
The less it sinks; the liquid is of higher density. We also have specialized hydrometers
that can be used for measuring the densities of liquids like milk (called a lactometer) and
acid in a car battery.
Density of milk: 1.015 – 1.045 g cm-3 (pure milk).
Density of acid: 1.25 – 1.30 g cm-3 (fully charged battery).
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Exercise
1. Complete the table below by inserting the missing values.
Substanc Mass/g Volume/cm-3 Density/gcm-3 ρ /kgm-3

e
Aluminiu 27 10 2.7 2700
m
Mercury 1360 100
Copper 120 15
Wood 250 500
Gold 5 19.4
Oil 80 0.8
Air 24 1.2
2. A bottle containing 5 000 cm3 of a liquid has a mass of 7.0 kg

(a) Calculate the density of the liquid if the mass of empty bottle and the lid is 0.5 kg.
(b) The bottle is made of glass that has a density of 2 500 kgm-3. Determine the volume
of glass used to make the bottle and lid.
3. A measuring cylinder contains 60 cm3 of water. An iron rod of density 7.9 gcm-3 is
completely immersed in the water and the reading on the cylinder is found to be
81 cm3. Calculate the mass of the iron rod.
4. A room is 4 m long, 2.5 m wide and 2 m high. The mass of the air in the room is 26 kg.
Calculate the density of air in the room.
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FORCES
A force is defined as a pull or a push.
S.I. unit: Newton (N).
Types of forces
Frictional force, Strain force, Impact force, Gravitational force, Magnetic force, Nuclear
force, Electrostatic force.
Groups of forces
(a) Contact forces – Forces which act by being in contact with the body.
e.g. (i) Frictional force (ii) Strain force (iii) Impact force
(b) Non-contact forces – Forces which act at a distance from the body.
e.g. (i) Gravitational force (ii) Magnetic force (iii) Electrostatic force (iv) Nuclear force
Effects of forces
When forces act on bodies, the following can be observed:

(i) Change in shape of a body; e.g. a spring, plasticine, etc.
(ii) Change in size of a body; e.g. a spring, rubber band, etc.
(iii) Change in direction of a moving body.
(iv) Increase or decrease of speed (velocity) of a moving body.
A. Change in shape and size of a body
A good object to be used in this case is a spring.
When a mass is hanged from a spring, it increases in length (size). This increase in length
is called extension; and corresponding force applied called stretching force or load.
This increase in length accounts for change in shape and size. If the load is increased
further the spring becomes deformed.
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Relationship between Load and Extension of a spring
Summarized by Hooke’s Law which states:
The extension of a spring is proportional to the stretching force provided

elastic limit is not exceeded.
A graph for a spring stretched beyond elastic limit is shown below.
(a) Along OE, Hooke’s Law holds.
Note that when F is doubled, even e is doubled; etc.
(b) E – is the elastic limit: Up to this point the spring is able to regain its length
=after being unloaded.
(c) OE – is the Limit of proportionality: Along this region, the extension is directly
proportional to the load.
(d) Spring constant, k: Is the force needed to cause a unit extension.
Mathematically is expressed as: k = F ( 1/gradient of e/F)

e
where, F = ke
This general equation is useful for calculating any of the variables when two have
been provided.
(e) B – Up to this point, the spring regains shape but does not regain its length when
unloaded. It will have gained some extra length.
(f) Yield point, Y – after this point the spring becomes plastic because it runs and large
extensions occur even without an increase in the load. The spring is deformed.
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(g) S – At this point the wire snaps (breaks).

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Note:
(i) Identify any materials that can be stretched.
(ii) Does Hooke’s Law hold when a body with a uniform cross sectional area is
compressed?
(iii) State why the graph passes through the origin (0,0).
Calculations of extension in springs
This depends on the fact that the extension and the stretching force are directly
proportional within the elastic limit (limit of proportionality). The springs can be coupled
in two major ways.
(a) Series: Springs are connected one after the other in a straight line.
(i) Single Spring: Stretched by a mass.
Extension = Stretched length – Original length

= 6 cm – 4 cm
= 2 cm
(ii) Two identical springs connected in series
Total Extension = Extension of spring 1 + Extension of spring 2

Since the springs are identical, then all of them will have the same extension.
If spring 1 has extension = 2 cm; then
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Total Extension = 2 cm + 2 cm
= 4 cm
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Thus Extension per spring (identical) = Total Extension

(b) Parallel: Identical springs are hanged adjacent to one another at the same level and
acted on by the same force.
If the force causes a total extension of 1 cm on the two springs then:
(i) Extension of each spring = 1 cm

2
= 0.5 cm
(ii) The springs will share the total extension equally.
(iii) If one spring extension is x cm, then extension of two springs is 2x cm.
(iv) This type of arrangements of springs finds use in Chest Expanders Springs.
Worked examples
1. Study the figure below of a spring stretched by 6 N. It is unloaded and then stretched
by unknown force W.
(a) Find the extension due to:

44
(i) W; and (ii) 6 N.

(b) What is the value of W?
Page
Answer
(a) (i) Extension due to W = 35 cm – 30 cm
= 5 cm
(ii) Extension due to 6 N = 45 cm – 30 cm
= 15 cm
(b) W = ?
Since the proportionality holds;
6N 15 cm
W 5 cm
15 cm x W = 5 cm x 6 N
W = 5 cm x 6 N
15 cm
= 2N
or
From (a),(i) and (ii) above; spring constant, k = 6 N/15 cm, e = 5 cm, F = W = ?
Using Hooke’s Law: F = ke

Substituting in the above equation: W = (6 N/15 cm)(5 cm)
=2N
2. A spring is stretched by different forces as seen below.
Determine
(a) X; and (b) mass, M.
Answer
(a) X = ?
By proportion: 16 cm 20 g
X 45 g
20 g (X) = 45 g x 16 cm
X = 45 g x 16 cm
20 g
= 36 cm
(b) M = ?
By proportion: 20 cm M
36 cm 45 g
36 cm (M) = 45 g x 20 cm
M = 45 g x 20 cm = 25 g
45
36 cm
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B. Effects of force on the motion of a body
(i) make a body move if it was stationery.

(ii) stop it in case it was moving.
(iii) change direction of a moving body.
(iv) accelerate/decelerate a body.
The effects (i) to (iii) are summarized in Newton’s First Law of Motion.
States
A body stays at rest or if moving; starts doing so with a constant velocity unless an
external force acts on it. (Recall the idea of inertia).
Effect (iv) brings in the idea of Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

States
The force applied to a moving body is proportional to the acceleration it gains
provided mass is kept constant.
Mathematically expressed as: F α a
Thus, F=ma;
where F is force, m is mass and a is acceleration.
Illustration: If a force, F is applied on a block of wood on a frictionless horizontal

surface, it will undergo acceleration, a. However if the force becomes 2F,
even the acceleration becomes, 2a; etc.
S.I. unit of F: Newton (N)
A newton is defined as a force which gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms-2.

Note: 1 N = 1 kg x 1ms-2.
Examples
1. Find the resultant force which acts on a body of mass 10 kg to produce an

acceleration of 2 ms-2.
Answer
m = 10 kg, a = 2 ms-2, F = ?
Using F = ma
F = 10 kg x 2 ms-2
= 20 N
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2. A body of mass 5 kg initially at rest gains a velocity of 30 ms-1 when a
constant force acts on it for 6 s. Find the magnitude of the constant force.
Answer
v = 30 ms-1, u = 0 ms-1, t = 6 s, m = 4 kg, a = ?, F = ?
To find a:
Using v = u + at
a = (v – u )/t
= (30 ms-1 – 0 ms-1)/6 s
= 5 ms-2
To find F:
Using F = ma
F = 5 kg x 5 ms-2
= 25 N
C. Effect of frictional force on motion of a body
Frictional force is defined as a force that opposes the motion of a body.
Facts to note about frictional force
(i) On rough surfaces frictional force is high and low for smooth surfaces.
(ii) Frictional force is useful to moving bodies and us because it helps our shoes/feet to
grip on the ground as well as tyres of vehicles; and between surfaces of
moving bodies with the media surrounding them.
Brake systems rely on frictional force.
(iii) To reduce frictional force, the following can be done

- use oil/grease
- use wheels or roller bearings or bearings
(iv) To increase frictional force

- make surfaces highly rough
- do not use greasing agents
(v) Frictional forces cause

- wear and tear of moving parts
- reduction of speed (velocity) of moving objects due to its effect to produce
a net (resultant) force.
Definition: This is the difference between the applied (driving) force and the
frictional force.
47
These two forces act in opposite directions.

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Consider a body being acted by a force, Fa so that it accelerates Eastwards. Acting
against this force is the frictional force, Ff, to the West.
Resultant force, F = (Fa - Ff); this force causes the acceleration or deceleration.
Illustrations
The resultant force concept introduces the idea of Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
States
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
e.g. for a moving car, the tyres push on the road while the road in return pushes back
on the tyres.
Numerical Examples on Application of F = ma and Resultant Force
1. A wheelbarrow of mass 20kg at rest on a horizontal ground experiences a frictional

force of 2 N when a force of 42 N is applied to it.
Determine
(a) the resultant force; and
(b) the acceleration of the wheelbarrow.
Answer
m = 20 kg, Ff = 2 N, Fa = 42 N, F = ? (b) a = ?
(a) Resultant force, F = Fa – Ff Using F = ma
= 42 N – 2 N a = F/m
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= 40 N = 40 N/20 kg
= 2 Nkg-1 or 2 ms-2
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2. A block of mass 2 kg is pushed along a floor with a constant velocity by a force of 5 N.
The pushing force is increased to 10 N.
Determine the following:
(a) the frictional force before the pushing force is increased;

(b) the resultant force after the force is increased; and
(c) the acceleration of the block.
Answer
(a) Frictional force, Ff = 5 N.
(b) m = 2 kg. Ff = 5 N, Fa = 10 N, F = ?
Resultant force, F = 10 N – 5 N
=5N
(c) a = ?
Using F = ma
a = F/m
= 5 N/2 kg
= 2.5 ms-2.
3. A toy truck has a mass of 1 kg and is being pushed along a table with a constant
velocity when a force of 5 N is applied.
(a) What is the acceleration of the truck? Give a reason for your answer.
(b) The push is increased to 9 N. Determine the net force and acceleration of the toy
truck.
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D. Turning Effects of Forces
When a force is applied, it can make a body to turn at an angle about a point called a
pivot or fulcrum; e.g. a door being opened or closed; a nut being loosened or tightened
by a spanner.
Moment of a force, M, is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular

distance
from the line of action.
Illustration
Generally it gives a turning effect of a force.
Mathematical expression:
Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance from line of action
In symbols; M = F x -d
S.I. unit: Newton metre (Nm); for force in Newtons (N) and distance in metres (m).
Other unit: Newton centimeter (Ncm)
The magnitude of M depends on:

- size of force acting ( big F, big M).
- distance force acts from fulcrum (large d, big M).
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Law of Moments or Principle of Moments
Consider a seesaw on which two boys are seated on opposite sides of the fulcrum and
swing each other up and down. Thus enjoying the game.
When one of the boys moves a certain distance towards the fulcrum or away from it, the
swinging stops. No enjoyment of the game.
In the former case, the seesaw was balanced or at equilibrium.

It is because the moment of force F1 (clockwise) must be equal to the moment of force,
F2 about the fulcrum or pivot.
At equilibrium then; Clockwise moment = Anti-Clockwise moment
F1 x -d1 = F2 x -d2
This is a mathematical expression of Law of Moments or Principle of Moments, P.O.M.
It states
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about a point equals
the sum of the anti-clockwise moments about the same point.
Verification of the Principle of Moments
Apparatus: metre rule, retort stand and clamp, two pieces of string, two mass hangers,
and slotted masses.
Set up of the apparatus
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Procedure
Suspend a metre rule with a help of a string tied on a clamp and adjust the string position around
the metre rule till it balances horizontally.
Suspend mass, m1 = 200 g at a distance, d1 = 20 cm on the left hand side of the pivot and on the
right hand side suspend a mass, m2 = 100 g at distance, d2, which must be determined by
adjusting its position till the metre rule again balances horizontally.
Repeat the above for three other positions, d1 of m1; and determine corresponding distances, d2
for mass, m2.
Record readings in a table.
Calculate the clockwise and anti-clockwise moments for each set of readings.
Compare the values of clockwise and anti-clockwise moments for each set of readings.
State what you find about the corresponding moments for each set of readings.
[Expected: Clockwise moments (CM) = Anti-clockwise moments (A-CM) about the same point
of suspension].
Conclusion
When a body is balanced about a pivot, the A-CM and CM are equal about the same point; thus
showing that the P.O.M has been verified.
N.B:
In everyday life, P.O.M find use in balances used for measuring mass, seesaw
Examples
1. A plank of wood AB shown below is balanced on a pivot, O, when a force of 4 N is

suspended from end B. Find the force P which makes the plank to balance.
Answer
Clockwise moments = 4 N x 2.5 m
Anti-clockwise moments = P x 0.5 m
But Anti-clockwise moments = Clockwise moments
P x 0.5 m = 4N x 2.5 m
P = 4 N x 2.5 m
52
0.5 m
= 20 N
Page
2. A uniform beam of length 4.0 m pivoted about its centre supports a 5.0 N
weight at a distance of 1.5 m from the centre; and 6.0 N weight at the other side at a
distance, d from the centre for it to balance. Determine distance, d.
Answer
Applying the Principle of Moments: Anti-CM = CM
6.0 N x d = 5.0 N x 1.5 m
d = 5.0 N x 1.5 m
6.0 N
= 1.25 m
Parallel Forces
Sometimes it occurs that more than two parallel forces act on a body and the body comes
to equilibrium. This indicates that the Anti-CM are equal to CM.
It is correct for us to conclude that whenever a body has several parallel forces acting on
it the P.O.M still holds.
Consider the following examples:
1. Calculate the Anti-CM and CM of the forces acting on the plank shown below.
Comment on your answer.
Answer
Anti-CM = (12 N x 1 m) + (2 N x 3 m);

= 12 Nm + 6 Nm
= 18 Nm
CM = (3 N x 1.5 m) + (4 N x 2.5 m) +(1 N x 3.5 m)

= 4.5 Nm + 10.0 Nm + 3.5 Nm
= 18 Nm
The Anti-CM = CM, showing that in spite of there being several parallel forces acting
53
on the plank; the P.O.M holds.

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2. Determine the value of distance, d2 in the balanced plank shown below.
Answer
Applying P.O.M: Anti-CM = CM
W1 x d1 + W2 x d2 = W3 x d3
(4.0 N x 2 m) + (6.0 N x d2) = 8.0 N x 2 m
(6.0 N x d2) = (8.0 N x 2 m) - (4.0 N x 2 m)
d2 = (8.0 N x 2 m) - (4.0 N x 2 m)
6.0 N
= 1.3 m
3. Determine force, W2 that will make the plank balanced.
4. Consider a situation seen below.
What is force Q if the plank AB is in equilibrium?

Answer
Upward forces = Q + 300 N

Downward forces = 500 N
For equilibrium, Upward force = Downward force
Q + 300 N = 500 N
Q = 200 N
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N.B: - Q and 300 N are referred to as reaction forces.

- 500 N is the action force.
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5. What are:
(a) Anti-CM and CM; and
(b) Clockwise forces and Anti-clockwise forces in the figure shown below?
Answer
(a) Anti-CM = 200 N x 25 cm + 400 N x 10 cm
= 900 N cm
CM = 500 N x 15 cm + 100 N x 15 cm
= 900 N cm
The plank is in equilibrium.
(b) CWF = 500 N + 100 N

= 600 N
Anti-CWF = 200 N + 400 N

= 600 N
Since the two are equal; the plank is in equilibrium.
N.B: The sum of parallel forces in one direction is equal to the sum of parallel forces
in the opposite direction.
6. The plank below is in equilibrium.
Determine the value of force, F.

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7. A uniform wooden plank AD, 120 cm long and weighing 2.00 N rests on sharp
supports as seen below. Other weights are suspended from it so that it is at equilibrium.
What are reactions at B and C?
Facts to note:
Q and R are reactions in magnitude and direction.
For the plank to be in equilibrium, Q + R = 0.20 N + 2.00 N + 1.00 N
= 3.20 N
Answer
To find reaction at B, i.e. Q, we take moments about C.
Why? This eliminates the moment due to R, which acts through C.
Taking moments about C:
CM = Anti-CM
Q x 100 cm = (0.20 N x 80 cm) + (2.00 N x 50 cm) + (1.00 N x 30 cm)
Q x 100 cm = 16 N cm + 100 N cm + 30 N cm
Q x 100 cm = 146 N cm
Q = 1.46 N
But Q + R = 3.20 N
1.46 N + R = 3.20 N
R = 1.74 N
Try to find R by taking moments about B.
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8. A metre rule of weight 0.9 N, is suspended by strings A and B as shown in the figure
below in order to have it at equilibrium.
Find where a 2 N weight will be hang from the centre for

(a) string A to become slack; and
(b) string B to become slack.
Answer
Take moments about A: (To eliminate tension in string so that it becomes slack).
Let d1 be distance from centre.
0.9 N x 30 cm + 2 N (30cm + d1) = (2 N + 0.9 N) 50 cm

27 N cm + 60 N cm + 2 d1 N = 145 N cm
2 d1 N = 145 N cm – 87 N cm
d1 = 58 N cm
2N
= 29 cm
Taking moments about B:
Let d2 be the distance from centre.
0.9 N x 20 cm + 2 N (20 cm + d2) = (2 N + 0.9 N) 50 cm

18 N cm + 40 N cm + 2 d2 N = 145 N cm
2 d2 N = 145 N cm – 58 N cm
d2 = 87 N cm
2N
= 43.5 cm
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Couples #TP
Definition
A couple is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on a body.
It must be emphasized that they do not act on the same straight line.
Examples
(a) When you steer a bicycle around a bend with both hands on the handlebars; your
hands will be applying equal and opposite forces.
These forces form a couple and make the handlebars to rotate.
Although the two forces are equal, they are not in equilibrium because they do not act
in the same straight line.
(b) Turning a tap of water
(c) Turning a steering wheel of a car using two hands.
Moment of a couple
Since both forces produce clockwise moments, then:

Total clockwise moment of the forces = F(x) + F(y)
= F (x + y)
=Fd
where d is the distance between the two forces.
Centripetal (Centre – Searching) Force#TP
Centripetal force is defined as a force acting on a body moving in a circular path

towards the centre.
It is responsible for making bodies move in circular paths.

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Examples
(i) Earth moving around the Sun.

(ii) Moon circling the Earth.
(iii) Hammer throwing in athletics.
(iv) Clothes being spun in a washing machine.
(v) Car moving in a circular path.
What takes place
The body moves with a constant speed but at every point on the circular path, velocity
changes direction constantly.
This makes the body experience acceleration called centripetal acceleration. It is also
towards the centre of the circular path.
Illustration
Facts to note:
(a) The centripetal force is increased by
(i) increasing the mass of the body;

(ii) decreasing the radius of the path; and
(iii) increasing the velocity of the body.
(b) If a body is being whirled in a circular path and the string happened to cut, the body
will fly off tangentially to the path.
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Exercise
A satellite moves clockwise around the Earth in a circular orbit.
(a) Draw an arrow to show the direction of the centripetal force that acts on the satellite.
(b) At point A on the orbit the satellite moves of the orbit due to no balance of forces.
Draw an arrow the path the satellite will take.
(c) Complete the sentences below using the following words:
less unchanged greater
(i) If the speed of the satellite increases then the centripetal force needed is
…………………………………………………………………………….…..
(ii) If the mass of the satellite decreases then the centripetal force needed
…………………………………………………………………………..…..
(iii) If the radius of the orbit increases then the centripetal force needed is
……………………………………………………………………………...
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VECTORS AND SCALARS #TP
A. SCALARS
A scalar is defined as a physical quantity which has magnitude only.
Examples: time, mass, temperature, speed, distance, etc.

N.B: Scalar quantities are added or subtracted by the normal rules of simple
Arithmetic.
B. VECTORS
A vector is defined as a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Examples: velocity, weight, acceleration, displacement, frictional force, etc.

N.B: Vector quantities are added and subtracted by a special rule, which takes into
consideration magnitude and direction of vectors.
Representation: Line with an arrow (length represents magnitude and an arrow shows
vector direction).
C. ADDITION OF VECTORS
When two vectors or more act on a body, there is one resultant vector, R
that will be in equilibrium to the other vectors all taken together.
(i) Parallel vectors
When vectors are parallel and act in the same direction, the resultant vector is the
sum of the vectors. Vectors are added head to tail.
Example
When vectors are parallel and act in opposite directions.
Example
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A further example
Two girls are dragging a table along a level floor by pulling a rope held horizontally
with forces 150 N and 180 N respectively.
(a) What is the resultant force on the rope?

(b) The frictional force opposing the motion above is 30 N. Calculate the resultant
horizontal force on the table.
Answer : Illustrate!
(ii) Perpendicular vectors

This can be done by graphical method or Pythagoras Theorem.
Graphical Method
Involves the usage of scale drawings.
Example
Two forces act on a box. One force of 120 N acts northwards and that of 90 N acts eastwards.
Determine the resultant force that acts on the box.
Method
- Choose a suitable scale to represent the magnitude of vectors.
Let 1 cm represent 10 N.
120 N 12 cm
90 N 9 cm
- Sketch the diagram you are going to use for guidance in scale drawing.
How to determine the resultant

(a) Draw a line of length 12 cm northwards from point B with an arrow on it to
show the direction of the force. This stands for 120 N.
(b) From the head of arrow drawn line, draw another line of length 9 cm eastwards at 90 0 with
an arrow on it to show direction of the force. This stands for 90 N.
(c) Join the tail of vector of length 12 cm to the head of vector of 9 cm with a
line having an arrow on it. This gives the resultant vector, R.
(d) Measure the length of this line in cm and multiply it by 10 N to give the
magnitude of the force. [15 x 10 N = 150 N]
(e) Measure the angle θ, between the 12 cm line and the R line, to give the
direction of the resultant force. [36.9 0]
or θ = tan-1(9 cm/12 cm)
62
= 36.9 0
(f) Then R = 150 N, 36.9 0 East of North or 150 N, 036.9 0 .
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Further examples on scale drawings
1. A man walks from point A and walks a distance of 3 km in a direction due South to
a point B. He then walks 4 km in direction of East from B to point C. Determine his
resultant displacement. (Answer: 5km, 8 0 NW)
2. Two tugboats towing a ship have their ropes at right angles. The tugs pulling forces
are 15 000 N due N.W and 20 000 N due S.W. Determine the resultant pull of the
tugs on the ship. (Answer: 25 000 N, -089.10 )
3. The velocity of an aeroplane is 120 km/h and its course is due North. It is carried
off course by a wind blowing from West at 90 km/h. Find its ground velocity.
(Answer: 150 N, 36.9 0 East of North)
Pythagoras Theorem Method

- Sketch the vectors directly (without scale) and apply Pythagoras Rule.
- R2 = (120 N)2 + (90 N)2; (Pythagoras Rule)

- R = 150 N
- θ = tan-1(90 N/120 N)
= 36.9 0
- Then R = 150 N, 36.9 0 East of North.
(iii) Vectors at acute or obtuse angles
Addition can be done by Parallelogram Rule or Cosine Rule.
By Parallelogram Rule
Two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by adjacent sides of a

parallelogram, then the resultant of the two vectors will be represented by the
diagonal of a parallelogram drawn through the point of intersection of the
vectors.
Example
63
If the two vectors are 3 km due North and the other vector is 4 km due North East
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and they are performed by a body. The angle between the vectors is 450.
Method
- Choose a suitable scale to represent the magnitudes of vectors.
Let 1 cm represent 1 km.
3 km 3 cm
4 km 4 cm
- Sketch the diagram you are going to use for guidance in scale drawing.
How to determine the resultant

(i) Draw the two vectors, OA and OB to scale with angle between them (450).
(ii) From A draw a line equal and parallel to vector OB, and also from B draw a
line equal and parallel to vector OA to meet at C.
(iii) The shape formed is a parallelogram. Join O to C as a diagonal.
(iv) Measure its length and multiply it by 1 km. This will give the magnitude of
the resultant vector, R ( 6 x 1 km = 6 km).
(v) Measure angle AÔC to give the direction of R as a bearing (023 0).
(vi) Then, R = 6 km at 023 0 or 6 km in direction of 23 0 from OA.
N.B: Direction should be given as a bearing or with respect to R to one of the vectors.
Further Examples
1. An ocean liner is being towed into the harbor by two tugs A and B exerting forces
of 2.5 kN and 3.5 kN respectively, with their ropes making an angle of 68 0.
Determine by scale drawing the resultant force acting on the ocean liner.
2. The figure below shows Peter and John pulling a log along a level ground using
ropes.
Peter pulls with a force of 700 N and John pulls with a force of 600 N. The angle between the ropes is 50 0.
(a) Use a suitable scale to draw a vector diagram of the two forces.
64
(b) Use your diagram or otherwise find

(i) resultant force; and
(ii) the angle between the resultant and Peter’s rope.
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Components of a vector
A single force can be resolved into two separate forces or components, by the reverse
process used for finding a resultant. The components are always required to be at right
angles to each other, so that the parallelogram in this case is a rectangle.
They can be determined by two methods.
(a) Graphical method
A single force, F is first drawn to scale, the required rectangle is then drawn and the two
components namely horizontal component and vertical component measured.
(b) Trigonometrically method
This method only needs you to sketch the vector and then look for the
cosine or sine of the angle, .
Horizontal component of F = F cos
Vertical component of F = F sin
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ENERGY, WORK AND POWER
1. ENERGY , E
Energy is defined as the ability to do physical work.
S.I. unit: Joule (J)
FORMS AND SOURCES OF ENERGY
FORMS SOURCES RENEWABLE/N

ON-
RENEWABLE
Heat energy fires NR
Light energy sun, stars, light bulbs, burning fires NR
Sound energy vibrating objects NR
Chemical Food, fossil fuels (coal and gas) NR
energy
Electrical batteries, H.E.P and Nuclear Power NR
energy Stations
Kinetic energy moving objects NR
Potential objects above Earth surface NR
energy
Nuclear energy atoms (atomic nuclei) NR
Solar energy sun R
Geothermal molten rocks underground R
energy
Wind energy wind R
Wave energy water waves at sea R
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
States: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but changed from one form to another.
Energy input ‘machine’ converts equal energy output

(transducer)
This concept is used in energy changes or conversions: energy changing from one form to
another.
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ENERGY CONVERSIONS
Energy flow diagrams are used to show energy changes that occur. Some examples are
given below.
(a) A bulb torch illuminating a room
Chemical Energy Electrical energy Light Energy + Heat Energy
(b) An apple falling from a tree
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Heat Energy + Sound Energy
(c) A singer singing into a microphone
Sound Energy Electrical Energy Kinetic Energy + Sound Energy
(d) An initially moving car suddenly brought to rest
………………..…… Energy Heat Energy + ………………… Energy
(e) Production of electricity from a hydroelectric power station
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Electrical Energy

(from head of water) (rotating turbine)
(f) Production of electricity in a power station using coal

Chemical Energy Heat Energy Kinetic Energy + Electrical Energy
(turn water into (rotating turbine)
steam)
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(g) ENERGY CONVERSION in simple pendulum
Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

(at extreme left) (at centre) (at extreme right)
NB: The pendulum eventually stops at the middle position because all the energy
becomes gradually lost due to air resistance opposing its motion. This does not show that
energy of the pendulum is destroyed!
There are many examples of energy conversions, which we experience in our everyday
life. For the examples listed below draw energy flow diagrams:
(i) Footballer kicking a ball

(ii) Charging a car battery
(iii) A radio speaker producing music
(iv) Solar Panels used in our homes
(v) Swimmer diving from a platform
It is also important to note that every energy conversion is designed to produce useful
energy, which can be made use of in special ways like for lifting, data transfer, growth,
storage, deceleration and many others.
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SOURCES OF ENERGY IN BOTSWANA
SOURCE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Sun -Renewable -Changes with weather
-Abundant and clean -Expensive (solar panels)
Firewood -Cheap and easy to -Non-renewable and dirty to use
find -Causes deforestation
-Produces CO2 which causes
pollution and Global warming
Coal -Can be used to -Non-renewable
produce electricity in -Produces Carbons which causes
power stations pollution and Global warming
-People get paid for
mining
Natural gas -Clean and easy to -Non-renewable
use -Causes pollution and Global
warming
Oil (petrol, diesel, -Easy and clean to use -Non-renewable
paraffin) -Produces CF’s which causes
pollution and Global warming
Wind -Renewable -Machinery used is expensive
-Abundant and clean
N.B: In columns two and three the responses should be based on the Social, Economic
and Environmental factors.
Fill in the blanks in this article about Global Warming. Use the terms given below.
Some gases such as -------------------- from industries accumulate in the atmosphere

leading to an ------------------------ in temperature. These gases trap long wavelength
----------------------- radiation emitted by the Earth. This is known as the --------------
effect, and is believed to cause ------------------------------ . Global warming causes a
rise in temperature of the oceans, which leads to ---------------- in the sea level.
[Greenhouse, Nitrogen, solar, rise, fall, infrared, carbon dioxide, increase, decrease,
Global Warming]
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A. KINETIC ENERGY, Ek
Kinetic Energy is defined as energy due to motion of objects or energy possessed by all
moving objects.
It depends on the mass and velocity of the object.
To calculate kinetic energy of a body we use the formula:
Kinetic Energy = ½ x mass x velocity x velocity
In symbols, Ek = ½ mv2
where m is the mass of the object in kg
v is the velocity of the object in ms-1
Examples
(a) Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1000 kg moving at a speed of 20 ms-1.
Answer
m = 1 000 kg, v = 20 ms-1, Ek = ?
Using Ek = ½ mv2
= ½ x 1 000 kg x 20 ms-1 x 20 ms-1
= 2 000 J
(b) A body of mass 100 g is moving with a velocity of 5 ms-1. Calculate its Ek.
Answer
m = 100 g, v = 5 ms-1, Ek = ?
= (100/1 000) kg
= 0.1 kg
Using Ek = ½ mv2
= ½ x 0.1 kg x (5 ms-1)2
= 1.25 J
(c) A moving object has a mass of 0.4 kg and 80 J of kinetic energy. Calculate the
object’s velocity.
Answer
m = 0.4 kg, Ek = 80 J, v = ?
Using Ek = ½ mv2
80 J = ½ x 0.4 kg x v2
80 J = 0.2 kg x v2
v2= 80 J/0.2 kg
v = ±v(80 J/0.2 kg)
v = ± 20 ms-1
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The velocity of the moving object is 20 ms-1.

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B. POTENTIAL ENERGY, Ep
Potential Energy is defined as the energy a body possesses due to its position with
respect to the Earth.
It depends on the weight and height of a body above the Earth.
To calculate potential energy of a body we use the formula:
Potential Energy = mass x acceleration due to gravity x height above the Earth
In symbols:
Ep = mgh
where m is measured in kg
g is 10 ms-2 or 10 Nkg-1
h is measured in metres, m
Examples
(a) A boy of mass 45 kg, fearing dogs climbs to the top of a 3 m tall tree.
(i) What form of energy does he gain as he climbs?
(ii) Calculate the amount of energy he gains.
Answer
(i) Ep
(ii) m = 45 kg, g = 10 Nkg-1, h = 3 m, Ep = ?
Using Ep = mgh
= 45 kg x 10 Nkg-1x 3 m
= 1350 J
(b) Peter let a stone of mass 200 g fall from a tower that is 20 m tall till it hit the ground.
(i) What type of energy does the stone possess when at the top of the tower?
(ii) Calculate the amount of energy it has at the top of the tower.
(iii) What form of energy does the stone gain as it falls?
(iv) Calculate the amount of PE when the stone has fallen by 15 m.
(v) State the kinetic energy of stone on hitting the ground. Support your answer with a reason.
(vi) What is the speed of stone on hitting the ground?
(vii) Use energy flow diagram to show energy changes that take place.
Answer
(i) Ep
(ii) m = 200 g, g = 10 N/kg, h = 20 m, Ep =?

= (200/1000) kg
= 0.2 kg
Using Ep = mgh
= 0.2 kg x 10 N/kg x 20 m
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= 40 J
(iii) Ek
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(iv) h = 20 m – 15 m = 5 m; Ep =?
Using Ep = mgh
= 0.2 kg x 10 N/kg x 5 m
= 10 J
NB: The Ek = 40 J – 10 J (from the PCE)

= 30 J
(v) Ek = 40 J
From the PCE, the entire Ep has been converted to Ek.
(vi) Ek = 40 J, m = 0.2 kg, v =?
Using Ek = ½ mv2
v = ±v(2KE/m)
= ±v[(2 x 40 J)/0.2 kg]
= ± 20 ms-1
The velocity of the stone is 20 ms-1.
(vii) Potential Energy Kinetic energy Sound energy + Heat energy
WORK, W
Work is defined as a product of a force and a distance in the direction of force.

To calculate work done, the mathematical expression is used:
Work Done = Force x distance moved in the direction of force
In symbols: W = F x s
Relation between Work and Energy
For an object to do a piece of work, it must have energy that is actually used up. A good
example is of a man who becomes tired after pushing a box on a floor. No energy means
no work is possible.
WORK DONE = ENERGY

72
However, not any energy spent means work is done! Carrying 100 kg of cement on the head
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without changing the vertical height make a person tired although NO WORK IS DONE.
(i) What is the reason for this unfortunate situation?
(ii) Give other examples of cases as that mentioned above.
Examples on calculating the work done by forces
(i) What is the amount of work done if 100 N is applied to push a box across a horizontal
floor for a distance of 3 m?
Answer
F = 100 N, s = 3 m, W =?
Using W = F x s
= 100 N x 3 m
= 300 J
(ii) A boy of mass 50 kg climbs a tree to a height of 5 m. Calculate the amount of work
done in this process.
Answer
m = 50 kg, g = 10 Nkg-1, s = height = 5 m, F = ?, W = ?
Using F = mg
F = 50 kg x 10 Nkg-1
= 500 N
But W = F x s **
Then W = 500 N x 5 m
= 2500 J
Note that in ** above,

W = mgh
The Work Done in a vertical direction is equal to Potential Energy.
POWER, P
Power is defined as the rate at which, work is done.
or
Rate at which energy is being used (supplied).
Mathematical expression:
Power = Work Done/ Time taken
or
Power = Energy transfer/ Time taken
In symbols: P = W/t or E/t

S.I. unit: Watt (W)
where 1W = 1J/1s
Multiple units: kilowatts (kW); 1 kW = 1 000 W
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Megawatts (MW); 1MW = 1 000 000 W

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Examples
(a) A man loading a truck lifts a box of mass 100 kg through a height of 1.6 m in 4 s.
(i) Calculate the amount of work done by the man.
(ii) What is the power of this man?
Answer
(i) m = 100 kg, g =10 Nkg-1, h = 1.6 m, W =?
Using W = mgh
= 100 kg x 10 Nkg-1 x 1.6 m
= 1 600 J
(ii) W = 1 600 J, t = 4 s, P =?
Using P = W/t
= 1 600 J/4 s
= 400 W
(b) A crane, A, lifts a load of 400 kg through a vertical height of 10 m in 4 s. Another

crane, B, lifts 300 kg through 15 m vertically in 5 s. Which crane uses more power?
(Answer: PA = 10 000 W; PB = 9 000 W; Crane A uses more power than crane B)
(c) A trailer was pulled by a car with a horizontal force of 3 000 N so that it moved a
distance of 100 m in 1minute on a horizontal road. Calculate the average power
exerted by the car on the trailer. (Answer: P = 5 000 W)
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EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY CONVERSIONS
Generally refers to the conversions of energy to other forms at a minimum loss.
Efficiency, η, is defined as the ratio of output energy to input energy, multiplied by

100%.
Mathematical expression
Efficiency, η = Output Energy x 100 % or Power Output x 100 %

Input Energy Power Input
Consider the diagram below;
The intension was to produce only light from the bulb but along with light produced, heat
was unintentionally produced. This means that some of the electrical energy ended up
producing some form of energy that was not intend to produce. In this case if the bulb
only produced light, then it would be 100% efficient.
UNFORTUNATELY THERE IS NO KNOWN MACHINE (ENERGY CONVERTER)

THAT IS 100% EFFICIENT.
EXAMPLES
1.A machine lifts a load of 500 N through a vertical height of 2 m in 5 seconds.
(a) What type of energy does the load gain?

(b) How much work does the machine do?
(c) How much power does the machine develop?
(d) The machine has an efficiency of 40%. Determine how much energy was supplied
to the machine.
2. An athlete in a race exerts a force of 100 N for a distance of 200 m and in the process
uses 500 000 J.
(a) What is the efficiency of the athlete?

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(b) State where the rest of the energy goes?

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PRESSURE, P #TP
A. Pressure is defined as a force or thrust acting perpendicularly per unit area.
Mathematical expression: Pressure = Force/Area

In symbols: P = F/A
From above it can be seen that pressure depends on the force applied and the area over
which the force is applied. If a force is concentrated over a small area, this produces a
large pressure.
S.I. unit: Pascals (Pa)
where 1 Pascal is a force of 1 N spread over an area of 1 m2.
1 Pa = 1 N/1 m2
Examples to illustrate effect of area on pressure and using P = F/A in calculations
(a) The area of the end of a brick is 0.005 m2 and the area of the base of the same brick is
0.02 m2. The weight of the brick is 50 N. What is the pressure the brick can exert on
each of the surfaces?
On 0.005 m2 surface (small area) On 0.02 m2 surface (large area)

P = 50 N/0.005 m2 P = 50 N/0.02 m2
= 10 000 Nm-2 = 2 500 Nm-2
This shows that the smaller the area, the bigger the pressure.
(b) A lady weighing 600 N wears stiletto heels with total area of 0.00003 m2.
(i) What pressure do they exert on the floor?
(ii) What effect would these have on a wooden floor?
Answer
(i) F = 600 N, A = 0.00003 m2
Pressure on the floor = 600 N/0.00003 m2
= 20 000 000 Nm-2
(ii) Make holes on the wooden floor. Imagine if this person walks on soft ground!
(c) Take an instance when you push hard on a drawing pin, you can push the point into a
wooden tabletop. If you turned the pin upside down, the point would go into you with
a lot of pain. Why?
(d) A crate exerts a pressure of 10 kPa over its base that measures 0.5 m by 0.2 m.
Calculate the weight of the crate.
Answer: P = 10 kPa A = 0.5 m x 0.2 m W = F =?
= 10 000 Pa = 0.1 m2
Using P = F/A
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F = W = PA
W = 10 000 Pa x 0.1 m2
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= 1 000 N
(e) A gas in a cylinder is exerting a pressure of 400 Pa on the inside walls due to the
outward force of 1 200 N acting on the walls. Calculate the area of the walls being acted
on by the force.
Answer: P = 400 Pa, F = 1 200 N, A =?
Using P = F/A
A = F/P
= 1 200 N/400 Nm-2
= 3 m2
B. Applications of Solid Pressure
The concept that when a force acts on a small area, a high pressure results; finds many
uses in our everyday lives.
(i) Action of knives and needles - They easily cut and pierce respectively because of
the high pressure
as a result of the small areas in contact.
(ii) Construction vehicles (caterpillars) - These can run on muddy ground whereas
ordinary cars cannot because they have caterpillar tracks that have a larger surface area.
They do not dig deep into the mud because of less pressure exerted.
* Can you think of any more applications?
C. Liquid Pressure
The liquid pressure is characterized by the following:
(i) It increases with depth
Illustration:
The holes made at different heights will allow water to spurt out at different speeds as
well as to different distances from the eureka can or displacement can.
Water spurts greatest from the lowest hole, C showing that pressure is greatest,
77
followed by that from hole B and least from hole A.

This also shows that pressure increases with depth since depth of C > B > A.
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(ii) It acts in all directions at any point in a liquid.
(iii) It is independent of cross-section area of the container the liquid is placed.
Liquids are said to find their own level and this shows that pressure depends on
height not cross-sectioned area.
Calculation of Pressure of a Liquid Head
Consider a horizontal area A (m2) at depth of h (m) below a surface of liquid of density, ρ
(kg/m3) as seen below.
Volume of liquid standing on this area = Ah (m3)

The mass of this liquid = Ahρ kg
Weight (force) of the liquid = Ahρg (N)
But Pressure = Force/Area

The pressure due to this liquid = Ahρg (N)/A (m2)
Therefore Pressure, P = hρg (Nm-2)
The expression above shows that:
PRESSURE AT ANY POINT IN A LIQUID AT REST DEPENDS ONLY ON THE

DEPTH AND DENSITY.
It is useful for calculating pressure at any point in a liquid.
Examples
1. What is the pressure in Pascals, in a liquid of density 1 000 kgm-3 and 10 m below the surface?
(Take g = 10 ms-2)
Answer
h = 10 m, ρ = 1 000 kgm-3, g = 10 ms-2 or Nkg-1, P =?
Using P = hρg
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= 10 m x 1000 kgm-3 x 10 Nkg-1

= 100 000 Pa
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2. The base of a rectangular vessel measured 10 cm x 20 cm. Water is poured to a height
of 5 cm.
Determine (i) pressure; and
(ii) force on the base.
Answer
(i)h = 5 cm, ρ = 1 000 kgm-3,g = 10 Nkg-1, P =? (ii) A = (0.10x 0.20)m2,P = 500 Nm-2
P = 0.05 m x1 000 kgm-3x10 Nkg-1 F = 500 Nm-2 x (0.10x 0.20) m2

= 500 Nm-2 = 10 N
D. Atmospheric Pressure
-The tiny particles of gases that make up the atmosphere of the Earth have masses and
hence also have weight (force). This force exerts pressure on us and all over the
surface of the Earth.
-Large forces, which can be produced by atmospheric pressure, can be demonstrated by

these two experiments.
(i) Crushing Can Experiment
-A small amount of water is poured in a metal can and boiled till steam is seen to come
out of it. At this stage the steam is carrying some air out.
-The metal can is then closed with its airtight stopper and immediately removed from the
flame and cold water is poured over it.
- The can will be seen to collapse inwards!
Explanation: Cold water poured over the can causes the steam inside to condense
producing water and leaving steam at low pressure. As a result, the excess atmospheric
pressure outside causes the can to collapse inwards.
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(ii) The Magdeburg Hemisphere
- The two hemispheres when assembled can be pulled apart quite easily.
- When the air inside the two hemispheres placed together is pumped out using a vacuum
pump and the stopcock tap closed thereafter, it becomes very difficult to pull them apart
.
Explanation: On removal of the air from inside, a vacuum is created and only the
external atmospheric pressure will act and press the hemispheres tightly together.
E. Applications of Atmospheric Pressure
(i) The Rubber Sucker

- This is a circular shallow rubber cup.
- In common everyday life, they are used for attaching notices to shop windows,
car windscreens (inside), and attaching licenses to motorcar windscreens.
How? The cup is moistened in order to get a good seal and pressed on a smooth flat
surface. The cup is flattened and air squeezed out from beneath it. The atmospheric
pressure then holds it firmly on the flat surface.
In industry they can be used for lifting beams or heavier objects using the method
explained above.
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(ii) Drinking Straw
Action
- When a person sucks out the air in the straw, the pressure of air that remains is
less than the atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of liquid.
- This pressure difference causes or forces the liquid up the straw into a person’s
mouth.
- A smooth flow is helped by the pressure difference at the bottom of straw that
is greater than atmospheric pressure.
(iii) The Common Lift Pump
Structure
In Figure (i) – Upstroke: As the piston is raised, pressure in A falls. Atmospheric

pressure forces the flap valve, V1 to open and forces water up into A.
In Figure (ii) – Down stroke: When the piston is pushed down, the flap valve, V1 closes.
Water is compressed and forces flap valve, V2 to open and the water enters into B. Thus
when the piston is raised further during subsequent upstrokes,V2 closes and water is
raised to reach the spout.
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F. Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure
Many instruments can be used namely: Manometers, Bourdon gauges, Aneroid

barometers and Mercury barometers. We shall consider the first and last of these
instruments.
(i) Mercury Barometer

Structure
-The pressure at X is measured by a column of mercury in the tube above the Hg in the
dish. It is 760mm of Hg and this is equivalent to the atmospheric pressure on the surface
of Hg in the dish.
- The column of mercury in the tube measures the pressure in terms of mm of Hg.
- The vertical height of mercury does not change when the tube is tilted.
- The Torricellian Vacuum is not a perfect vacuum because it contains a little Hg
vapor. Its effect on atmospheric pressure measured is negligible.
The 760 mm Hg = 101 325 Pa at sea level. This is roughly 10 m of water in a tube of the
same diameter!
(ii) The Manometer

- It is possible for us to have a Colored Water or Hg manometer.
- It is used for measuring the pressure of gases.
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Structure and application procedure
-Figure (a) shows a manometer, which is basically a U-tube containing colored water or
mercury. When not in use the levels of the manometer liquid in both arms are the same
because they are at the same atmospheric pressure, Pa.
-To measure the pressure of a gas supply, one arm of the U-tube is connected to the gas
supply; see Figure (b) above.
-The gas will exert pressure in that arm and causes water to rise in the other arm to
height, h (head of liquid).
-To determine the pressure of gas supply we use:

Pgas = Pa + hρg
where Pa - atmospheric pressure

h - height of liquid AB above the level of liquid in arm connected to gas supply
ρ - density of liquid
g - acceleration due to gravity (= 10 N/kg or 10 ms-2)
hρg - pressure of liquid column (gas) in excess over the atmospheric pressure
Examples
1. The figures (i) and (ii) show an open ended and one closed ended U-tube Hg
manometer connected at different times to the same gas supply.
(a) What is the gas pressure of the gas supply in Figure (i)?
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(b) Calculate the height x of mercury in Figure (ii).

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Answer
(a) Pressure of gas supply = Pa + hρg

. = 760 mm Hg + 100 mm Hg
= 860 mm Hg
(b) In this case since there is no atmospheric pressure because of vacuum,
The height, x = 860 mm
1. An open U-tube manometer containing water shows a difference in level of 20 cm

when connected to a gas supply.
Find the following,
(c) the excess pressure of the gas above atmospheric pressure
(d) the pressure of the gas supply
Answer: Try this for yourself!
Pressures of Enclosed Gases and Manometers
We use various devices to measure the pressures of enclosed gases. The tire gauge used
to measure the pressure of air in automobile tires gives the pressure over and above
atmospheric pressure. In laboratories we sometimes use a device called a manometer,
whose principle of operation is similar to that of a barometer. Figure 10.3(a) shows a
closed-tube manometer, normally used to measure pressures below atmospheric pressure.
The pressure is the difference in the heights of the mercury levels in the two arms.
FIGURE above: Closed-end manometer (a) and open-end manometers (b and c). In (b)
gas pressure is less than atmospheric pressure; in (c) gas pressure exceeds atmospheric
pressure.
An open-tube manometer, like that pictured in Figure 10.3(b) and (c), is often employed
to measure gas pressures that are near atmospheric pressure. The difference in the heights
of the mercury levels in the two arms of the manometer relates the gas pressure to
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atmospheric pressure. If the pressure of the enclosed gas is the same as atmospheric
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pressure, the levels in the two arms are equal. If the pressure of the enclosed gas is
greater than atmospheric pressure, mercury is forced higher in the arm exposed to the
atmosphere, as in Figure 10.3(c). Conversely, if atmospheric pressure exceeds the gas
pressure, the mercury is higher in the arm exposed to the gas, as in Figure 10.3(b).
Although mercury is most often used in a manometer, other liquids can be used. For a
given pressure difference, the difference in heights of the liquid levels in the two arms of
the manometer is inversely proportional to the density of the liquid. The greater the
density of the liquid, the smaller the difference in column heights. The high density of
mercury (13.6 g/mL) allows us to build smaller manometers than we could with less
dense liquids.
G. Pressure and Weather
- Pressure variations can be shown on weather maps.

- All places on the weather map, which have same atmospheric pressure, are joined
together by lines called ISOBARS.
- On weather maps, pressure is measured in millibars.
NOTE: 1 Bar = 1000 millibars
1 Bar = 100 kPa (= 760 mmHg, the normal atmospheric pressure).
- Isobars are drawn at 4 mmHg intervals.
- Regions where pressure is lower than average are called CYCLONES or

DEPRESSIONS and wind blows spirally inwards in anticlockwise direction
towards the low pressure centre.
- Regions where the atmospheric pressure is higher than the average pressure are
called ANTICYCLONES. In these anticyclones, wind circulates around the high
pressure centre spirally upwards in clockwise directions.
The diagram below illustrates the points raised above:
In the diagram, the arrows show wind direction.

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Using Isobars to predict the weather
The weather map below shows two different weather systems namely Low-pressure
system and High-pressure system.
The following facts are necessary if prediction of weather has to be done:
(i) High-pressure systems are associated with warmer, dryer conditions while low-
pressure systems are associated with colder and wetter conditions.
(ii) The wind strength depends on the spacing between neighboring isobars. Closely
spaced isobars result into strong winds while widely spaced result into light winds.
(iii) Winds blow along isobars. The wind will blow clockwise for high pressure, this
gives calm weather and blow anticlockwise to low pressure – turbulent weather.
N.B
Remember that if either of the two above happens to reverse, the wind direction will
reverse.
Cyclone and anticyclone
A cyclone is a storm or system of winds that rotates around a center of low atmospheric
pressure. An anticyclone is a system of winds that rotates around a center of high
atmospheric pressure. Distinctive weather patterns tend to be associated with both
cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones (commonly known as lows) generally are indicators
of rain, clouds, and other forms of bad weather. Anticyclones (commonly known as
highs) are predictors of fair weather.
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Winds in a cyclone blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in

the Southern Hemisphere. Winds in an anticyclone blow just the opposite. Vertical air
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movements are associated with both cyclones and anticyclones. In cyclones, air close to
the ground is forced inward toward the center of the cyclone, where pressure is lowest. It
then begins to rise upward, expanding and cooling in the process. This cooling increases
the humidity of the rising air, which results in cloudiness and high humidity in the
cyclone.
In anticyclones, the situation is reversed. Air at the center of an anticyclone is forced

away from the high pressure that occurs there. That air is replaced in the center by a
downward draft of air from higher altitudes. As this air moves downward, it is
compressed and warmed. This warming reduces the humidity of the descending air,
which results in few clouds and low humidity in the anticyclone.
Hurricanes and typhoons
Cyclones that form over warm tropical oceans are called tropical cyclones (they are also
known as tropical storms or tropical depressions). Tropical cyclones usually move toward
the west with the flow of trade winds. A tropical cyclone that drastically increases in
intensity is known as a hurricane when it occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or adjacent seas.
To be classified as a hurricane, a tropical cyclone must produce winds over 74 miles (119
kilometers) per hour. Hurricanes usually generate off the coast of West Africa and move
westward toward Central America and the eastern United States. They increase in size
and strength until they reach land or more northern latitudes. In addition to high,
sustained winds, hurricanes deliver heavy rain and devastating ocean waves.
THERMAL PHYSICS
STATES OF MATTER: Matter is made up of molecules or atoms. There are three states of
matter i.e. solid, liquid and gases. Liquids and gases are called fluids.
SOLIDS: A solid has a fixed shape and volume. The solid molecules are closely packed and the
forces of attraction are more than the repulsion forces. These molecules are not free to move, they
vibrate at fixed positions.
LIQUIDS: A liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. The forces between the
molecules in a liquid are almost equal i.e. attraction and repulsion forces are almost equal. The
molecules are free to move, vibrate and rotate.
GASES: A gas has neither a definite shape nor definite volume. The gas molecules are far apart
and are in constant random motion.
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BROWNIAN MOTION: This is the random movement of particles in a liquid or gas. E.g.
smoke particles are used to demonstrate Brownian motion. The smoke particles will collide with
the randomly moving air particles. Therefore the smoke particles will also move in random
motion. If they are in a container they will also collide against the walls. The following apparatus
can be used to study Brownian motion.
The following diagram shows the view through a microscope of a smoke particle in a smoke cell
EVAPORATION: It is the conversion of liquid to gas or vapour. Evaporation occurs when the
fastest moving molecules escape from the surface of the liquid. The energy of the remaining
molecules is relatively low, therefore evaporation causes cooling.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
(a) TEMPERATURE: When the temperature is higher or rises more molecules gain kinetic
energy and move fast enough to escape from the surface.
(b) SURFACE AREA: When surface area is large, molecules get a chance to escape as more
are near the surface.
(c) HUMIDITY: When humidity is low, more molecules get a chance to escape into the
atmosphere.
(d) WIND/DRAUGHT: When air is moving it carries away escaped molecules so they do
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not return to the liquid.

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GAS LAWS
BOYLE’S LAW: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if the
temperature is kept constant.
i.e. P 1/V or Pv = n (constant)
CHARLES LAW: The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature if the pressure is kept constant.
i.e . V T or V/T = n (constant)
T is absolute temperature in Kelvins.
PRESSURE LAW: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature if the volume is kept constant.
i.e. P T or P/T = n (constant)
When we combine the three gas laws, when all the three quantities change we get;
PV/T = n (constant) Gas equation
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE: When graphs of volume against temperature and pressure

against temperature of a gas are plotted, a straight line is obtained. If lines are extended
backwards they cut the temperature axis at about -273°C. The temperature is called absolute zero.
Absolute Zero: It is the lowest temperature possible or the lowest temperature that can be
recorded. This is the zero of the Kelvin scale.
T= + 273
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Where T is temperature in Kelvins (K), is temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).

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THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER
When an object is heated, kinetic energy of the particles increases. The particles will tend to push
each other further apart increasing the volume of the body. Friction between the particles will
result in the average temperature of the object increasing. The opposite where a body loses energy
and its temperature decreasing resulting in a decrease in volume is called contraction.
NOTE: Different substances may expand by different amounts at the same rate of energy supply.
In general gases expand more than liquids and liquids expand more than solids.
DEMOSTRATION: BALL AND RING
The ball and ring is constructed so that it just fits through the hole in the ring. When the ball is
heated for a few minutes it can no longer pass through the ring as it has expanded.
USES OF EXPANSION
 Thermometer (liquid –in – glass)

 Shrink fitting
 Riveting metal plates
 Bimetallic strip
BIMETALLIC STRIP: It is constructed by riveting two equal lengths of different metals so that
they cannot move separately
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USES OF THE BIMETALLIC STRIP
(a) THERMOSTAT: It is a device which keeps the temperature of an appliance constant

or near constant. E.g. electric iron
When the iron is switched on, the bimetallic strip bends down and breaks the circuit. This
switches the iron off. After cooling the strip tightens and the two contacts will touch each other
again, therefore the circuit becomes complete. The iron will be switched on again and this
maintains a near steady (constant) temperature.
(b) FIRE ALARM
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When there is fire outbreak, the strip bends upwards and closes the circuit at the contacts then the
bell rings.
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PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPANSION
(a) RAILWAY LINES: Previously gaps were left between the lengths of rail but today rails are
welded into lengths of about 1 km and are tapered overlap at the ends. This allows for a smooth
journey and also for expansion.
(b) LOOPING OF PIPELINES:
Long water, oil or gas pipes may have loops to avoid cracking during expansion and contraction.
(c) BRIDGES: They are made with concrete sections and gaps are left between the sections. The
expansion gaps are filled with soft material like rubber to allow for expansion and also stops
chunks of rocks from falling in.
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(d) POWER AND TELEPHONE LINES:
The lines must be made to hang loose when constructed in summer to allow for contraction in
winter. The lines are made a bit tight in winter so that they do not hang too loose in summer due
to expansion.
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE:
Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a substance. The instrument used to measure
temperature is called a thermometer.
To measure temperature we rely on some physical properties which vary with temperature e.g. thermal
expansion, electromotive force (EMF) or voltage, electrical resistance and colour.
(a) THERMAL EXPANSION: LIQUID –IN-GLASS THERMOMETER S (Laboratory and clinical) rely
on the fact that liquids expands more than solids when heated. When the bulb is warmed, the liquid rise
through the capillary tube and the temperature is read at the highest level reached by the liquid.
(b) ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE:
THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER: This type of thermometer consists of two wires of different

materials joined together at the ends. One of the junctions is at a point where the temperature is measured
(temp probe) and the other is kept at a lower fixed temperature (cold junction), usually ice is used. Due to
the temperature differences between the junctions an electromotive force is developed across the junctions.
An electric current will flow and it can be measured by means of galvanometer.
A thermocouple measures a wide range of temperatures from -250 °C to 1500 °C. It is also very
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sensitive i.e. can detect rapid temperature changes.

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(c) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS: A thermistor is an electrical resistor whose resistance varies

with temperature. A thermistor is inserted in an electric circuit and when it is hot its resistance
decrease allowing a large current to flow through the circuit therefore we get a large reading on a
digital scale (display) i.e. the temperature reading becomes high. When it is cold, its resistance
increase and a small amount of current flow therefore we get a small reading.
(d) COLOUR
TEMPERATURE STRIPS: They usually change colour from blue to green when warmed.
THE TEMPERATURE SCALE
THE CELCIUS SCALE: Celsius used two fixed points to calibrate a thermometer.
FIXED POINTS: These are constant temperatures of natural systems.
(a) THE ICE POINT (LOWER FIXED POINT): An uncallibrated thermometer is placed in pure
melting ice at normal atmospheric pressure. This gives 0 °C.
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(b) THE STEAM POINT (UPPER FIXED POINT): The thermometer is placed in steam at
normal atmospheric pressure. This gives 100 °C.
Once the liquids levels have been established at the fixed points, the distance between the two
fixed points is divided into 100 equal divisions.
LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETERS: A volume of liquid is filled into the glass bulb
which is connected to a capillary tube. The liquid expands into the capillary tube when heated and
contracts when cooled. The liquids normally used in this type of thermometer are mercury and
alcohol.
LINEARITY: The degree marks along the capillary tube are equally spaced. Thus the change in
length of the liquid thread is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
SENSETIVITY: A sensitive thermometer is one which responds quickly to small temperature

changes. Sensitivity of a liquid- in – glass thermometer can be improved by:
(i) Using a thin (narrow) capillary tube.
(ii) Using less volume of liquid.

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(iii) Making the walls of the thinner.

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RANGE: The range is a set of temperatures which a thermometer can measure. Range of a
thermometer can be improved by:
(i) Using a wide capillary tube.
(ii) A large volume of liquid.
THE LABORATORY THERMOMETER
 Range varies
 Accuracy is to the nearest whole number of degrees.
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
 Range is normally from 35 °C to 42 °C.

 Accuracy to 0.1 °C.
SPECIAL FEATURES
 The capillary tube is oval in cross section, so that the liquid may be seen despite
the capillary tube being thin.
 The capillary tube has a constriction which prevents the liquid from flowing back
into the bulb before taking the reading. The liquid is returned to the bulb by
shaking the thermometer.
 The capillary tube is very thin.
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HEAT CAPACITY: It is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a body by 1°C.
Thus we write
Where: C is heat capacity (J/°C)
is change in temp (°C) i.e. final temp – initial temp
Q is energy supplied (J)
It is clear from everyday experience that C of a body depends on both mass and the material.
Thus it is usually more useful to work with heat capacity of unit mass (specific heat capacity).
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY: It is heat energy needed to raise the temperature of unit
mass (1 kg) of substance by 1°C.
Thus we write
Where: c is specific heat capacity (J/kg °C)
is change in temp (°C) i.e. final temp – initial temp (T2 –T1)
Q is energy supplied (J)
m is mass of the body (kg)
MEASURING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF METAL BLOCKS
The set up above can be used to measure specific heat capacity. Some oil is placed into the holes
to improve conduction from heater to thermometer. The metal block must be covered by
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insulating material to prevent heat loss to the environment. Provided the power of the heater is
known, the time for which it is on can be measured using a stopwatch.
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Q = Pt = IVt
Where: Q is energy supplied in (J)
P is power (w), is time (s), I is current (A), V is voltage (V)
The final temperature reading should be taken after the heater is switched off allowing time for
the heat to be conducted through the block.
Therefore: = =
MELTING AND BOILING
Some substances can exist in three phases or states i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION
Imagine a block of ice at a temperature of -10 °C, if thermal energy is supplied to the ice at a
uniform rate the temperature of ice will increase until it is 0 °C. As more energy is supplied, the
ice melts but the temperature remains constant. The energy supplied is used to overcome the
bounds which hold the particles together. Bond breaking involves taking in energy. The energy
absorbed is called latent heat of fusion. Latent means hidden and fusion means melting.
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BOILING AND CONDENSATION
If water is heated, the temperature rises until the water boils at a temperature of about 100°C then
the temperature remains constant. The temperature remains constant until all the water has
evaporated. The energy being used is called Latent Heat of Vapourasation. This is energy used to
change the water from liquid to gas. Generally latent heat is the energy required to change state of
a substance.
BOILING POINT: It is the temperature at which a liquid boils and some groups of particles
form separate bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid.
MELTING POINT: It is the temperature at which a solid changes into liquid
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION
BOILING EVAPORATION
occurs at a constant temperature occurs at any temperature
quick process slow process
take place within the liquid take place only on the surface of the liquid
bubbles are formed in the liquid No bubbles are formed in the liquid
temperature remains constant during boiling temperature may change

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Heat supplied by the energy source Heat supplied from the surrounding
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COOLING CURVES:
The rate at which an object cools can tell us a great deal about the material it is made of.
COOLING CURVE OF WAX
The first break in the smooth curve is when solid wax began to form. The temperature is never
constant, this shows that wax is a mixture of substances (hydrocarbons).
COOLING CURVE OF ETHANAMIDE
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The flat part of the graph AB is when the substance is solidifying. The graph shows that
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ethanamide is a pure substance because it has a definite freezing/melting point.

UNUSUAL EXPANSION OF WATER
This explains why water pipes bursts in winter and why fish can survive in a frozen pond. Water
has maximum density at 4°C.
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
It is heat which is absorbed by a solid during melting or given out by a liquid during
solidification.
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
quantity of heat needed to change unit mass (kg) from solid to liquid without temperature change.
Q = mlf
Where: Q is energy (J), m is mass (kg), lf is specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg)
LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION
It is heat which is absorbed by a liquid during vaporisation or given out by a vapour during
vapourisation.
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION: Specific latent heat of vapourisation of

a substance is the quantity of heat needed to change unit mass (kg) from liquid to vapour without
temperature change.
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Q = mlv
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Where: Q is energy (J), m is mass (kg), lv is specific latent heat of vapourisation (J/kg)
MEASURING SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT
(a) SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION FOR ICE
An immersion heater of known power is placed in a filter funnel and surrounded by small pieces
of ice. Electricity could be supplied by a Joule meter. The heater is switched on for a set time and
the amount of water which collects in the beaker is measured.
Specific latent heat of fusion can be calculated using: lf = =
Where: Q is energy (J), m is mass (kg), lf is specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg), P is power (w)
and t is time (s)
(b) SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURISATION OF WATER
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The immersion heater is clamped so that it is well covered by water in the beaker. When
the water in the beaker is boiling briskly, the reading on the balance is noted and the
stopwatch started. The time for 50 g of water to be boiled off (evaporated) is found.
Specific latent heat of vapourisation can be calculated using: lv = =
Where: Q is energy (J), m is mass (kg), lv is specific latent heat of vapourisation (J/kg),
P is power (w), t is time (s)
APPLICATION OF LATENT HEAT
Inside a refrigerator, a volatile liquid is circulated through a closed circuit of pipes by a

pump. The circuit contains an Evaporator and Condenser panel behind the refrigerator.
Valves ensure one way flow of the liquid. Inside the Evaporator the liquid is vapourised
at low pressure by heat transfer from warm object (food) i.e. latent heat is required for the
volatile liquid to evaporate. The vapour passes through valves into the compressor pump
which forces under high pressure into the condenser panel. The condenser panel liquefies
the vapour releasing latent heat (internal energy) to the environment. So the refrigerator
transfers energy from warm objects in the refrigerator to the surrounding. Examples of
liquids used are Freon and
Ammonia.
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TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY
(a) CONDUCTION: It is the flow of heat through matter from places of high temperature to
places of lower temperature without movement of matter as a whole. Conduction occurs faster in
solids (metals).
CONDUCTING POWER OF DIFFERENT METAL
DIAGRAM X
DIAGRAM Y
An experiment is set up to find out which metal is the best conductor of heat. Balls are stuck with
Wax to rods made from different metals, as shown in diagram x.
The rods are heated at one end. Some of the balls fall off, leaving some as shown in diagram Y.
Most of the balls on copper drop off followed by aluminium, brass and finally iron. This show
that copper is the best conductor amongst the four metals.
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GOOD CONDUCTORS: Good conductors of heat are used when heat is required to travel
quickly through matter. E.g. kettle, pans, pots and other boilers are made of good conductors of
heat.
BAD CONDUCTORS: Handles of boilers are made up of bad conductors of heat (good
insulators). E.g. wood, plastic, air, water, wool etc.
The apparatus below show that water is a bad conductor of heat as water at the top of the
tube boils while ice has not melted.
(b) CONVECTION: It is the flow of heat from places of higher temperature to places of
lower temperature by the movement of the fluid particles.
Water at the heated point expands, get less dense and rise up creating streams of moving
fluid called convection currents. The dense surrounding water molecules move down.
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The following figure shows how convection occurs in air.
A B
(c) RADIATION: It is the flow of heat from one place to another through
electromagnetic waves. Radiation can occur in a vacuum. Dull, black surfaces are good
absorbers/ emitters of heat. Shiny white surfaces are good reflectors or poor absorbers
and emitters of heat.
The following apparatus can be used to study these.
The two flasks are left in the sun for about five minutes. The thermometer in a black flask
will record a higher reading.
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APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTION, RADIATION AND CONVECTION
(a) VACUUM/ THERMOS FLASK
A vacuum flask keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids for a longer time. Such flasks are designed
to reduce heat loss through conduction, convection and radiation.
FEATURES OF A THERMOS FLASK
 Double silvered walls: Reduce heat loss by radiation.

 Vacuum: Reduce heat loss by convection and conduction.
 Insulated Stopper: Reduce heat loss by conduction and evaporation.
(b) HOT WATER SYSTEM
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Water is heated in the boiler it expands and rises by convection to hot water tank. Cold water
flows from the hot water tank to the boiler. Convection currents will be set until water in the hot
water tank and boiler is hot.
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(c)SOLAR PANEL: In sunny countries warm water can be produced using solar panels. In other
type of a panel, a metal tube (pipe) is welded at the back of a metal plate which is painted black.
The plate absorbs heat from the sun and shares this energy by conduction with the pipes (water).
(d) BUILDINGS: In hot countries buildings are often painted white to reflect heat.
(e) COOLING FINS:
The cooling fins at the back of the refrigerator are painted black so that they lose heat more rapidly.
(f) ELECTRIC FIRES: Curved surfaces of electric fires are made of shiny metal to reflect heat.
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CONSEQUENCES OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION
(a) CYCLONES: This is an area of intense low pressure. An abundant source of warm
moist air at a temperature of about 27° C will result near the sea surface due sun. This
warm moist and less dense air will blow inwards and rise rapidly to great heights. Clouds
of great vertical extent capable of providing torrential rainfall will be formed.
The upper cooler, drier and denser air will descend. Cyclones results in violent winds,
dense clouds and heavy rain. This causes destruction to buildings and trees.
(b) NIGHTS AND DAYS IN DESERTS: In deserts there is absence of cloud cover. This
result in the maximum solar radiation reaching the earth therefore we have very high
temperatures during the day. At night all the radiation is lost to the atmosphere and this
result in very cold nights. This extreme temperatures result in harsh conditions in deserts.
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(c) GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases like methane (CH4) and water vapour (H2O) form
a layer in the atmosphere i.e. they form a blanket above the earth’s surface. Shorter
wavelength infrared radiation from the sun is more energetic therefore it can pass through
these gases and is absorbed by plants, soil and buildings. The soil, plants and buildings
emit less energetic long wavelength radiation. The long wavelength radiation cannot pass
through greenhouse gases but rather is absorbed. These gases are warmed up as a result
and radiate energy in all directions. Some of this infrared radiation is radiated back to
earth so the earth will become warm. This results in global warming.
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PROPERTIES OF WAVES, INCLUDING LIGHT AND SOUND WAVES
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES
WAVE: It is an energy carrying disturbance propagated through a medium or space by

local progressive disturbance of the medium but without the overall movement of the
medium itself.
DISPLACEMENT – DISTANCE GRAPH
(a) Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of any point (particles) in a wave
from the rest position.
(b) Wavelength (λ): It is the distance between two successive crests or troughs OR It
is the minimum distance in which a wave tries to repeats itself.
(c) Frequency (f): It is the number of waves generated by a source in a second OR It
is the number of waves passing a point in a second.
(d) Speed (v): It is the distance travelled per unit time by a wave.
(e) Wave Front: These are points that are in phase (Peaks in a transverse wave and
compressions in a longitudinal wave).
WAVE EQUATION
The speed, frequency and wavelength for any set of waves are linked by the equation.
Where: v = speed (m/s), f = frequency (Hz), = wavelength (m)

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DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH
(a) Period (T) : It is the time taken for one complete oscillation or one wavelength.
T= or f=
Where: f = frequency (Hz), T = Period (s)
TYPES OF WAVES
The obvious distinction between waves is based on the way they travel. There are two types of waves
namely transverse and longitudinal.
(I) TRANSVERSE: Each point on the wave vibrates at right angles to the direction in which the wave
is travelling e.g. water waves, Electromagnetic waves (Radio, Infrared , Ultraviolet, Gamma,
microwaves and x-rays), secondary waves(s-waves).
(ii) LONGITUDINAL: Each point on the wave vibrates parallel to the direction of the wave. The
points actually move together (compression) and then further apart (rarefaction) e.g. Sound
waves, primary waves (P- waves).
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WAVE EFFECTS
(a) REFLECTION: When a vertical surface is put in the path of the wave, the wave
is reflected from the surface at the same angle as it strikes. The wavelengths are
represented by straight lines. For the wave to be reflected must encounter a
medium of different density from the medium in which it is travelling.
(b) REFRACTION: It is the bending of a wavefront when it travels from one

medium into another of different refractive index. It is caused by a change of
speed.
e.g. 1 A wave travelling in different depths of water at an angle ( Rectangular Shape)
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REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The bending of light when it passes from one material (called a medium) to another is called
refraction.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
(i) A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser
medium at an angle. ie the angle of refraction r is less than the angle of incidence i.
(ii) A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium e.g from glass to air.
(iii) A ray emerging from a parallel – sided block is parallel to the ray entering but is
displaced sideways.
(iv) A ray through the normal is not refracted.
For light rays passing from one transparent medium to another, the sine of angle of incidence and
the sine of angle of refraction are in constant ratio.
Snell’s law
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Where n is a constant or refractive index.

E.g: Calculate the refractive index of glass in the example given.
= 1.47
REFRACTIVE INDEX AND SPEED OF LIGHT
Light is refracted because its speed changes when it enters another medium.
e.g. The speed of light in water is 2.25 *108 and in air is 3.00*108 .
a) If light travels from air to water. Calculate the refractive index of water.
= 1.33
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REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH
An object O, seen through a transparent medium like water, appears closer than really is. This
effect is caused by refraction at the surface of the water. Rays of light coming from object O bent
away from the normal as they leave the water so that they appear to come from a virtual image I
which is above the object O.
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When a ray of light travels from an optically denser (High refractive index) to a less dense
medium (Low refractive index), most of the light is refracted but there is also a reflected ray.
Refraction is also not possible at every angle of incidence as shown by a series of diagrams
below.
(a) Angle of incidence I less than the critical angle

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(b) When the angle of refraction r = 90°, the angle of incidence I = the critical angle ic
When the angle of incidence I is greater than the critical angle ic, total internal reflection
occurs.
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. Eventually, the angle
of refraction will be equal to 90°. At this point the refracted ray runs along the surface of the
glass. The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90° is called Critical
angle. For angles greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected inside the glass, and
there is no refracted ray.
This is called Total internal reflection. Total internal reflection is when light from a high
refractive index medium is directed towards a low refractive index medium and the angle of
incidence I is greater than the critical angle ic.
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OPTICAL FIBRES
An optical fibre, light pipe or light guide consists of a plastic or glass fibre of about the size of
human hair. When light ray is shone into the core of the fibre, it bounces from one edge to the
other by total internal reflection. Light can be transported over large distances through a series of
total internal reflections. The fibre can be easily bent carrying the light with it, and so light can be
made to travel around bends.
USES OF OPTICAL FIBRES
 Doctors use it as an Endoscope to obtain images of internal organs

 Used by Engineers to light up some awkward spot for inspection
 Fibre optics widely used in Telecommunication systems.
MIRAGES
A mirage is an optical illusion that results from total internal reflection of light in air. People
during hot days often have the experience of seeing water in the distance, although it is dry.
Hot air near the ground will have a low refractive index and if the air above this layer is cooler it
will have a high refractive index. This can cause light rays from the sky to be totally internally
reflected by hot air. The reflection of the sky appears as patches of water on the road to the
observer.
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LENSES
Lenses bend light and form images. There are two main types of lenses namely Convex
and Concave.
(a) CONVEX LENS: These are thickest in the middle and thin around the
edge. When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through the convex lens they
are bent inwards.
Convex lenses
Action of a convex lens on rays of light
The point F where the rays meet (converge) is called the PRINCIPAL FOCUS F.
The distance from the PRINCIPAL FOCUS to the center of the lens is called the FOCAL
LENGTH (f).
Rays of light can pass through the lens in either direction, so there is another principal
focus F1 on the opposite side of the lens and the same distance from the center of the lens.
The center of the lens is its OPTICAL CENTER C.

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The line through C at right angles to the lens is the PRINCIPAL AXIS.
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(b) CONCAVE LENS: These are thin in the middle and thickest round the
edge. When rays parallel to the principal axis pass through a concave lens, they
are bent outwards.
Concave lenses
Action of a concave lens on rays of light
The PRINCIPAL FOCUS F is the point from which the rays appear to diverge (spread out).
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RAY DIAGRAMS FOR A CONVEX LENS
Standard rays: In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position
and size.
(a) A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the Principal Focus F after
being refracted by the lens
(b) A ray through the principal focus F1 which is refracted parallel to the principal axis
(c) A ray through the optical center (C) passes straight through the lens
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MAGNIFICATION OF CONVERGING LENS
Linear magnification of lenses is given by
 The distances from the lens to real objects, images and focuses are positive values.
 The distances from the lens to virtual images and focuses are negative values
Note: When using any negative signs should be ignored.
THE LENS FORMULA
Experimental results show that the relationship between f, u and v for all thin lenses is given by
the formula;
or f = Where: f is focal length, u is object distance from c, v is image distance from c
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Laws of Reflection
1) The angle of incidence I is equal to angle of refraction r i.e. I = r

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2) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lie in the same plane i.e. all these can
be drawn on the same flat piece of paper
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FINDING THE IMAGE ON A PLANE MIRROR
 Fasten a sheet of paper on a drawing board in which pins can be easily pressed
 Mark a reflecting line on the paper and stand the reflecting surface of a plane mirror
upright on the line
 Press an object pin O into the board and mark its position
 With one eye view the image I of the pin, then place a sighting pin P1 exactly in line with
image I and your eye so that the image is covered up.
 With your eye in the same position place a second sighting pin P2 so that it covers up
both pin’s image I and P1
 Mark these pin positions and remove the pins
 Now view the image I from a different position and repeat the process using sighting pins
P3 and P4
 Remove the pins and mirror, draw the lines through P1P2 and P3P4 and also the line
joining the object O and the image
 Extend lines P1P2 and P3P4 and where they meet is the position of the image.
Measurements from this experiment show that;
(i) OM = IM
(ii) IMO is at right angles to the mirror.
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USES OF PLANE MIRRORS
(a) THE PERISCOPE: In a simple periscope two plane mirrors are used. A periscope helps a
person to see over an obstacle
(b) INSTRUMENT SCALES: Accurate pointer instruments often use a plane mirror behind
the pointer to improve the reading accuracy. When you incorrectly read the scale the
image of the pointer can be seen bot when correctly reading the scale the pointer covers
its image.
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(c) LASER(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
The Laser is a light amplifier. Light is made brighter each time it is passed through a
special crystal or gas which is stimulated to produce more light of the same colour by the
light passing through it. To build up a light of high intensity the light must pass through
the amplifier many times. This is achieved by placing two exactly parallel mirrors at
opposite ends.
One of the mirrors allows a small amount of light to pass through it providing laser
output.
CURVED MIRRORS: The laws of reflection are obeyed by curved mirrors.
THE CONVERGING AND DIVERGING ACTION OF CURVED MIRRORS
(a) CONCAVE MIRROR: Converges parallel rays at a point called the real focus F.
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The Pole P of a mirror is the center of the reflecting surface.
The Center of Curvature C of a spherical mirror is the center of the sphere of which the
mirror is part.
The Radius of Curvature R of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere of which the
mirror is part.
The focal length f of a mirror is the distance from its pole to its principal focus F.
The principal focus F of a concave mirror is the point through which all rays close to and
parallel to the principal to the principal axis pass after reflection by the mirror. This is
real focus.
The principal axis of a mirror is the line passing through its pole and center of curvature.
(b) CONVEX MIRROR
A Convex mirror diverges parallel rays so they never meet but appear to come from a
point called a virtual focus F.
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The Principal focus F of a convex mirror is the point from which all rays close to and
parallel to the principal axis appear to come after reflection by the mirror.
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USES OF CURVED MIRRORS
(a) MAKE UP, SHAVING AND DENTAL MIRRORS: A concave mirror forms a
magnified, upright image of an object inside its focus.
(b) REFLECTORS: Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in car headlamps and
torches. A parabolic mirror produces a parallel beam when a light source is at its
focus.
(c) DRIVING MIRRORS: A convex mirror gives a wider field of view than a plane
mirror of the same size. Therefore convex mirrors are used as a car driving mirror.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 They are all transverse waves

 They obey the laws of reflection and refraction
 They are emitted and absorbed by matter
 They travel through a vacuum
 They travel at the speed of light C in a vacuum i.e. C =3* 108 m/s
 They obey the wave equation v =fλ
 They transfer energy
(a) GAMMA RAYS
Sources
 Nuclei of atoms
Uses
 Radiotherapy
 Radio dating
 Sterilizing pests and weevils
 Sterilizing medical equipment
 Preserving food
Effects
 Kill cells
 Cause cancer
 Radiation burns
 Cause death
Method of detection

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Geiger-Müller tube
 Photographic film
 Photo(solar) cell
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(b) X- RAYS
Sources
 X- ray tube
Uses
 Radiography i.e. Take X- ray pictures

 Crystallography i.e. study structure of crystals
 Treat skin disorders
Effects
Same effect as gamma rays what differs is the source.
Method of detection
Photographic film
Photo cell
(c) ULTRA VIOLET
Sources
 Very hot objects

 Arcs and sparks
 Mercury vapour
 Uv lamps
 Sun
Uses
 To verify forged bank notes and signatures

 Treat skin disorders(kill bacteria)
 Washing detergents have fluorescent chemicals
 Lighting
 Paints
Effects
 Causes sun tan or sun burns

 Harmful to the eyes(retina)
 Causes skin cancer
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Method of detection
 Fluorescent chemicals and powders

 Photo cell or solar cell
(d) VISIBLE (LIGHT)
Sources
 Sun
 Very hot objects
 Lamps
Uses
 Essential for photosynthesis

 Communication i.e. lasers
 Chemistry flame tests
Effects
 High intensity can damage the eyes
Method of detection
 Photographic film
 Photo cell
 Eyes
(e) INFRA RED
Sources
 Sun
 Hot objects
 Infrared lamps
 Fires
Uses
 Photography through fog and haze or at night

 TV and radio remote controllers
 Infrared scanners to track animals at night
 Cooking?
 Security lamps
Effects
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 Heating
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Method of detection
 Special photographic film

 Thermometers
 Skin
(f) MICROWAVES
Sources
 Microwave ovens
 Mobile phones
 Communication satellites
 Transmitters(Dish aerials)
Uses
 Cooking
 International television relay networks
 Communication via mobile phones
 RADAR detection of ships and planes
 Police speed traps
Effects
 Kill cells
 Cause cancer
Method of detection
 Receivers(Dish aerials)
 Mobile phones
 Communication satellites
(g) RADIO WAVES
Sources
 Transmitters
 Stars are natural sources
Uses
 UHF (Ultra High Frequency) : used for local radio and broadcasting TV programs
 VHF (Very High Frequency) : use for local Police and Ambulance messages, TV, local
radio
 MW (Medium Waves) and LW (long Waves) : This are real radio broadcasting waves.
They are used to transmit radio waves for long distances, because of their long
wavelength they can easily bend around the curve of the earth and hills
Effects
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?
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Method of detection
 Receivers (Radios)
Note* All electromagnetic waves obey the equation C =
Where: C is the speed of light = 3 * 108 m/s, F is frequency in Hertz, λ is wavelength in meters
SOUND
Sources
Any vibrating object can be a source of sound e.g. vibrating guitar string, Vibrating tuning fork,
Vibrating air inside a trumpet.
LONGITUDINAL NATURE OF SOUND WAVES
When a loud speaker cone vibrates it moves forwards and backward very fast. This squashes and
stretches the air in front. It results in a series of compressions (squashes) and rarefactions
(stretches) through air and these are sound waves. The distance between successive compressions
or rarefactions is wavelength.
PROPAGATION
Sound waves being longitudinal in nature require a material medium (i.e. solid, liquid, gas) for it
to travel. To demonstrate this, place an electric bell in an air tight container. Remove the air using
a vacuum pump and watch the bell. The clapper continues to vibrate but sound heard by the
listener diminishes. The bell is heard again when air is restored.
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AUDIBLE SOUND FREQUENCIES
The human ear is not capable of hearing sounds of all frequencies. Humans are sensitive to a
limited range of sound frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Other animals like dogs can detect
sound frequencies up to 50 000 Hz and bats up to 120 000 Hz.
Sounds above 20 000 Hz (audible range) are called ULTRASOUNDS OR ULTRASONIC

SOUNDS. Bats use ultrasounds to locate insects and other objects. They send out a series of
ultrasounds pulses and use specialized shaped ears to pick the reflections. This is called echo
location.
APPLICATIONS (USES) OF ULTRASOUNDS
(i) CLEANING: Delicate machinery is immersed in a tank of liquid, where vibrations of

high powered ultrasounds are used to dislodge (remove) dirt or grease.
(ii) ECHO SOUNDING/SONAR DEPTH SENSING: Ships use echo sounding to measure
the depth of water beneath them. Pulses of ultrasounds are sent downwards to the sea
bed. The time taken (t) for the echo reflection to return is recorded. Knowing the
speed of sound in water to be 1400 m/s the distance travelled by the sound wave can
be measured.
S=
Where S = distance (m), V = speed (m/s), time taken by the sound to the bottom only.
(iii) SCANNING: Echo sounding principle is used. The transmitter sends ultrasounds into the
mother’s womb. It also acts as a detector and picks up reflected pulses from the body.
The pulses are processed by the computer which puts an image on the screen.
NOISE POLLUTION: Noise is defined as sound of irregular frequency or simply unwanted

sound. Too high levels cause stress and disturb concentration.
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MEASUREMENT OF SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
(i) FLASH AND BANG METHOD: We assume light travels instantaneously.

Record the time interval between the arrival of the flash and bang (sound)
produced by the gun at a known distance (s) from the observer.
V=
Where V = speed (m/s), S = distance (m), t = time (s)
In order to eliminate the effect of any wind the speed (v) should be measured for sound
travelling each way and then the average taken.
(ii) CLAP-ECHO METHOD: Sound heard after reflection is called echo. Stand at a
distance (s) from a reflecting surface and clap two pieces of wood together in such a
way that each clap made coincides with the echo of the previous clap. Clap (N)
number of times in a time t.
V=
Sound travels a total distance of 2sN in a time t.
ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound varies from one medium to another. Even in the same medium changes in
temperature can also cause variation in speed. Some examples are given in the following table.
Medium Speed (m/s)
Air(dry) at 0 °C 330
Air(dry) at 30 °C 350
Water(pure) at 0 °C 1400
concrete 5000
As it can be seen sound travels faster through solids followed by liquids and lastly gases.
REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES
Sound waves are reflected well from hard flat surfaces such as walls, or cliffs and obey the laws
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of reflection just like light. Reflected sound is called an echo.

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FREQUENCY AND PITCH
Different frequencies sound different to the ear. We hear high frequencies as high notes or high
pitch. We hear low frequencies as low notes or low pitch.
(a) High frequency and Pitch (small wavelength)
(b) Low frequency and Pitch
AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS
A loud note has large amplitude and a soft note has small amplitude.
(a) Sound is louder with a large amplitude
(b) Sound is soft with a small amplitude

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QUALITY (TIMBRE)
Each instrument is said to have typical sound quality i.e. same note on different instruments
sounds different. The sound waves produced by musical instruments can be regarded as a
combination of different frequencies.
The strong one is called the fundamental (main) frequency and it determines the pitch. The other
frequencies are called over tunes or harmonics. The over tunes determine the quality of sound.
When the fundamental frequency and over tunes are combined they produce the characteristic
sound of the instrument.
Following figures shows notes of the same frequency (pitch) but different quality.
EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS OF SOUND WAVES (ACOUSTICS) ON THE

QUALITY OF SOUND
A large empty hall with hard walls, floors and ceiling sounds echoes. Sound is reflected from one
surface to another so on and so on and it may take several seconds for the wave energy to be
absorbed so that sound dies away. The effect is called REVERBERATION. If there is too much
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reverberation it is difficult to hear sound clearly.

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MAGNETISM
Strong magnetic properties are exhibited by some metals. These are Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
and Gadolinium. These metals and their alloys are said to be Ferro magnetic or magnetic
materials.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
 A magnet has two poles i.e. it is a dipole. These are places where the magnetic
force appears to be concentrated.
 A magnet which is allowed to rotate freely in a horizontal plane always comes to
rest with one pole pointing N-pole and the other S-pole of the earth.
 Either pole attracts any magnetic material which is not magnetized.
 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
MAGNETIC FIELD
A magnetic field is a region where the magnetic force can be experienced. A magnetic
field is a vector quantity, thus it has magnitude and direction.
EXAMPLES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
(a) Opposite Poles
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(b) Like Poles
The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases and the force between
magnetic poles increases as their separation decreases.
(c) Bar magnet
METHODS OF MAGNETISATION
(a) EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD: The earth’s magnetic field can be used to induce
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magnetism on a hot steel bar. The bar is placed in a N-S direction and hammered. It is not
possible to make a strong magnet because earth’s field is relatively weak.
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(b) STROKING: A permanent magnet may be made by stroking a steel bar with a pole of a
permanent magnet. The steel is stroked repeatedly in one direction with one pole of a magnet.
(i) Single Touch
(ii) Double Touch
(c) ELECTRICITY The best way to make a permanent magnet is to place a bar of hard
magnetic material inside a solenoid carrying direct current (d.c).
METHODS OF DE MAGNETISING A MAGNET
(a) HAMMERING/ DROPING: A magnet becomes demagnetized by hammering when not

aligned to N-S direction or when continually dropped.
(b)KEEPING: A magnet loses its magnetism if kept improperly.

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(c) ELECTRICITY: To demagnetize a magnet it can be placed inside a solenoid carrying
alternating current (A.C). Since the polarity of the solenoid reverse rapidly the magnet does not
settle down with any polarity.
(d) HEATING: Magnetism can be destroyed by heating a magnet until it is red hot and letting it
to cool while pointing in an E-W direction of the earth.
INDUCED MAGNETISM
If an unmagnetised piece of magnetic material is brought into a magnetic field it becomes a

magnet. e.g If an iron bar is brought close to a pole of a bar magnet poles are induced in the iron
as shown.
Poles are always induced in such a way that it causes attraction. i.e a N – Pole induces a S- Pole
on a magnetic material close to it and vice- versa. Induced magnetism explains how a magnetic
chain such as that shown in the following diagram is formed. Each pin induces magnetism in the
one below it.
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IRON AND STEEL
Iron is said to be a soft magnetic material. It becomes a strong induced magnet but when removed
from magnetic field, it loses its magnetism. Steel is said to be a hard magnetic material. It does
not become as strong an induced magnet as iron, but retains its magnetism for a longer time once
removed away from magnetic field.
e.g If iron and steel are attached to the Pole of a permanent magnet and dipped in iron fillings, the
iron bar picks up more iron fillings than steel bar. If the permanent Pole is removed most iron
fillings fall off iron than steel
Iron is therefore used to make electromagnets and the core of transformers. Steel can be used to
make permanent magnets.
MAGNETIC FIELD: Two methods are used to detect a magnetic field around a magnet.
(i) USING A PLOTTING COMPASS:
 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and draw around it.

 Make a dot on the paper near the N- pole of the magnet
 Position the plotting compass so that the curved S- Pole end of the needle surrounds dot 1.
 Make the next dot 2 near the N-Pole end of the plotting compass needle.
 Now move the plotting compass so that its S- Pole is over dot 2.
 Continue plotting in the direction indicated by the N- Pole of the plotting compass needle until
you reach the S- Pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show magnetic field lines.
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A complete map of the magnetic field of the magnet can be made by plotting field lines from several
different starting points around N-Pole the magnet.
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Note: (a) The magnetic field lines go from N-S and their direction is shown by the needle of the compass.
(b) The magnetic field lines never cross each other.
(2) USING IRON FILLINGS
 Arrange a sheet of cardboard over the top of a magnet. Non – magnetic materials such as wooden blocks can
be used to support the cardboard so that it is slightly raised above the magnet.
 Sprinkle iron fillings thinly and evenly over the top of the cardboard and tap the cardboard gently with the tip
of of a pencil/pen.
 The iron fillings become magnetized by magnetic induction and form small magnetic dipoles. Tapping the
cardboard allows them to turn and line up in the direction of magnetic field. This requires a strong magnet.
MAGNETIC SATURATION
Magnetic saturation is when all domains in a magnet are aligned in the direction of the field.
DOMAIN: These are tiny imaginary magnets or magnetic materials.
PERMANENT MAGNETS:
They are made using hard magnetic materials. e.g steel.
USES
 Freezer and refrigerator doors are fitted with a magnetic strip to keep the door closed.
 A magnet is fixed to the oil drain plug at the bottom of car engines and gear boxes. Small
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splinters of metal are picked by the magnet from the oil and prevent them from damaging
moving parts of the engine.
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 A magnet is used to reset metal index in the maximum and minimum thermometer.
ELECTROMAGNETS: They are made using soft magnetic material. e.g
iron
The main advantage that electromagnets have over permanent magnets is

that they can be switched on and off and can be varied in strength.
To predict the poles of the magnet, we use the right- hand rule. i.e. The four
fingers curl in the direction of the current and the thumb shows the N- Pole.
INCREASING STRENGTH OF ELECTROMAGNETS
 Using a soft- iron core inside the coil or solenoid

 Increasing the number of turns of the coil
 Increasing the amount of current through the coil
 Using a C-core shaped or horse shoe magnetic material which brings
both magnetic poles close together.
USES
 Lifting steel plates and slabs which are difficult to attach hooks and
chains to.
 Lifting large quantities of loose iron and steel. E.g scrap metal.
 Separating Ferro magnetic metals from others such as copper, brass,
aluminum
 Relay switches
 Electric bell
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 Reed switches
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OTHER USES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
(a) AUDIO/VIDEO TAPE

The tape reel of an audio or video cassette or tape contains many tiny
magnetic particles on its surface. When recording is made, an electromagnet
(recording head) which carries current of varying frequency arranges these
particles in a particular pattern according to the frequency and direction of
its current. When recording is played back, the arrangement of magnetic
particles reproduces the same frequency in the play head.
(b) INFORMATION STOGAGE

Information is nowadays is stored in code which can be read by computer.
i.e a series of 1’s and 0’s (binary code). A very large number of 1’s and o’s
can be recorded by patterns of tiny magnetic particles on the surface of the
disk.
(c) MAGNETIC SCREENING/ SHIELDING
If a region is completely enclosed by iron, magnetic field cannot pass into it.
Thus for example, a laboratory can be enclosed/ covered by iron if a
sensitive experiment is carried out.
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Region x is shielded from magnetic fields.

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ELECTROSTATICS
Electric Charge: Is the property of certain subatomic particles
which give rise to the electric force. Electrons which lie outside the
atomic nucleus are said to be negatively charged, while the protons
(in the nucleus) are positively charged.
Electrons are on the outside of the atom, they can sometimes be
transferred from one object to another. E.g. If we rub a polythene
rod with a clean dry cloth, electrons are transferred from the cloth
to the rod, so the rod becomes negatively charged (having a surplus
of electrons).
If we rub an acetate rod in a similar way, electrons are transferred
from the rod to the cloth, leaving the rod positively charged
(having a deficit of electrons).
N.B. Only electrons can be transferred in this way.
If one charged rod is free to rotate, and another brought close to it,
it is easily verified that like charges repel, unlike charges attracts.
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DETECTING AN ELECTRIC CHARGE
An instrument called an electroscope can be used to detect presence of an

electric charge. One common type is the gold-leaf electroscope.
A simple Electroscope
(a) (b)
When a positively charged rod is brought near the top plate of an uncharged
electroscope, the leaf rises. This is because the positively charged rod
attracts electrons in the plate and stem upwards so that the plate has an
excess of negative charges. The lower stem and leaf are left with an excess
of positive charges. The leaf diverges from the stem because they are both
positively charged.
The leaf also rises if a negatively charged rod is brought near the top plate.
This time, the rise of the leaf occurs because electrons in the plate are
pushed downwards.
Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C), symbol used is Q.

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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Metals and graphite have electrons which are only loosely attached to their atoms and so
they are free to move throughout the substance. Thus, for example, a metal sphere on an
insulating stand can be charged by contact with a charged rod, and the charge distributes
itself evenly over the surface of the sphere.
(a)
Electrons move from rod to the sphere charging the sphere negative
(b)
Electrons move from sphere to rod, leaving the sphere positively charged.
Note: (i) A charged object may be neutralized by a source of ions. e.g. A flame or
radioactive nuclide.
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ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
If a charged object is brought close to an uncharged metal sphere on an insulating stand,

electrons in the sphere are attracted or repelled by the object and so are redistributed.
NB: The spheres shown above are still uncharged i.e. no electrons have been added or
removed and so they remain with equal numbers of electrons and protons.
Electrostatic induction explains how a charged object tends to attract dust particles or
small objects such as pieces of paper.
Note: Compare magnetic attraction of unmagnetised objects by magnetic induction with

attraction of objects by electrostatic induction.
Electrostatic induction can be used to charge metal spheres using a charged rod. The
advantage of using induction is that the rod does not lose any of its original charge in the
process.
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METHOD 1
Here two spheres are held together, a charged rod is brought close to them and then the spheres
are separated while the charged rod is held in place. The charged rod can then be removed,
leaving the two spheres with equal and opposite charges.
Example: Using a positively charged rod
Step 1
Electrons are attracted to the rod.
Step 2
Step 3
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METHOD 2
A single metal sphere may be charged by making use of the fact that the Earth is uncharged and
because of its size, can accept or donate electrons without becoming significantly charged.
(i) CHARGING POSITIVELY
(ii) CHARGING NEGATIVELY
Note: Only electrons can move.

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N.B. The rod must be held in position the whole time that the sphere is connected to earth, otherwise all of
the sphere’s charge would be neutralized by accepting electrons from or donating electrons to the earth
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ELECTRIC FIELDS
Electric Fields: Is a region where charged particles experience the electric force. An electric field
is a vector field whose magnitude at a point determines the size of the force on a charged particle
placed at that point. The direction of the field at a point is the direction of the force which would
be exerted on a positive charge at that point.
Electric flow lines/flux lines/field lines may be drawn to show the general flux of an electric field
similar to the lines drawn to the magnetic field.
EXAMPLES
(i) Isolated Positive Charge (ii) Isolated Negative charge
(iii) Similar Charges
(iv) Opposite Charges (v) Uniform Field
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Lightning conductor
Lightning: Is an electric discharge between the earth and a highly charged cloud i.e. the
attraction of opposite charges between the earth and the cloud. Lightning conductors are
often placed on the top of a tall building to prevent them from being struck by lightning.
A lightning conductor is a thick copper strip with one end fixed to a metal plate or water
pipe buried underground.
If thunder clouds contain a large quantity of negative charge on their underside (positive
charge on their tops) and the earth positive an electric field will build between the two.
If the concentration of positive charge is large enough on the ground (roof) the force of
attraction between the positive and negative charges can be so strong that electrons
suddenly jump from cloud to the roof, producing a flash of lightning.
The spikes on the lightning rod allow positive charges to flow out, thereby reducing the
amount of induced charge on the roof and lowering the electric field strength between
cloud and roof. This to some extent lowers the chance of lightning striking the building
because the positive charges neutralize the negative charges on the cloud.
If lightning does hit the building, the lightning rod provides a low resistance route for
electrons to pass into the ground without damaging the building
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ELECTRIC CURRENT
Current: is the rate of flow of charge.
Where: I is current (A)

Q is charge(C)
t is time(s)
Direction of current conventionally is the direction of flow of positive charge in the direction of
the field.
An instrument used to measure current is the ammeter.
An ammeter is connected in series as shown below, with a component.
.For a small current it will be wise to use an ammeter with a scale in milliampere (mA).
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF)
Batteries are usually the energy sources in d.c. circuits. EMF is the work done or energy
transferred per unit charge moved through the battery itself as well as the external circuit
i.e. Where: V is e.m.f. in volts (V)

W is energy in Joules (J)
Q is charge in coulombs(C)
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POTTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
P.d. is also measured in volts and the instrument used is the voltmeter.
 Note the voltmeter is connected in parallel and the ammeter in series.

 The voltmeter measure p.d. across the resistor.
 Note that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminals of
instruments. +, red and -,black
 P.d. is also known as voltage.
RESISTANCE
Current flows through some components more easily than it does through other e.g. for the same
p.d. current will pass more easily through copper wire than through nichrome wire. The nichrome
wire is said to have more resistance than copper.
The current in the nichrome circuit (0.1 A) is less because nichrome has more resistance.
Where: R is resistance (Ω)
V is P.d. across conductor (V)
I is current through conductor (I)
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)

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FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
 LENGTH- Doubling length of wire will double the resistance

 CROSS SECTIONAL AREA- Thin wire has more resistance than thick wire.
 MATERIAL
 TEMPERATURE
In metals: resistance increase with temperature
In semiconductors: resistance decreases when temperature increases
RESISTIVITY
(i) Resistance is directly proportional to length
(ii) Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area of a conductor

R
Combining the two relations we get
When we write the relationship as an equation we get
Where: ρ is a constant of proportionality called resistivity (Ωm)

R is the resistance of a conductor in ohms (Ω)
l is the length of the conductor in meters (m)
A is the cross-sectional area of a conductor in m2
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OHM’S LAW:
The statement that current is directly proportional to potential difference is known as

Ohm’s law. In an experiment to investigate Ohm’s law, vary Voltage across a metal
resistor and record current and the voltage.
Plot a graph of I/A against V/v
The graph has constant gradient passing through the origin.
The component is an Ohmic conductor.
A metal wire is normally Ohmic. i.e. has constant resistance, constant current- voltage
ratio and straight line current-voltage graph. 157
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NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS
Bulb Filament
As p.d. across bulb increases, it becomes hotter, increasing its resistance. Hence the curve has
decreasing gradient.
(b) Thermistor (semiconductor)
As p.d. across a thermistor increases, more electrons are released, so its resistance decreases
hence the curve has an increasing gradient.
(c) Diode (Semiconductor junction)
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CIRCUIT COMPONENTS AND SYMBOLS
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PARALLEL AND SERIES CIRCUITS
(a) (i) Current in Series
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit. i.e.
I = I1 = I2.
(ii) Current in Parallel
The sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel circuit equals the current entering or leaving
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the parallel section. i.e

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I = I1 + I2 + I3 +I4
(a) (i) Voltage in Series
The P.d. at the terminals of a battery equals the sum of the p.d.s across the devices in the external
circuit from one battery terminal to the other. i.e.
V = V1 + V2
(ii) Voltage (P.d.) in Parallel
The p.d.s across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal. i.e.
V = V1 = V2
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(a) (i) Resistance in series
R = R1 + R2
(ii) Resistance in Parallel
For two resistors in parallel
i.e.
PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY
Appreciate the use of electricity in everyday life situation.
Uses of Electricity
1. Heating- Current has a heating effect, which is used in electric Iron, Kettle,
Heater, water boiler etc.
2. Lighting- In electric circuits.
3. Machines- Electrical energy is converted into kinetic energy, which causes
machine parts to move, e.g. drill machine
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4. Security- Electrical fence, alarms etc.

5. Communication- Telephone cables can carry messages as electrical signals.
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Electrical Power and Energy
Power is the rate of energy conversion.
Power = energy converted / time ------------- in symbol: P = E / t
i.e. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Where: P is Power in watts (w)

E is energy in Joules (J)
t is time in seconds(s)
Energy is equivalent to work done W
i.e. E = W = QV ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
Since Q = It , Therefore E = ItV ------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
Substituting equation 3 into 1 we get
P= -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)
But OR V= IR ------------------------------------------------------------ (5)
Substituting (5) into (4) we get
P = IRI = I2R ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (6)
Also ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (7)
Substituting (7) into (4) we get
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (8)
Therefore Power, P = I V =I2 R = V2 / R in units of (Watts)

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Cost of electricity
We pay for the energy used or converted in our homes. The amount of energy converted depends on the
power of the appliance and the time for which they are switched on.
Energy converted = Power * time.
The unit of energy for which we pay is Kilo-watt hour ( kWh ).
The number of units used or converted by an appliance is given by the relation:
Number of kWh units = number of kilowatts * number of hours
hence the cost of electricity used by an appliance is given by:
cost = number of kWh units * price per kWh unit.
1Kwh is 1 unit, therefore:
Understand the dangers of electricity.
Electricity can be dangerous if not used properly; the following are some of the dangers of electricity.
1. Damaged Insulation – this can result in short circuit if the wires come in contact,
or a person can be shocked if they touch the bare wires.
2. Overloading of sockets- plugging so many appliances on one socket could result

on the cables overheating, because the current will be high, this could result into fire.
3. Damp condition- Holding sockets with wet hands is dangerous, because water is a
good conductor of electricity.
Some Do’s and dont's with electricity.
 Do switch off and disconnect appliances when not in use, and always before starting any repair
work.
 Do learn how to fit plugs correctly and safely
 Do not expose any wiring unless it is disconnected or unplugged.
 Do not overload circuits and sockets with too many appliances plugged into multiway adaptors.
 Do not take main appliances, for example hairdryers, into bathrooms where holding with wet
hands can be dangerous,
 Do not use appliances requiring an earth lead onto a 2- pin socket or lighting circuit
 Do not replace a fuse until the fault in the circuit or appliance has been found and removed or
replaced.
 Do not leave long cables trailing across a room.
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Acquire knowledge on the safe use of electricity in the home.
The FUSE:
Fuses are fitted in all circuit to prevent a dangerously large current from flowing. To
‘Fuse’ means to melt. A fuse is a short thin piece of wire with a fairly low melting point,
which becomes hot and melts when the current through it exceeds its rated value. A
melted or blown fuse stops the current like a switch and protects against the fire risk
caused by the heat in an overloaded cable or appliance. The fuse is fitted in a Live wire.
The 3 Pin Plug:
Proper connection of the plug.
Live wire (L) – brown, Neutral wire (N) – blue, Earth wire (E) – green and yellow.
The EARTH wire: It is the green and the yellow in a cable. It protects a person who may
touch a faulty or live appliance. The earth wire is connected to the metal case of an
appliance, if there is a fault the current flow through the earth wire, which carries it to the
ground/ earth. (short circuit ), this will result in more current flow which will blow the
fuse, hence cutting the flow of current.
The LIVE wire: It carries the current at a high voltage which alternates between
+ 240V and -240V. i.e Current changes direction 50 times in a
second. (50 Hz). Fuses and Switches are connected to the live wire.
The NEUTRAL wire. It is carries current back to the source.

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DOUBLE INSULATION:
Appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hairdryers and food mixers are usually double
insulated. Connection to the supply is by a two core insulated cable, with no earth wire,
and the appliance is enclosed in an insulating plastic case. There is then no risk of a shock
should a fault develop.
Electric shock: Electric current passing through the heart can be fatal. The following
action should be taken in cases of electric shock.
1. Switch off the supply, if the shocked person is still touching live equipment.
2. Send the person for qualified medical assistance.
3. If breathing has stopped apply the kiss of life
4. If the heart has stopped try to restart it by striking the chest smartly three times
over the heart
Circuit in Parallel: Every circuit in the house is connected in Parallel.
The advantages are:

 Each appliance gets the maximum full voltage from the supply
 Each appliance can be switched on and off independently
 Each appliance is connected to a circuit with recommended fuse.
ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS
Electromagnetic Induction Using a coil and Magnet
 Connect the coil of about 50 turns (insulated) in series with a sensitive

meter(galvanometer)
 Move a pole of a bar magnet in and out of the coil and watch the meter.
 Investigate how the direction of the induced current depends on the pole of the magnet
used and the direction of motion of the magnet.
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When the magnet is moved in and out the coil cut the lines of force of magnetic field. This
induces an e.m.f (electromotive force) and current flows.
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The direction of the induced current, Lenz’s law
The current induced in the coil produces a magnetic pole at the end of the coil which opposes the
motion of the magnet. As the N pole of the magnet approaches, the N pole caused by the induced
current in the coil repels it and thereby opposes the motion. The reverse effect happens when the
magnet is moved away; an S pole caused by a current induced in the opposite direction attracts
the magnet’s n pole so preventing it from moving away.
Conclusion
Lenz’s Law says ‘The direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change causing it’.
Magnitude of the induced e.m.f (Faraday’s law)
 Induced e.m.f increases when the rate at which the coil cuts magnetic field increases
 Induced e.m.f increases when the strength of the magnet increases
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 Induced e.m.f increase when the number of turns of the coil is increased.
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ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR (A.C GENERATOR)
The current which is reversing direction periodically is called alternating current. An a.c
generator changes kinetic energy into electrical energy. The output electromotive force is an
alternating e.m.f. The generator consists of a rectangular coil of copper wire which rotates
between the poles of a magnet. The ends of the coil are joined to two SLIP RINGS on the axle.
Two carbon brushes press against the slip rings. Carbon brushes connect the rings to the rest of
the circuit. As the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines and an e.m.f. is induced in it.
E.m.f varies over one complete rotation. As the coil moves through the vertical position with ab
uppermost, ab and cd are moving along the lines and no cutting occurs. The induced e.m.f is zero.
When the coil is horizontal, the e.m.f produced is greatest because the rate of cutting magnetic
field lines is greatest. Again when the coil is vertical with dc uppermost, the e.m.f. is zero. The
direction of e.m.f reverses because during next half rotation, the motion of ab is directed upwards
and dc downwards.
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TRANSFORMERS
Mutual Induction: When the current in a coil is switched on or off or changed an e.m.f
and a current is induced in a neighboring coil. This effect is called mutual induction.
When the switch is made on or off, a kick is observed in the galvanometer. A current is
induced in coil 2 when e.m.f around coil 1 changes. Coil 1 is known as primary coil and
coil 2 is known as secondary coil. When the current in primary in primary coil is
switched on, the primary coil acts like an electromagnet and the magnetic field grows(
changes) around it. The Changing magnetic field in primary coil cut secondary coil and
an e.m.f is induced in secondary coil. Once the magnetic field stabilizes around primary
coil hence there is no e.m.f in secondary. When the current in primary is switched off the
magnetic field dies (changes) away, the magnetic fields cuts the secondary coil again and
e.m.f is induced.
If an alternating current is flown through the primary coil, the galvanometer in the
secondary coil keeps on deflecting to the left and right all the time. Since the magnetic
field around the primary is continually changing, the e.m.f in the secondary is
continuously induced. If an iron core is placed inside the two coils the magnetic field
produced by primary becomes stronger and output voltage in secondary coil also
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increases.
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TRASFORMER: A transformer changes an alternating voltage to a lower or higher alternating
voltage. A transformer consists of a primary coil a secondary coil and a soft iron core. Input
voltage is applied to the primary coil output voltage taken from the secondary coil.
Step –up Transformer: Output voltage is higher than input voltage. The number of turns in
secondary coil is greater than the number of turns in the primary.
Step-down Transformer: In this type of transformer, the output voltage is lower than the input
voltage. The number of turns in secondary coil is less than the number of turns in the primary
coil.
In an ideal transformer (100% efficient) the following equation applies.
Np is No. of turns in the primary coil
Ns is No. of turns in the secondary coil
Vp is primary voltage
Vs is secondary coil
Is is secondary current
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Ip is primary current.
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TYPES OF TRASFORMERS
ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRASFORMER
(a) Resistance of windings: The windings of copper have some resistance and heat is
produced by the current in them. Thicker wires are used to reduce energy loss.
(b) Eddy currents: The iron core is in a changing magnetic field of the primary coil and eddy
currents are induced in it which causes heating. These are reduced by using a laminated
core made of sheets, insulated from each other to have more resistance.
(c) Leakage of field lines: All the field lines produced by the primary may not ‘cut’ the
secondary coil. This is reduced by closing the air gap in the core.
POWER TRANSMISSION
The voltage is raised by a Step-up transformer at the Power Station. It is lowered by a Step-down
transformer at the village end.
The advantage of transmitting high voltage in power lines is to reduce energy loss due to heating
effects of current. The power (energy) loss is proportional to the square of the current. i.e. P = I2R
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Note: If the voltage is high the current becomes small.

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MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTIC CURRENT
Magnetic fields are produced when electric charges move, thus electrons moving in a wire
produce a magnetic field. This can be plotted using the apparatus shown below.
Iron fillings can be sprinkled on the card, and the card gently tapped. The iron fillings are found
to arrange themselves in concentric circles around the wire.
The direction of the field can be remembered as the direction of the right hand screw.
i.e. If a right – handed screw moves in the direction of the current(conventional), the direction of
rotation of the screw gives the direction of the field
1. CONVENTIONAL CURRENT INTO PAGE 2. CONVENTIONAL CURRENT OUT OF PAGE
(i) A larger current produces a stronger magnetic field.

(ii) Field strength decreases with distance from the wire
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FIELD DUE TO A SOLENOID
A long coil (solenoid) combine the field of each turn of wire, to produce a field similar to that of
a bar magnet.
OR can be drawn as
Strength of the field can be increased by:

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(i) Increasing the number of turns of wire.

(ii) Increasing the current.
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FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR (WIRE)
A wire carrying a current has a magnetic field around it and so a force is exerted on a current
carrying wire in a magnetic field. This can be demonstrated by the apparatus shown below.
When the switch is closed the wire is seen to be forced upwards and downwards. The magnitude
of the force can be increased by:
(i) Increasing the current

(ii) Using a stronger magnet.
The direction of the force can be reversed by
(i) Reversing the direction of the current

(ii) Reversing the direction of the magnetic field.
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE (MOTOR)
This provides a simple way of working out the direction of the force on a current carrying
conductor in a magnetic field. The thumb and first two fingers of the left hand are used to form a
set of mutually perpendicular axes.
If the First finger represents the direction of the field ( N to S) and the Second finger represents
the direction of conventional current(+ to -) then the Thumb represents the direction of the force
on the conductor.
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NB: If the field and current are parallel there is no force produced.
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It is found that the direction of the force is as shown below.
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS
If two parallel wires carry currents, the magnetic field of each produces a force on the other.
(i) CURRENTS IN SAME DIRECTION
(ii) CURRENTS IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION
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ACTUAL FIELDS
(i) SAME DIRECTION
(ii) CURRENTS IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
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THE ELECTRIC MOTOR
Since a current carrying wire experiences a force in a magnetic field, a rectangular loop
or coil of wire carrying a current experiences equal and opposite forces causing a
resultant moment(couple) about its axis of symmetry. The moment is maximum when the
coil is horizontal and decreases to zero when the coil is vertical. The coil is able to
overshoots the vertical because of inertia. The coil is mounted on an axle so that it can
rotate freely. To enable it to rotate continuously, the direction of the current in the coil is
reversed every half revolution, and this is achieved by a commutator which rotates with
the coil. Current is passed from the power supply to the commutator through carbon
brushes.
Note: (a) The direction of the coil may be reversed by;

(i) Interchanging the magnetic poles.
(ii) Changing the connections to the power supply.
(b) The speed of rotation may be increased by;

(i) Increasing the current in the coil.
(ii) Using a coil with more turn of wire.
(iii) Using stronger magnetic poles.
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A much smoother rotation is obtained by the following alterations.
(i) Curved poles are used to form a radial field.

(ii) Several coils are used, at angles to each other, and the commutator consists of several
sections.
(iii) The coils are wound on a cylindrical soft iron armature to concentrate the magnetic field.
Note: Many practical motors are electromagnets instead of permanent magnets.
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USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS ON ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
(a) ELECTRIC BELL
When the switch is closed, the electromagnet is turned on and attracts the soft iron
armature, so that the hammer hits the gong. When the armature moves however it breaks
the circuit so that after the gong is struck, the armature is sprung back by, “springy metal
strip”. This completes the circuit again and so the process is repeated until the switch is
opened
(b) ELECTRICAL RELAY
A relay is used to switch on one circuit (often carrying a large current) by switching on
another circuit usually carrying a smaller current.
When switch S is closed above, the armature is attracted to the core, closing the contact C
and allowing current to flow between D and E. If Switch S is opened, the armature
springs back, opening the contacts and disconnecting D from E.
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(c) REED SWITCH
When current flows in the coil, the magnetic field produced magnetizes the strips (reeds) of
magnetic material. The ends become opposite poles and attract each other thus completing the
circuit connected to AB. When the current in the coil is switched off, the reeds separate. Reeds
can also be operated by permanent magnets.
THE LOUD SPEAKER
The standard moving coil loudspeaker operates by the same principle as the electric motor. A coil
in a radial magnetic field experiences a force on it depending on the direction of the current
flowing in it. Thus if the current is alternating (ac) with a certain frequency, the force on the coil
changes direction with the same frequency. The coil is wound on a cardboard tube which is
connected to a large paper cone. The oscillation of the cone thus causes a sound wave in
surrounding air to be formed.
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THE MOVING COIL MICROPHONE
A moving coil microphone generates a varying e.m.f. When you speak into a moving coil
microphone the sound waves sets the diaphragm vibrating. This moves a small coil backwards
and forwards through the magnetic field from a cylindrical magnet and a small alternating current
is induced in the coil. When amplified (made larger), the current can be used to drive a
loudspeaker.
Microphones are used in telephones at the speaking end.
Loudspeakers are used in radios or tape recorders.
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THERMIONIC EFFECT AND ELECTRON PHYSICS
If a metal is heated some of the electrons on the surface gain enough energy to leave the metal.
The Thermionic Effect is the removal of electrons from the surface of a metal by heating
The filament is heated by current from a 6V supply, the ammeter deflects, indicating current flow
in the circuit between the gap.
Observation
(i) When the current is set up a current is detected by a milliameter.

(ii) If the heater circuit is switched off the current stops.
Results/Deductions
(i) A current flows between the filament and anode.

(ii) The heater circuit (filament) produces the charge carriers.
(iii) The charge carriers are negative(electrons)
Cathode Rays
Streams of fast moving electrons are called cathode rays. They travel in straight lines. To study
the properties of cathode rays we use the following special tubes.
(i) Maltese cross tube

(ii) Deflection tube
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Electrons emitted by the hot cathode are accelerated towards the anode and pass through the hole
and travel along the tube, forming a shadow of the cross on the screen.
A magnet brought near the neck of the tube deflects the stream of electrons as if it is a
conventional current, travelling from the tube to cathode i.e. from positive (anode) to negative
(cathode). If the direction of the magnetic field is known, Fleming’s Left Hand Rule can be used
to determine the direction of force on the electrons.
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The cathode rays (electron stream) will always be deflected towards the positive plate. They are
attracted by the positive plate because they are negative.
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CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C.R.O)
This is an important device for measuring
(a) Potential differences, A.C and D.C.

(b) Studying waveforms.
(c) Measuring frequencies and time intervals.
A C.R.O consist of three main parts
(1) An electron gun

(2) A deflecting system
(3) A fluorescent screen
(1) Electron gun: It consists of a Filament, Cathode and the Anode. The filament heats the cathode
and the cathode emits electrons. The anode attracts (accelerate) electrons to the plates along a
highly evacuated tube. The tube is evacuated to ensure that electrons do not collide with air
particles, which would affect their path to the screen.
(2) Deflecting system: The electron beam is deflected by the electric field between a pair of plates
when a small voltage is applied across them. The Y-plates are horizontal but create a vertical
electric field which deflects the beam vertically. The X-plates are vertical and deflects the beam
horizontally.
(3) Fluorescent screen: A bright spot of light is produced on the screen where the beam hits it.
PRACTICAL POINTS
(a) Measuring P.d.s

A CRO can be used as a d.c/a.c voltmeter if the p.d to be measured is connected across the Y-
input terminals. The deflection of the spot is proportional to the p.d.
(b) Displaying waveforms
If the time base is on (i.e. X input) the CRO acts as a ‘graph-plotter’ to show the waveform. Note:
The Y and X input are used here.
(c) Measuring time intervals and frequency

184
These can be measured if the CRO has a calibrated time base. It can be for example 50ms/div,
10ms/div so on. Frequency can then be calculated using: f=
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ELECTRONICS
RESISTORS
In general, components used in electronics circuits are very small and carry small currents
(normally a few milliamps). Resistors are used in electronics to make sure the current through a
component or set of components does not exceed a certain value.
E.g.1 The circuit below shows a 10KΩ resistor in series with a component X.
The minimum possible resistance of the circuit is 10 kΩ. Thus then the maximum current which
can flow through component X is given by
Imax = = 0.6mA
COLOUR CODES
Resistors are marked with colored bands indicating their resistance. The first and second bands
show the first two significant figures of the resistance and the third gives the number of zeroes. A
fourth band shows the percentage uncertainty with which the resistance is known (tolerance).
Resistor Colour Code

Black 0 Green 5
Brown 1 Blue 6
Red 2 Violet 7
Orange 3 Grey 8
Yellow 4 White 9
Value = 6400Ω
185
4th band = tolerance: gold = , silver = , no colour =

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POTENTIAL DIVIDER: Changes the p.d. applied to a device. If a circuit or a part of a circuit
requires a lower voltage supply than that available, two resistors may be connected in series as a
Potential divider, as shown below
V out becomes the supply for the circuit requiring less than V.
We know that I=
But R = R1 + R2
Therefore I =
So V out = IR2
E.g.1 (a) Find the output voltage V out of the potential divider shown below.
Current through resistors, I =
But R = R1 + R2
I= =
186
Therefore V out = IR2 =

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(b) A calculator with an input resistance of 2.5 KΩ is now connected between terminals A and B.
What is the p.d. across the calculator?
VARIABLE RESISTANCE
(a) RHEOSTAT: A Rheostat is a simple resistor with two terminals, whose resistance can
be varied by moving a sliding contact or turning a knob. Thus the resistance of a rheostat
varies between 0Ω and some maximum value.
When resistance of rheostat = 0Ω
Current, I through circuit = , I = = =1A
V across bulb, V = IR = 1Ax3Ω=3V
When the resistance of rheostat = 9Ω
Current through circuit, I =
But R = R1 + R2
Therefore I = = =
187
V across bulb = IR2 = 0.25Ax3Ω=0.75V (bulb dim or off)

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(b) POTENTIOMETER: It is a variable Potential Divider. A variable resistor with three
terminals is used and a sliding contact is connected to the center one. All three
connections are being used.
E.g1. Find the maximum and minimum p.d. which can be across the bulb in each of the circuits
below.
(a)
(b)
The advantage of Potentiometer over a Rheostat is that the p.d. can be varied between 0V and
max.
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POWER RATINGS
All electronic components have a power rating stated by the manufacturer. This is the maximum
power which can be developed in the resistor without causing damage.
E.g.1 A 100Ω resistor has a power rating of 1.0 w. Determine whether or not the resistor will be
damaged if there is 5.0 V.
Power dissipated in resistor, P = VI but I=
Therefore P = = 0.25w
Since P 1.0 w, the resistor will not be damaged.
INPUT TRANSDUCERS
An input transducer is a component which enables a circuit to respond to a change in

environment.
1. LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS(LDR)
An LDR is a semiconductor component whose resistance decreases when the intensity of

the light incident on it increases. (i.e. in the dark it has a high resistance)
When more light is incident on the LDR, its resistance decreases and so the current
increases .The rheostat can be used to adjust the calibration of the instrument. LDR
are used in street lights.
189
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2. THERMISTOR : A thermistor is a component whose resistance decreases as its
temperature increases. Thermistors can be used as electronic thermometers as in the
circuit below.
When the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases and so the
milliammeter reading increases. Thus the meter can be calibrated directly in °C. The rheostat is
used to adjust the range of the thermometer and its sensitivity. A thermistor of low heat capacity
should be used to enable fast response to a change in temperature.
SWITCHING CIRCUITS
Using a relay switch, one circuit may be used to switch on another. In electronics, Reed Relays
are commonly used. These consists of a small coil wound around a glass tube containing two
‘reeds’ made of magnetic material. When a current flows through the coil reeds become
magnetized and attract each other ( i.e. they become opposite poles) completing the circuit
connected to AB. When the circuit in the coil is switched off the reeds separate
E.g.1 Fire Alarm

190
When there is fire outbreak the thermistor is heated, its resistance decreases and enough current flows
through the relay coil to switch on the mains circuit.
Page
E.g 2. (i)Security Light
When there is light falling on the LDR, its resistance is low and so p.d. across it is low
and therefore the p.d across the relay coil is low as well as the current through the relay
coil is low. Thus the reeds are not magnetized and no current flows through the bulb.
When there is no light falling on the LDR its resistance is high and so the p.d across it is
high. Therefore the p.d across and the current through the relay coil are high. Thus the
reeds are magnetized and current flows through the bulb.
Note (i) The LDR and rheostat function as a potential divider. The resistance of the
rheostat can be varied to adjust intensity of light at which the relay switches on.
(ii) If the LDR and rheostat are interchanged, the circuit will switch on the bulb in light
and off in the dark.
191
Page
TIME DELAY CIRCUITS
A Capacitor is a component which consists of two parallel conducting ‘plates’ separated

by an insulator (modern ones are cylindrical, made by rolling the conductors and
insulator together). A capacitor acts as a store of charge.
When charging a capacitor the + of the battery attracts electrons from plate X and the – of
the battery repels electrons to plate Y. A positive charge builds up on plate X (since it
loses electrons) and an equal negative charge builds up on Y (since it gains electrons)
Charged Capacitor
When the switch is closed, the bulb light for a few seconds, the time depends on the
capacitance of the capacitor and the resistance of the bulb.
192
Page
Capacitors may be used in conjunction with relays as shown below.
When switch is first closed the capacitor tends to ‘short circuit’ the relay so it does not
switch on for a few seconds (until some charge has built up on the capacitor). When the
switch is opened, the capacitor discharges through the relay, keeping the bulb on for a
few seconds.
E.g. A circuit which switches on a lamp a few seconds after it becomes dark.
When it becomes dark the resistance of the LDR increases, and so the p.d across it, the
capacitor and the relay coil increases. At first a large current flows through the capacitor
until it becomes charged enough for current to flow through the relay coil to switch the
lamp on.
193
Page
DIODE
A diode is a two terminal device which lets current pass through it in one direction only.
Symbol
A diode can be used as a rectifier i.e. converting alternating current into direct current.
(a) Half Wave Rectification: A single diode is used.
194
Page
(b) Full Wave Rectification
The solid lines shows the direction of current and the broken lines also shows another alternative
direction of current as the current keeps on changing direction. But no matter which direction the
current flows in the bridge the + and – terminals across the resistor do not change.
195
Page
ATOMIC PHYSICS
RADIOACTIVITY: It is the disintegration (breaking apart) of an unstable atomic

nucleus. Radioactivity is random, i.e. it can occur at any time releasing any number of
emissions. Three types of emissions are produced; alpha particle (α), beta particle (β) and
gamma rays (γ).
Examples of Radioactive materials
Uranium – 238, Carbon -14, Cobalt -60, Thorium -232, Plutonium-244, Potasium-40
Background Radiation
 Various rocks in the earth, including granite contain small percentages of

radioactive uranium, Thorium and Potassium compounds.
Note; Uranium, Thorium and Potassium are the only three naturally occurring
radioactive materials.
 Our bodies also contain traces (small amounts) of radioactive materials as do the
bricks and other building materials that are used to build our homes, schools and
work places.
 In addition to these sources we are also exposed to gamma radiation from the sun.
These sources of natural radiation constitute the background radiation. We are exposed to
background radiation all the time, because it is very low it causes no risk to our health.
Dangers of Radioactivity
 Beta and gamma rays can easily pass through the skin and can damage or even
kill cells.
 They can cause mutations in a cell’s DNA which may lead to cancer.
 Extremely large doses of radiation can cause radiation burns.
Safe HANDLING of radioactive substances
 Radioactive materials are lifted with forceps or long tongs. In industry they are
handled by mechanical tongs operated by remote control equipment from behind
thick walls made of lead.
 They are stored or transported in lead or concrete walls.
 Workers wear radiation doze badges to check on the amount of radiation they are
exposed to
196
Page
NATURE OF EMISSIONS
(i) Alpha Particle
It consists of two neutrons and two protons but no electrons, therefore it is a helium
2+
nucleus ( ). The helium nucleus releases two electrons to become an alpha
particle.
(ii) Beta Particle
These are streams of high energy electrons ( ).
(iii)Gamma rays
These are electromagnetic waves, with wavelength much shorter than that of light.
PENETRATION AND IONISATION POWERS
Penetration powers are due to the way they interact with matter and ionization occurs
when the emissions knock off electrons from atoms (making ions).
Alpha (α) particles are stopped by a thin sheet of paper or even 5cm of air at normal
atmospheric pressure, so they are the least penetrating of the three.
Since they are large, carry two positive charges and slow moving, they are the
strongest ionizers.
Beta (β) particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, they are blocked by 3 mm
of aluminum sheet and go up to 1 m of air at normal atmospheric pressure. Since they
carry less charge and move faster than alpha particles, they are less ionizing.
Gamma (γ) rays are the most penetrating. They can be reduced but not stopped by
lead. Since they are the fastest and carry no charge, they are the least ionizers.
IONISATION EFFECTS
Ionizing emissions damages the complex chemicals necessary for the functioning of
the cell. If this damage is significant, the cell will die. For radiation outside the body,
gamma radiation is the most hazardous because of its high penetration so it can reach
the interior of the body, whereas the highly ionizing alpha emission will be stopped
by the dead skin cells, so it will cause little or no harm to the living cells beneath the
skin.
197
For radiation inside the body i.e. if swallowed by mistake or breathed in. The highly
ionizing alpha particle will cause more harm than gamma rays
Page
EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS
EFFECTS OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS
METHOD OF DETECTION
Geiger- Müller (GM) tube is an instrument specially designed to detect the radioactive
radiations i.e. (alpha beta and gamma).
It operates on the basis of ionization effect of the radiations
If an alpha particle enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets a high voltage spark
across the gas and a pulse of current in the circuit flows. A beta particle or burst of gamma
radiation has the same effect.
When the radiation from a radioactive source is measured, the reading always includes any
background radiation. So an average for the background alone must be found and subtracted
198
from the total.

Page
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Radioactive Decay: The decay is exponential and has a constant half-life.

The rate of decay depends on the number of undecayed nuclei at any
particular time.
ALPHA DECAY
This occurs when the nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons thus
reducing its nucleon number (mass no) by four and its proton number by
two.
+α
e.g. Uranium-238 decays into Thorium-234 by the emission of an alpha

particle
BETA DECAY
This occurs when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron which is
emitted at a high speed. The proton number increases by one and the mass
number remains the same.
+β
e.g. Carbon -14 undergoes beta decay
GAMMA DECAY
This normally occurs after an alpha or beta decay when a nucleus is left in
an excited state (with excess energy). To be more stable the nucleus will lose
the excess energy by emitting the γ- rays. The element remains unchanged.
+ Energy
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Page
DECAY CURVES
Half-life: It is the time taken for half of the radioactive atoms to decay or time taken for activity
(count rate) of a radioactive source to decrease by half.
Generally:
N = N o ( )n
Where: N is No of undecayed nuclei
No is Original No of nuclei
n is number of half-lifes
n=
Where: n is number of haif-lifes
t is time of decay
is half-life
Example: A radioactive source of mass 200g has a half-life of 8 minutes. Determine the
remaining mass after 24 minutes.
N = No ( )n
200
n= =3
N = 200 ( )3 = =25g
Page
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
(i) TRACERS: Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (safe) quantities, so they
can be used as tracers. Their movements can be tracked or traced.e.g.
checking the function of body organs, tracking a plant’s uptake of fertilizer
from roots to leaves or detects leaks in underground pipes.
(ii) RADIOTHERAPY: Used to treat cancer.
(iii)RADIOCARBON DATING: To determine the age of a sample.
(iv) NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS: Used to produce electricity.
(v) STERILISING: Medical equiptments such as needles, syringes and dressings are
sterilized by a radioactive source.
(vi) CONTROLLING POPULATION OF PESTS: They are sterilized.
NUCLEAR FUSION: This is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
e.g. The fusion of two heavier isotopes of hydrogen deuterium ( ) and tritium ( ) to
obtain Helium ( ) + neutron
+ +
NUCLEAR FISSION: The fission involves splitting of a heavier nucleus into two, more
or less equal fragments.
E.g. + + + 2
If the fission neutrons split other Uranium 235 nuclei, a chain reaction is set up.
The nuclear fission equation above shows that the number of nucleons is conserved. i.e.
The nucleon number adds up to 236 on both sides of the equation, and the proton number
adds up to 92 on both sides of the equation.
But an accurate adding up of the total mass on each side of the equation would show that
there is a small loss of mass on the right- hand side.
This lost mass is converted into energy.
In 1905 Albert Einstein worked out the relation between mass and energy in his now
famous formula.
E = mC2
201
The energy E released in Joules can be found if the mass loss m is given in kilograms and
C = 3 x 108 m/s, the speed of light.
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BGCSE PHYSICS NOTES

What is meant by PHYSICS?

Definition: Is the study of properties of matter and energy.

Energy: is something a body possesses which enables it to do work.

{All the measurements we do or use are known as Physical quantities}.

What is meant by PHYSICAL QUANTITIES?

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES: refers to measurable features or properties of objects.

Types of physical Quantities

We got two types of physical Quantities namely: Fundamental/Basic and Derived.

Table 1.1 Name and Symbols for fundamental/basic units.

Table 1.2: Name and for derived units

Derived quantity Symbol Unit symbol

Quantity: Area = length * width

S.I units: meter * meter = (meter)2 i.e m2

Example: centimetre - centi is a prefix

1. Express the following measurements in the specified units

2. Convert the following

Summary on conversion units

÷ 1000 000 ÷ 10 000 ÷ 100

÷ 1000 000 ÷ 1 000

days hours minutes seconds

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

Scientific notation (Standard form)

Accuracy and significant figures

MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR MEASURING DEVICES

a) Solid rulers.- accuracy is 1mm

b) Measuring tape. Accuracy is 1mm

d) Micrometer Screw gauge. It is used for measuring external diameters of very

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASURING LENGTH

Common Errors in Length Measurement

Any measurement made has degree of uncertainty (error) in its accuracy.

errors encountered when measurements are carried out.

What is the reading shown? Scale reading = ............................

Volume reading = ............................

3. Write down the readings shown. Include appropriate units.

Current =............................................ Potential difference =.....................................

Mass of copper sulphate = .............................

This results when:

N.B: This type of error is accumulative in the measurements taken.

The zero error is –1.

The zero error is +2.

What is the length of the object? Length =…………………………….

(iii) Random Error

What is the diameter of the tree? Diameter reading = ............................

(b) Accuracy of the measurements taken using a metre rule

It is ±1mm or ± 0.1 cm.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH USING VERNIER CALIPERS AND MICROSCREW GAUGE

(i)Using a Vernier Calipers

It has two scales:

(b) Accuracy of a vernier calipers

It is ± 0.1 mm or ± 0.01 cm.

(iii) Take the readings perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.

Consider the vernier caliper below

RULE FOR READING A VERNIER CALLIPERS SCALE:

Total reading = 6.5 cm

NB: The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.01 cm.

Useful for measuring small length such as diameters of wires, thickness of