Plane Euclidean

1 geometry

The coordinate plane

1ile start with the familiar plane of aralyi* geometry. Each ordered pair
(pt, pz\ of real numbers determiaes exactly oae point P of the plane. The
point determined by (0, 0) is called the ortgin.
The ordered patr {p* pr) is also referred to as the coardinate vecWr sf P .
Although mathematically equivalent, the words "point" and "vectorn'have
different connotations. A vector is usually thought of as a line segment
directed from one poiat ta another. We may think of the vector (pu pzl as
the line segnent beginning at the origin 0 and endiag at P. \Ye shall regard
the words "l)oirtn' aod 'nvegtor" as interchangeable, using whichever
suggests the more appropriate picture. The set of all vectors i* denoted by
R3.

The vector space R2

If r = (rr, rz) and y * (yt yz\, then we define

x+y:kr*y1-xz+yz),
If c is a real number and x is a vector, then we define
cr = (cx1, cx2).

These operations are called vector addition and scalar multiplicati6n,

respectively. In particular, if c- -1, the vector cx ie denoted by -r.
The vector 0 = (0, 0) is called the zero vector. The operations of vector
addition and scalar multiplication enjoy the following fanriliar algebraic
prope*ies:

Thcorcnr I. For all vectors x, y, and, z, and real runnbers c and d,

i. (x+y)+z=.r+(y+z).
I ii. x+y=/*J.
 -t

iii. "r*0=x. The inner-product

iv. x*(-x):S. space R2
v. l,r = .r.
vi" c(x + y) = cx + cy.
vii. (c + d)r : cx * dx.
viii. c{dx) = {cd)x.

The inner-product spac€ R2

Given two vector$ -r and y, we defirc

(r, y) - rr1 * xzyz.

The number (.r, y) is called the inner produa st x and y. It is somEtimes

also called the dot product ot scalar product of .r and y.
The following identities concerning the inner product may be easily
checked.

Tlreorem 2.
i. (x, y * e) - (.r, y) + ("r, zl for all x, y, z e R2.
ii" (r, cyi = clx, y) for ull x, ! e * and sII c e R'
iii. (x, y) = (y,:) for all x, y e R2.
iv. If (x, yl - a for all x e *, then y fltttst be the zero vector,
Remark: Theorem 1 says that R2 is a vector space. Theorem 2 says that the
inner product is bilinesr, symmetric, and nondegenerate. See Appendix D
for further disctssion of these notions.
For any vector x e R2 we define the length of "r to be
lxl=1ffQ.
Note that

1r1z
: (.t, .r),
so that length and inner product are intimately related.

Theotem 0. The length function tws the following properties:

i. lrl > 0 far all; e R2.
ii. I/ hl * 0, t&en ; = 0 (tlrc zerc v*ctat).
iii. l*rl = lcllxllar all x e *2 and aII c e R.
We now state and prove a less immediate property of the inner-product
function and its coffisquence for length. g
Plane Euclidean geometry Thaortmrl(Gauclry-$t*rwan lnqudlty). For *o vecton x aad y inR2 we
have

l(r, y)l < I'llyl.

Equality holds if and only if x and y are proportional.

Praof: We restrict our attention to nonzefo vcctors r and y, the assefiion

being obviously true when either x or y is zero.
Consider the real-valued function / defined by

"f(r)=lr+tyl, for reR.

Using the properties stated above, we observe thatflr) is nonnegative for
all r and that f(r) as$rmes the value 0 if and onty if .r is a multiple of y.
On the other haad, / is a polynomial of degree 2. Speeifically,

flr) : lxlz + zt{x, y} + rrlyl, (1.1)

and as such remains nonnegative only if 1r, yl'* lrl'lyl'; that is, l(x, yll
* lrllvl.
In addition, flr) assumer the value zero only if l(x, y)l = lrllyl. Thus,
l(r,yll = lrllylif andonlyif*andyare proportional. n
Comllary. For x, y € R2,

i, + yl = irl + iyl. $.2\

Equnlity holds if and only if x and y sre proportional with a nonnegative
pro po rtionality factor.

Prool:

h + yl, : lrlz + Z\x, yl + lyl,

< lrl' + zlrliyl + lyl' (1.3)
= (lxl + lyl)z;
hence, lx + yl
= Irl + lyl.
If equality holds here, then we must have
(r, y) : lrl lyl.
From our work on the Cauchy*Schwarz inequality, we see that x and y
must be proportional. But .r : cy leads to
(r, y) = c(y, y) = clyl2
and

lrllvl : I'llyllyl : l"llyl'.

10 Thus, c must be equal to lcl; hence, c > 0. n
The Euelidean plane Ez Lines

The plane has both algebraic and geometric aspects. When we think of the
algebraic properties, we are thinking of the vector properties of R2.
We now turn to the geometric concept of distance. If P and p are points,
we define the distance between P and Q by the equation
d(P, 8t = [g - Pl.

The symbol E2 will be used to denote the set R2 equipped with the distance
function d.
The concept of distance is a fundamental one in geometry. We will now
derive the most important properties of distaace. They are stated in the
following theorem.

Tlraorem 5. l,et P, Q, and R be potn* of ff. Then

i. d{P, Q} > 0.
ii. d{P, 8} = 0 f and only if P = g.
iii. d(P, Q) = d{Q, P).
iv. d(P, Q) + d{Q, n) > d(P, n} $he uiangle inequality}

- -
Prwf: Becaused(P, Q) = lA Pl= l-(g - P)[ lP Ol, the first three -
properties follow from Theorem 3. The fourth property is equivalent to
showing that

lA - Pl+ lft - Ol> l(g- P) + (R - Otl= ln - Pl,

Thh, of course, follows from the corollary to Theorem 4. Furthermore,
equality ho,lds if and only rt I - P = u(R * Q) for some nonnegative
number u. In the next section we will see that this implies that P, Q, and R
are collinear. tr

Lines

A line in analytic gsometry is characterized by the propetty that the vectors

joining pairs of points are proportional, ![e define a d.irerrian to be the set
of all vectors proportional to a given nonzero vec'tor.
For a given vectbr u let

[rl={nl reR}. u

If P is any point and u is a nonzero vector, then

P
{={xl x-Fe[ul] (1.4)
FEurcf.f Theline f,= f + [r4.
is called thelne through P with direction [u]. See figure 1.1. We also write
(1.a) in the form 11
Plane Euclidean geometry f=p+[ul.
When ( = P + [d is a line, we say that u k a direaion veewr af l,
If f is a line ard X is a point, there are many phrases used to express the
relationship X e t. The following are synonymou$:

i. Xe f.
ii. f contains X.
iii. X lies on f,.
iv. { passes though X.
v. X and { are incident.
vi. X is incident $rith f.
vii. f is incident with X.
fremark: In axiomatic geometry one u*ually takes points and lines as
fundamental objects and incidence as afundamental relation. Then an inci.
dence geometry would consist of sets fi and I an.d a relation in I x 9.
The relation is assumed to satisfy certain properties from which other
properties of the axiomatic system are deduced. See Greenberg [16]. We
are being more speeific here, but our propositions occur as axioms or
propositions in axiomatic developments of plane g€ometry.

A fundamental property of a line is that it is uniquely determined by any

two points that lie on it. Thus, it is impo*ant to mention the following:

Thsorcm G. LaP and Q be d*tinct points of F?. fhm th*e is a unique

line connining P md Q, which we d,cnote fy Fb.
,r/
Proot: I"et u be a nonzero vector. The line P + [ul passes through p
Figure f.2 The line Pp and e direction if and only if O - P e [ut. This means that [g - P] * [u]. Hence, the line
Yector u, P + [O - PI i$ the unique line required. See Figure 1.2. E

Thusn a typical point X on the line { = FD is written

a(t) = P + t(8 - P) = (t * r)P + tQ. (1.5)

P (See Figure 1.3 for a vector addition interpretation.) This equation may be
regarded as a pffametric representation of the line. Ar , ranges through the
real numbers, c(r) ranges over the line. The parameter is related to
t
distance along f, by the forrrula
t-
Ikure r.3 c(r) = (1 * tlP + r9.
d(o(r,), a(t;1 : la - rrllQ * rl. (1.6)

If X= (1 * 0P + rQ, where0 < t< 1, wesaythat Xisbetween Pand O.

This algebraic characterication of htweenness is equivalent to th6
12 following geometrical one.
Theorem 7. Let P, X, and Q be distiruct poin* of *. Then X is beween P Lines
and Q if and only if
d(P, x) + d(x, Q\: d(P, Q).
Proof: Suppose first that X is between P and Q. Then for some , e (0, 1),
x= (1 * t)P + tg"
Then

d{P, x): lx - Pl * lt{Q * P)l : 40 * Pl.

Also,
d(x,8):lQ-xl =l(1 -tXQ-Pll :(1 -0lO-Pl,
x
hence,

d(P, X) + dtx, Q): tlQ - Pl + (1 - 4lO - Pl 0

= lQ - Pl = d(P, Q).
P
Conversely, suppose that X is a point of E2 qatisfyi ng d{P , X) + d{X , Q)
: d{P, O). As we saw in Theorem 5, there is a positive number u such that rigure l.,l d{P , X} + d(X, Q} >
d(P, Qr.X is not be tween P and Q.
X-P:u(Q*X).
Solving for X gives

y=L- pa.!-g.
l*u l*u*
Setting t = u/(1 * u), we see that0 <, < 1, while 1 - r = t/{l + u),so that P
X:(1 -t\P+ rp.Thus,Xisbetween PandQ. n
Figure 1.5 d(P, X) + d(X,Q) =
Fbmark: Theorem 7 is illustrated in Figures f .i[ and 1.5. d(P, Q). Xis between Pand Q.

Let Pand Q be distinct points. The set consistingof P, Q, and all points
between them is called a seyent and is dEnoted by P8. P and O are the
end points of the segment. All other points of the segment are called
interior points.
If M is a point satisfying
d(P, M') : d(M,81 = *d(P, Ql,
then M is a midpoint of PQ.II follows easily from Exercise 8 that each
segment has a unique midpoint, namely,

u**(p+e,.
If two lines f and am pass through a point P, we stry that they it*nect at P
and P is their point of intersection. From this point of view we restate p&rt
of Theorem 6. 13
Plane Euclidean geometry Tluorcm 8. Two distittct lines have ilt mast one point of intercection.

As we shall see later, two lines in E2 may have no point of intersection at

all.
If three or more lines all pass through a point P, we saythat the lines are
co*.carrent.If threE or more points lie on some liae, the points are said to
be collinear.

Orthonormal pairs

Two vectors u and w are said ta be orthogotw, if (q rv) = 0. It is frequently

desirable to have a vector available that is orthogonal to a given vector. If
u = (ur, u2), we define * :(-az, uf . Clearly, u and ur are orthogonal
and have the same length. We also easily see that
#r = -u.
A vector of length t is said to be a Ht if vector. A pair {u, t+} of uuit
orthogo*al vectors is called an or*ononnal pair.

Throrcm 9. Ixt {u, w} b* an orthanormal pair af vectors fn R2. Then for

all x * [;2,
r : tr, ulu * (x, r+)w.

Prd: Because u and w are linearly independent, they form a basis for R?
(see Appendix D). Thus, for anyx e R2, there exist unique comtants L atrd
*
p such that r = Iu pw. But then, using the fundamental properties of the
inner product, we get
(r, ,) = f,(u, u) + p{w, u} : }r

and
u
(x, rv) = )t(u, w) + p(w, w) : p. n
Figurc 1.6 Theorcm9.

Rema*: Theorem 9 is illustrated in Figure 1.6.

The equation of a line

If f is a line with direction vectof u, the ve(tor ur is cail€d anormalvectot

to f. Clearly, any t\ro normal vectors to the same line are proportional. We
ncw derive a characterizatioo of a line in terms of its normal vector. See
14 Figures 1.7 and 1.8.
Tlleorem t0. l*t P be any.point and let {u, lV} be m orthonorruat pelr of The equation of a line
vectow" Then P + [u] : {Xl(X - P, /V} = 91.

Praof: By Theorem 9 we have the identity

x
X * P: (X- P, ulu+ (X * P, N)AI
for any point Xin R2. We show that Xlies on the line P + [ul if and only if
lx-P,N)=0. N
First, suppose that X = P * ,u for some real number t. Then P

<X - P, N) : (tu' N) = t(u, ff) = 0. 0

Conversely, if (X - P, lYl = 0, the identity reduces to fEBrG r.? tJf - P, rV) ra 0. ,{does uot
liron{=f+[rrl.
X*p-(X-p,r)q
so that

X-P+(X*P,alv eP+[u]. tr X

N P
Corcllary. I/iV ir nny nonzeto vectar, {Xl(X - P, JV) = 0} ir the lh*
through P with normal vector N and, hence, direction vector Nt. Lr

PN: Figure l.t - P,N) = 0. Xlies

Just observe that - P, N) = 0 if and only if <X - P,N/]N|) = 0
(X
f=P+[u].
\X on

and apply the theorem. n

lVe recall from elementary analytic geometry that {(x, y}lar + by * c
= 0) shoutd represent a lire, provided that d + * * 0. Thie fits into our
scheme as follows:

Theorsm ll. Leta,b,ande berealnwnbers. T'hen {{x,y)lax + by + c = 0}

,J
i. the empty s* if a = 0, & = A, and c * 0,
ii. the whole plane Rz if a : 0, $ = 0, and c = 0,
iii. a line with normal vector (*, b) otherwise.

Proof: Cases (i) and (ii) are obvious. C;onsider now the case where
az + * # 0. One can check that the set in question is not empty. In fact, at
least one of the points (*c/a,0) and {0, -clb) must be defined and satisfy
the equation.
Let P = (rr, )r) k any point satisfying the equation. Then c :
-(arr + &}1); Thus w + by t q = 0if andonlyif a{x -+r} + b(} - }r} =
0. lrtting lV - {a, bl,we see that the set in question is just the line thrcugh
Pwith normalvectorlV. tr
15
Plane Euclidean geometry Perpendicular lines

Two lines t and *z are said to be perpendicular it they have orthogonal

direction vectors. In this case wo write f J. an. Two s€gments afe
perpendinrlar if the lines on which they lie are perpendicular.
An imprtant manifestation of parpendieularity i* thc famo*s thaorem
of Pythagoras.

Theorar 12 (Pyfiqorm). Iat P, Q, and. R be three distinct points.

*
Pl' * lQ Pl'+ lft Ql? if and onty if the tines 6i' *a
- -
W lR
RQ are perpendicular.

Proof: We recall formula (1.3):

l, + yl' : lxl2 + 2\*, yl + lyl'.
We note that l.r + ylz : lrl' + lyl' if and only if (x, y) = 0. Now put
x : Q * Fandy =.R * 0. We see thatr +) - R - P, and, hence,
lR - Pl' : lO - rl2 + In - Ql' itandonly it tQ -P,ft - O) : 0. This
N./ means that the s€grnent PQ and the segment QR are perpendicular. n
)v\/u
Figure 1.9 Pcrpendicular lines and their The next property of perpendicular lines is more evident intuitively than
orthonormal direction vectors. Pythagoras' theorem but more difficult to prove. See Figure 1.9.

Thcorun l& If C L o*., tlrcn t and m have a untque point in com,mon.

Proof: l*tt = P+ [u] andon= Q + [rr]. Wemayassumethatuand ware
unit vectors, so that {r, ,} is an orthonormal set. We write
P * 8: {P - Q,rlu + (P - Q,wlw,
and, hence,
X P - (P - O, r), = Q + (r - g,wlw.
Setting
fr. F=p * (p _ e,rlu = g + (p _ e,wlw,
i
I we see that F lies on both f and rz.
I
I
Fis the only common point, because if there were two, by Theorem I the
Ftsnrc 1.f0 Droping aperpendicular lines would have to coincide. !
tod fromX.

This result allows us to obtain a result motivated by a construction of

a. -
tsuclld.

Thaorem 14. I*t X be a potnt, md let t be a line. Then there is a unique

16 line a* through X perpendicular to 4. Fwthermore,
 i. a, = X + UVl, where IV rs a wit nonnal vectot to l; Parallel and
ii. tand.aeintersectlnthepointF= X - (X- P,ff)iV, wherePisany intersecting lines
point on l;
iii, -
d{X, F) = l(,Y P, ,,Y)1.

,la
Rsrma*: The eonstrudion ot wawheo f and J[are g]Ysr] is called er*ti*g a
perpendicular to {, nt Jt tf. X happens to lie on f. Otherwise, it i$ called
dropping a perpmdicular ro { from X. In this case the unique point of x
intersection of { and cz is called the/oot Fof the perpendicular. Theorem
14 is illustrated in Figures 1.10 and 1.11.

Thaorarm 15. Let t be any line, and let X be a point not on 0. Let F be fue Fi;urc l.f f Erecting a perpendicular to
t. Then F * the point of t near*t to X. 4 atX.
faot of the perp*dicular ftom X to
(See Figwe 1.12.)

Proof: Let P be any point on f,. Because PF J- fX, Pythagoras' theorem

gives f,Y * Pl' -lX Fl'+ lr Pl2. Thus, lX Pl'> lX - Fl2 with
- - -
equality if and only if P * F. tr

Delinttlon. The nwnher d(X, f, is calkd rtrle distance from the pointXto
the line t and is writtcn d.(X, e\. FP
Figure l.12 Fis the point of f closest to
Herrra/r: d(X, q is the shortest distance from X to any point of f .
X,

Corollary. Let t be aline with unttnormalvector N, Izt X be any poixt of

R'. // P is any point CIn t, then
d(x, e) = l(X - P, Nll.
1Ve ncw present another ussful construction involving perpendicularity.
?Q be a segment. The line through the midpoint M of. PO that is
I..et 0
perpendicut* to FS is called tbe perpendiaiar hbecwr of the segnent I
I

PO. See Figure 1.13. 1

'fremark:
fheperpendicular bisector consists precisely of all points that Ffuurr t.l3 Themidpoint and
are equidistant from P and Q. perpendicular bisector of a segment.

Parallel and intercectirg Unes

Two distinct lines ( and *

are said tabe parallei if they have no point of
intersection. In this case we write ll or. I
In light of the exercises for the section on linesn if f is any line, P is any
point on f,, and u is any direction yector of f,, then = P + [ul. f
We have the folloning criterion for parallelism. 17
 -l

Plane Euclidean geometry Theorem 16. Two distinct lines ( and, m are parqllel if and only if they have
the same direction. (Recall that the direction of a line P + [.,] is the set lul.)

Proaf: Suppose that f and at have a common point F. We may write

I = F + fulanday- = F+ [w] fornonzerovsctors uand rv. Because I *ndal-
are di$iaef [.{ * [wl.
Conversely, suppose that { and ar have different directions [u] and [wJ.
L€t P be any point of {, and tet O be any potnt of *2. Bemuse uand rv are
rot proportional, there exist numbers t and s such that P - 8: fu *-$w.
(See Appendix D.) This meausthat P - fs: Q + sw. Let F = P * N =
Q + sw. Then Fis a common point of f, *ttd m. n
risurc 1.r{ e ll *, - ll " , and t fl *. Parallel lines come in families, one for e*ch direction. A line ot
perpendicular to oRe member { of $e family is also perpendicular to all the
others. Thus, it is possible to parametrize the family by the real numbers,
essentially by measuring distance along m. Although these facts are
2 intuitive aad fm$iar; it is.neeesoary t6 p6t{!t tlrem st* eN$ieitly here in
order to sompare them to the analogous situations in non-Euclidean
geometries.
lVe leave the prooh of these to the exerciscs. Casas (i)-(iii) are
illustrated in Figures 1"14-1.16, respectively. Figure 1.16 also illustrates
Theorem 18.

Theorcm 17.
fiCalf.f5 f Il -aodx I'impty i. If t ll oa and * ll *, then either t, = m or ( ll ".
( La. ii. $e llrnanda, Ln,thent t*.
iii. If t L n and. rn ! m, then ( ll * or t, : na.
Theorem 18. Let ( and *, be parallel lines. Then there is a unique number
c
d(t, *lS such that

d(X, () : d(Y, za\ : d{4, rn)

m)
Y x all Y e t. ln faet, if N is a unit normal vector to t and *,
for all X e m and.
then for any points X on tn and Y on t,

,,
l(x - v, N)l : d(t, *).
lilgurre Lf6 I I t, a I *, aad f ll *. Thus, parallel lines remain "equidistant." Intersecting lines, on the
lW, t) = d{Y,x) = d{|,,n). other hand, behave as follows:

*
1g. Let t be any ti*e, end t$ be a"tine iaterse*ing 4 at a point
f?reorsnr
P. Letaandw be unit directionvectots af ( and**e,
I*ta(tj =
P + w be a parame*ization af *e. Then d@(t), {) = ltll(n, ut}|. Tkus as
X ranges through m, d(X, (\ ra*ges through all nonnegative real numbers,
18 each positive real nutnber occurring twice. See Figure 1.17.
Reffections Reflections

Any subset of the plane is called x figure, Naturally some figures are more
interesting than others. Figures with a high degree of symmetry are most m
interesting, not only because of aesthetic considerations but also because x
they uceur in nature. Snowflakee, molecndes, and rtystats are tbree c(r)
examples of objects with symmetric cross sections.
The simplest kind of synrmetry that a plane figure can have is symmetry F
about a line, See Figure 1.18. We aow formulate this notion precisely. I"et
f be a line passing through a point P and having unit normal iV. Two points
Xand-Y are symmetricalaboutf if themidpointof the segmentX,Yisthe
foot Fof the perpendicular from Xto f . See Figure 1.19. In other words, X
v?
*-u---"
and ,Y are symmetrical about d if we have figpIeLu d(a(o,F) = ltll (ru,#)f.
*(x+ xl=F.
By Theorem 14 this means that

*x + *x = I'- tx - i,, rlr,

*x = ttx - (x - p, Ivlry,
. )( =ff-2<X*P, lV)iV.
In order to consider sy,qmetry about various li,nes,, it is convenient to
ariopt a Aynamic approach by expressing the retationstrip fetween .li and
,Y ir terms of a transfirrmation that takes X to "Y.
Oeffnltlon. For a line { the r$ection ift t i{ ttw mapping dtx of 8? to B}
d$ned by ngure f.f$ A figurc that is eymmetric

{ltx: X - 2(X - P, N)N. about thclire {.

where N is a unit normal to (, and P is any point of t,.

It 9 is a figure such that dla F = ff, then we say that g is symmetric e

about 8. The line f is called a line of symmetry or a.ris of syrnnutry af. ff.
lYc uor+ invu'rtig*te wme af the prcperties of refleutiuns.
FX,
Theorcm 1[l.
i. d(ndL Ofy) : d(X, y, for all points X, Y tuEz.
ii. OgO{X = X far all poin* X in E.2.
iii. {l,x; * --+ E2 is a bijeaion. P

Proot:
i. ofx- orY * x * Y - 2(x- Y, N)N. Thus,
F.isrrrc f .f9 XandX'are related by
reflection in the line f.
ln€x-o(y1? = lx- ylz*4(x-y, N))2+4(( x-y, N))2(N, N)
= lx _ yl2. 1g
Plane Euclidean geometry ii. Write OsX : f, - 2\iY, where X = (X - P, N). Then
ofofx - x * 2xN - 7{x - 2\ir - P, r/)N
: f, - 2IN - 2<X - P, N)li/ + 4[(N, N)N
-x-ztN-2).N+4tN
:N.
iri. We first show that I-16 is lnjective. If {}cY : dlqY, then (}s(}aX:
Orf,}ry and X : Y, by (ii). To show that Os is surjective, le1 Y be any
point of 82" Let X : dleY. Then OsX : Y, so that Yis in the range of
Or' n
Theorem 21. dllX - X if and only if X e 4.
Proot: X - 2(X - P, iviiV = Xif and only if (X - P, iV)ff = 0; that is,
{X - P,iVi = 0. The statement now follows from Theorem 10. n
Hema*: A fixed point of. a mapping T is a point X satisfying IX = X.
fhus, Theorem ?i says that the fixed points oi a rcflection are those wtrich
Iie on its axis.

Rema*: Theorem 20 shows that reflections are involutive distance-

preserving bijections. We study distance-preserving bijections (isometries)
in the next section. To say that a mapping I is involutive means Tz : TT
= /, the identity mapping of 82. (See also Appendix B.)
9.

Congruence and isometries

ff .tris a[y figure and Or is any reffection, then Oc$is called th* mlrror
inrage of .F in the line f. The figure and its mirror irnage are ob$erved to
have the same "$iue" and "uhape." If $* is a samnd reflection, then
figure 1,20 Suecessive refleetions O*f,16 .flis agf,in the same sise and shape as .tr (Soe Figure 1.20.) One may
no- thinli tltmtliiAii tr*iigitllli" iiitha plefre sAthiit it iloittfil€:*"ivith'{t*dr( g,
The key property that makes precise our intuitive notions of size, shape,
and rigid motion is that the distance betweea each pair of points on .f is
equal to the distance.between the corresponding pairs of points on
dl-{1x9. \Ye introduce the general concept of distance-preserviug arap
.pirry or isometry as follows:

Definttlon. A mapping T of * onto ff is said n be ar isometry tf tor any X

and Y in E.2,

2A d(TX, W) = d(X, Y).

Deftnition. Two figures fir and 9z sre congruent tf ihere exists an Symmetrygroups
isometry T such that Tgr = Fz.

We showed in the previous section that every reflection is an isometry.

Although not every isometry is a refleetion, we shall see later that every
.ieo,metry ie the produet {mmpesit{on} of et ffio$t tke€ re{oesion*. ?[huq
reflections are the basic building blocks of isometries.
Every isometry ? is a bijectiou of E2 onto 82. Iu fact, it TX : If, then

0 : d(TX, If) = dtx, Y\,

so that X = Y. Therefore, the inverse mapping I*l exists. In fact, ?*1is
aiso an isometry because
d(fLX, f'r) = d(TTrX, TT-IY) = d(X, Y).
Furthermore, if I and S are isometries, tben

d(75X, fSY) = d(,SX, SY) = d(X, Yr.

We now state these results formally.

Ttreorem lll
i. If T and S are isomctrtes, so is TS.
ii. If T is an isomctry, so rs ?*1.
ifi. Tr.?'tdffifrtt "trtap I'af * *-trfr tiitffiew.
In other words, the set of all isometries is a group cafled ths isometry
group of.82. It is denoted by /(82). Figurt l.2l An equilateral triangle and
its axes of symmetry.

$ymmetry groups

Lut g be a figure in 82. Then the set

Y(s, = {rc ,f(E2rlrs= s}
is a subgroup of -(82) called the sytflmetry group af 9. The facl that
g{g) is a subgroup can be easily verified. The size cf the symmetry group
af. I is a measure of the degree of symmetry of the figure. We shall show,
for example, in a later chapter that an equilateral triangle (Figure 1.21) has M
a symmetry group of order 6 generated by reflections in the three medians. Ifgurc 1.t! An isqsceles triangte and its
The isosceles triangle ABC (Figure 1.22) has a $ymmetry group of order 2 axis o{ eymmetry,
generated by refiection in the median AM. T\e circle has an infinite
symmetry group generated by reflections in all diameters. For an
elementary discussion of symmetry groups, see Alperin [2]. 21
Plane Eudidean geometry translations

Is there a simple way to describe the product of two reflections? In this

section we answer that question affirmatively in the case where the axes of
reffection are parallel.
$pecifiedly, if, m w*dor are pamllel tfurcs, ue m*y shoos€ -P arbitrarily on
*n and chooae p to be the foot of the perpendicular from P to *, Then if N
is a unit normal vector to a*z (and hence to a), we get
dl-f,Lx = &x * 21tl,;x - P, lV)H
= x - 2(x - g, Jv)rv - Tlx - P, ffUv + 4(.r - O, iV){ff, N)JV
=.r + Alp - O'
=.tr + 2{P - 8r.
^rljv (1.7)

The last step us€s the fact that PQ is perpendiculx ta en.

Dtfinltlon,l*t I be any li*e, and.let m and * be perpendbular to 1. The

transformaion $*O" h ctitled, a transilatio* alcng t. if * * or, iltc
tran*lation rs sard to be non*ivial.

Ftema*: lYhen two lines in E2 are perpendic'ular to {, they are, of course,

parallel. On the other hand, when two li*es are parallel, there is a line {in
fact, infinitely many lina*) perpendicular to both. In the geometries we will
study later in this book, these will fail to be true. trn the
projective plane, for example, two lines can be perpendicular to a third line
but still not be parallel. In the hyperbolic plane, on the other hand, there
are parallel lines with no common perpendicular. Thus, if our terrninology
here seems more specific than necessary, it is being set up so that it ryitl be
irpplicable tb the bthbi gebmetries we study irs well.

lVe now see that in the Euclidean plane, a translation does not
determine a line uniquely, although it does determire a parallel family. In
the exercises you will be asked to prove the following:

Ttrcorfir Al. I*t T be a tanslation atong t. If t' is any lbu parallel to l,

then T is also a translation along t'.

We also observe thai each translation along { has the effe$t of adding a
directior vector off to eaeh vector in the plane.

Theorem 24. Lei T be a nontriviai traruclilion atong t."fhen 4, has a

direction vector u such that
22 Tx:x*u (1.8)
for *ll x e ff. Canversely, if ary twnzeno vectol and t is any liae with
u is Translations
direetion vector q tlren tlu truufottnation T determined by (1.8) is a
trawlation along l,

Proof: Ixt N be a unit direction vector for f . I*t P be an arbitrary point of 0

32. Iet tt *'nd p b llines peryerdieul*r to {. {See Figure 1.8.) Lete ad &
be the unique numbers such that ? + sN e n and P + hN e p. Ourformula X X"
(1.7) beoomes
O.OF.r =.r + 2(P + aN * P - bff)
=.r*2(a-b)N.
It T + f, we must have a # b, so that2{a-b)N is the required direction P
{l

vector.
N
Conversely, suppose that for each real number L we define a mapping f1
by fturt f.al Ooflpisthe translation
along { by an amount equal to tlvice
IJ\I.
I1.t =* + (1.9) d(<r, F). Three sueessive positions X, X',
and X" of a typical foint are shovrr.
If a and h are any two numbers such that \ = 2(a - b), we coffitruct
u=P * aN * [Nr] aud F = P + ]N + [ffr] and observe that Tr = O,Op.
EI

We now investigate the group of all isometries generated by reflections

in lines perpenciicuiar to f . First we must introduce some new terminology.

Deffnl0on. Tlw set af all lin,,c perpendiculfrr to a givefi lfuw t tnff b called a
pencil of parallels. The line f, ic a common perpendicular for tlw pencil. See n

Figure 1.24.

We note that taking any line ac in E2 together with all lines parallel to +e
would be an equivalent construction.
So far we have discovered that the product of two reftections in lines of a
pencil of parallels is a translation along the cornrnon perpendicular {. We
now investigate further the algebraic structure of the set of isometries
formed by reflections of such a famity.
$[e begin with the translations. We denote the set of all translations nlure f.24 A pencil of parallels with
common perpendicular f .
along f by TRANS(f).

Thcorcm 25. TRANS(f) is an abelian group isomorphic to the additive

gr^*it af yeill h'irHiltcfs.

Pturlf: We adopt the notation of Theorem 24. Then

?r o Tp(x) = fr(l + pl0 = r * pff + IrY
-,tr*(rr.+)t)N=t!*rx. 23
Piane Eue..{idean geometry Simiiarty,
I*. I1(x) = I^**(.r).
Because ). + p = p + L, translations along f, commute.
Further, setting t = 0 yields Is = f and fi. o I-r = Io = f, so that
(f^)-' -'f-*'
Thus, TRANS(f) is a subgroup of ..r(82). Furthermore, the mapping
)t -+ T1 of B to TRANS(f) is an isomorphism. This is seen by observing
that Is = f, ?r,-l = I-1, and I^T* = Tr,*rr. E

i.at g be the pencil of all lines that are perpendiorlar to a iine {. We

denote by REf(#) the group geaerated by all re0ectiqrns of the form O-,
where dz e $.In other words, REF(#) is the smallest zubgroup of "f (F?t
containing all such O*. In turn, TRANS(f) is a subgroup of REF(#).
In order to discuss the algebra of REF(#), we need to ba able to
compute the product of any numkr of reflections in the family determined
by 9,We already know that in our notation, OoOp = I;.
1Ve now take three lines, c, F, "f, of # corresponding to the numbers a,
b, and c. Then

$rh'x:f*:'fiFfihll
O"OeOr=Oo"Tze*q,

We reeognize the right side as the tormula for rehection in the line S e #
passing through the point P +dN,where d. * a - b + c.
Thus, the product of three reflectiors in lines at 4 is a fourth reffection
in a line of the same pencil 4. This is our first instance af. a three rfiecrtons
theorent,whictt plays such an important role in classiffing the isometries of
plane goomeriee.

Tlmrem2S(ftrrce refrecdon*tluorcm). Leror, F, a*d1 be three liws ot a

penetl # with comnoCIn'petpendicuhr t. Then thcre is a uniqw founh lirut
of this pencil srxh that
$"&Q = rh'
There are many ways iu which a given translation may be represented as
the product of two reffections. Using the three reflec{isnr t}eorem, w€ can
24 exhibit this ffexibility precisely.
 "I*t
Theorem 27 (Reprartnb$on theorem ior trenstdons). t-
flOu Ae Translations
any member o/TRANS(tl. If *
and a are arbitrary littes perpendicular a
8, there exist uniquc tines *a' and *' sueh fiiat

I=f!*O*,=O"'0,,
Prooi: Apply the three reffections theorem ta *,
u, anri p to produce a
unique line *'
such that $-O"Oe * frn,. Then multiplying both sides by
O- yields O.OB = O*f,}*'. The line ra' is obtained analogoufly.
tr

Corcllary. Every elewenr o/ REF(#) is either a trarclation along t or a

r$ection in a line af O.

Proof: This is clear from the following group multiplication table, which
summarizes the facts we have established.

o, Tp

o" Tz@-t) Oa-ptz

rr {ld*vz Ix*u
Here, we have temporarily indexed the reflections O by numbers rather
than lines. Thus, for example, O, is short for O,r, where c P aJV : * *
tiv"l. tr
Let u be any vector in 82. r#e define r,, the trarclation by u, by
Tux:.r+u.
(If u = 0, r., = I, and we have the trivial translation.) Although all
translations adse io the manner we have described, it is pmsible to discuss
in an elementary way the product of two ffanrlatioss that are not along the
same line. We get

Theorem 28. The set f t*) of all trawtations is an abelian subgroup of

.v(n1.

Proof: The following equations are easy to verify and imply the
conclusions of the theorem:
l. TsTp : Ta1ry.
2, ro= I.
3. r-, = (r,)-1. n

Corollary, {$?) * isoruorphic w the group * with vector addition. 25

Plane Euclidean geometry Rotations

We now investigate the product of reflections in two intersecting lines.

l*t (, = P + [u] be a line with unit direction vector u. There is a unique
real number 0 e (-n, r] such that
u - (cos 0, sin 0). (See Theorem 1F.)

The unit normal u1 can be written as

19 = (-sin 0, cos 0).

We now try to express Ox in terms of 0. First note that
Osx=x-2lx-P,NlN,
*
Otx P = x - P - 2(x - P, iflN.
I-et {0 be the line through 0 with direction [u]. Then
Oror=x*2(x,N)N.
thus, we see that
f,ler-P:Oso(r-P),
or
{l7x:Oro(x-P)+P.
In other words,
Og = tPf,)g.r-p. (1.10)

We first deal with Og, and use (1"10) to retum to the original situation.
For any r note that
(x, ff) - -,t1 sin 0 * .r2 cos 0.

Thus, writing our vectors as column vec.tors, we get

n'"H;] - [l] - a.x'sin o *'r2 cos')[]:: 3]

- itt -
_ 2 sin2 01x, + (2 srn 0 cos 0)x2l
L1Z rin 0 cos 0)x1 + (1 2 cos2 e)xrJ -
: fcos 20 sin 20.j|-xrl
(1.1U
2o -ms 2ellxzj'
Lsin
In other wor&, f,lsn: n2 -* f is linear. We denote its matrix (see
Appendix D) by the symbol ref 0. This matrix represents reflection in the
Iine through the origin whose direction vector is {cos 0, sin 0):

ret o =
lms 20 sin 201
26 sin 20 '
L -cos 2el
 We now investigate the matrix algebra of these reflections. First we Rotations
consider another line ae through P and the associated line *cs. Then if
(cos S, sin S) h a direction vector of ar,

ref o rer Q = [*2(e

*
$) -sin 2(o +)l
- -
^ L sin zie S)
cos 2(o S)l' -
We have a special symbol, rot 0, for a matrix of the form

rot0= tcos 0 -sin 0

sin 0 cos 0 l o

BECause this linear mapping takes the standard unit basis vector e1
to u = (cos 0, sin 6) and takes c2 to ur = (-sin O; ffi S), it is reasonat{e lo
think of rot 0 as a rotation by 0 radians in the positive ssnse . lVe must keep
in mind, however, that definitions of angle, radians, or se$se have not yet
been given. We now define rotation in such i way that rot I is a rotation
about the origin.
P

Deflnl{on. $ u and s are lind{ passing through a point P, the isometry

o*oe b called arotatioB about P. (see Fig*e 1.25.) Tlrc special case s = fi tfourc f.r$ (}"{}p is the rotatiem about
P by tvice 0. Threc successive Positions
is atiowed so that the iden$ty is (by d$nitian) * rotffiion about P no mafrer .f,, X', mdX'of atypiealpoht are
whar ? is. If a roradon is not the idcntity, we refer to it ss a nontrivial shown.
rotation. If a L P, the rotatiorl O'fip is called a half-turn'

theorsn Zg. fhe set oi stt rCItatiow aibaut the origin is an abelian group
called SA(N').

Proof: using the formulas from Appendix F, it is easy for us to check that
the identities
rot 0 rot 6 : rot(0 + S) = rot(+ + 0) = rot $ rot 0'
rot(0) : I,
(rot 0)-r = rot(-0)
hold. il
The symbol SO(2) stands for the special orthogonal group of E2'

Theorem 30.

i. ref0rot$:r"f(e-*)
ii. rot0ref$=r"t(S.*)
iii. ref 0 ref { ref rlr : ref (S - + + {r)' 27
Plane Euciidean geometry Praot: (i)

fcos 20 sin 2e][cos 0 -sin 6l

Lsin 2o -oos 20Jlsin { cos SJ

- [cos(20 - S) sin(20 * ,0)l

Lsin(zs - +) -cos(20 - +)J
Equation {ii) is essentially the inverse of (i). Finally, applying (i), we can
verify (iii) directly as follows:
ref 0 ref { ref r! = ref 0 rot 2(S - $}
=ref(o-S++). tr

Theorem 31. The set of dl rotations abaw the origin and rficctions in lines
through tlu origin is e group called tlu orthogonal group and is denoted by
O(2). SO(2) is a swbgroup of index 2 in o{:?.l.

Pmf: The following group multiplication table is drawn from the facts we
havo esteb[ifh€d,

ref $ rot p

ref 0 rot 2(o - g) *r(e - f)

rot (I *r(+ + f) rot(c + P) n

The set of reffections is a coset complementary to thc coset $0(2).

Let P be a*y point. The set 0 of. all lines through P is ealled the pencil af
lines through P. We denote by REF(/) = REF(P) the smallest group of
isometries containing aii Os, where t e #.lile denote by ROT (P) the set
of all rotations about P.

Ttrconm ff!. l,et g be the pencil of atl lines through a point P. Then
REF(P) = O(2) and ROT(P) = So{2}.

Prwt: For each I e O(2), r p o T - ois in nef(f).

o1 In fact, rp ref 6r-p is a
reflection, whEreas rp fot 0 r-p is a rotation.
It is easy to verify'that this provides an isomorphism of O(2) onto
REf (P) and of So(2) onto ROT($. tr
We ar9 now ready to prove the analogues of Theorems 26 and 27 for
pencils of concurrent lines.

Theorrm 3ll {Three rctlactloffi theorcm). Let a, p, and y be three lines

28 through a point P. Then there is a uniqw line 8 through P such that
 O"Oplf, = O*. Glide reflections

Proof: If
Oo = tp(ref 8)r*r, Og = tp(ref 0)r-r,
and

O, : rp(ref *)r-p,
we should choose S so that

O6 = rp(ref(0 - S + *))r_".
In other words, 6 is the line through P with direction vector
(cos(O - 0 + r!), sin(0 - + +,1,)). D

f
Ttrcorem ef {Beprcacntaffon tl*otem lor mtatbnr}. Let = $"Op be any
member of F;or(P), and let € be any line throtwh P. Then there exist unique
lines rn and ta' through P such tlwt

T=O3O-=O-,Or,
Proof: This is sirnilar to the proof for translations. n

Glide reflcctions

we now have three basic types of isometries: reflections, translations, and

rotations. A fourth type, the glide reflectian, is defined to be a reftection
followed by a translation along the mirror. see Figure 1.26. specifically, if t
(, * P +
[u], the glide reflection defined by f and u is given by
r,Orx - x- 2(x - P, NlrY + u,
Ftgure f .2.6 A figure and irs image by a
where iV is the unit veetor tlll{.Note that glide reflection wirh axis f.

A$ux =x * u * 7(x + u - p, iy)JV

=.trfu-2(.r-P,N)N
because (r, N) = 0. Thus, the reflection and translation making up the
glide reflection commute. It will be shown that every imrnetry is one of the
four types: reflection, translation, rotation, or glide reflection. Because
r, = f is a possibility, each reflection is also a glide reffection. However,
glide reflections of this type are said to be trivial
we heve derlt with produets of reffectione ia th,ree linec of thc sanre
pencil (parallel or concwrent). As an illustration of the power of the tools
we have now develnped, we analyze the product of reflections in any three
lines. 29
Plane Euclidean geometry Tlrmrcm 35. Let a, p, and 1 be *ree dktinct tincs that are not concurrent
and tat all parallel. fllrn &"OpO., is a noutrivial glide rfiection.

I f
Pnof: Assume first that a meets at P. t et be the line through P
perpendicular to 1. Let Fbe the point of intersection of { and 1. Using the
repreeentation theorem for rotatione, we know that thoro ie a line .oc
through P such that
fi"Og = O*$7 and O"OSO, = O-O&.

through F perpendicular to *. Now

O.fIr=R,'O,=frr,
the half-turn about l[. As a consequence,
Oof,}pf,l, = f,I-O".O,.
Note that O-O,, is a translation along ar. Because Fdoes not lie oi **, *'
and * are distinct. thus, O"O9$, is a nontrivial glide ref,ection.
If c does not mset B but, instead" $ meets T, apply the same argument to
OlOpOo = (O,OpOr)-r. If we deduce that OrOpO., = r,Og, then O"OFOT
= (r$c)-I = Ocr-, = r-$e is also a nontrivial glide reflection.
EI

itraorem g& i*t T'be a gtitte r$eaian, and tet tt*be any reflection. Then
O"f ih a trawlaion or rotation.
Proof: Let f be the axis of the glide reflection ?n There are two cases to
consider.

CASE 1: f intersects c. Let P be a point of intersection. By the

representation theorem for translations, we may write I = f,lc$I"f,lr, where
4 passes through P, and both ra and d are perpendicular to f . Then
OoI : O,OsC!,f,};.

But now a., f , and rz all pass through P. By the three reflections theeirem
there is a line r through P such that
d)ol * O"O7.

Thus ,CloI is either a translation or a rotation.

CASE 2: f [l o. Then
(IoI: OoOrO"O/ = O.O,OsO,r.

Noting that / J- f and o )- d, we see that O.O" and OgOT are distinct
30 half-turns. By Exercise 26, O*Iis a translation. D
bctinttion. An isometry that is tlu pro&xt oi afinite ruunfur ai rfiectiotts Structure of the
is called c motion. isometry group

Theorem 37, Every motion is the prod.uct of two or three suitably. chosen
refiecrtons.

Proot: Suppose that a sequence of refiections is given. If thc sequence has

length greater than three, we choose any four adjacent elements crf the
sequence. Applying either Theorems 35 and 36 or one of the three
reflections theorems, wo can write the product of these four reflections aS
the product of two. This procedure can be continued until fewer than four
refleetioncrmaoin, tr

Coroltary. The group of motian* colsifb of atl ttanslartoru, rotatioru,

r$eatons, and glide rfiectiotu.

$tructure of the isometry group

Our main theorem in this section is the following:

Ttreorcm 38. Every isametry otff is a motion.

Proof: l,r;t T be an arbitrary isometry. We consider several cases.

CASE l: f(0) = 0. In this case we show in the naxt lemma that I = rot 0
or ref 0 for some value of 0. In other words, I e O(2).
cAsE 2: I(P) = P for some point P. Then r-plrp is an isomeuy
ieaving 0 fixed ani is, hencen a ,member oi o{z} by ease 1. tilus,
T = rdrot 0)t-p or T = rdref 0)r*r. In either cas&n I is a motion'
cA$E 3. I has no fixed points. Let P = I(0)' Then r-r o T leave 0 fixed
and is, hence, either rot 0 or ref 0. In any case, I = rr rot 0 or I = tp rgf 6,
sethat Iis amotion. E

Rema*: Case 2 could have been handled as part of Case 3. However, the
representation obtained this way is more useful.

We naw prove the lemma referred to in Case 1. Although the nction of

isometry depends only on distance, the lemma shows that an isornetry
leaving the origin fixed has a particularly nice algebraie form - it rmrst be
Iinear. 31
Plane Euciidean geometry Lsnrna. tl f is an *amctry wi* f(0) = 0, then
i. \Tx, Ty| - (r, Y).
ii. I= rot 0orT = ref 0 forsorne0,
Prool:
i. By the polarization identity (see Exercise 29)'
(r, y) = t(lrl' + lyl' - !, - Yl2),
\Tx, Tyj = lllTxlz + lryl' - lrx - rYl2)'
Now
llrl:: d(0, rr) = d(I{6)' Tx)
d(0, .r) : l"rl.

Similarly,
lrvl = lvl.
Also

lr.r - rYl : d{Tx' TY\ : d(x, Y) = lx - Yl'

ii. L,ete1 : (1,0)andez= (0, 1). Ifx =-tl€t * x2t2,then {Ie1, It2} isan
orthonormal basis ftrr E2' Hence,
7, = (Tx, Ies)Ie1 + (fr, Te2ile2.

Using the result of (i), we obtain

Tx = {x, e1) Ie1 + (.r, t2) Ttz = ;r1le I * x2Te2'

Now It1 is a unit vector. Writing

Ier:[1€1*)\2t2,
weseebyTheoremgandtheCauchy-Schwarzinequalitythat
Itll = l(Is1, er)l < llelllell = 1.
Similarly,

l)rzi <t and llerlz=xt+li,

so that
r|+x]=1"
As in our discussion of rotations, there is a unique 0 e (-rr, tr] such
that 11 = co$ 0 and )r2 = sin 0' Now
(Iez, Ter) = (ez, er) = 0,

so that

32 Te2 = t(Ie1)r'
 ln other wordsn Fixed points and
* t((-sin fixed lines of isometries
Ta2 o)e1 + (cos CI)e2).

Writing this in matrh form, we have that either

,. = l:il 3 ;;:3]h] = (rot 0]x

or
o = [:;3 iI l][;;l = (."*),
for allr e 82. D

Fixed points and fixed lines of isometries

Theorcm 39.
i. A nantivial trawlatian hos no faed points.
ii. A rwntivial roturton has exactly onefixedpoint, the center of rotation.
iii. A r$ection has a line af fxed poin*, the axk of rSection.
iv. A ron*ivial glide rfiection ha.s no faed poinx.
v. The idenrtty has a plane of faed poina.
Proof: Suppose that f is an isometry with no ftxed points. As we have
sh<rwn in the previous section, T = rr rot 0 or T = ,rp ref 0 for ruitable P
and 0. In the first case

1i=(rot0F+P
for all x, so that Tx = x if and only if (f - rot 0)r = f. But
det(I - rot 0) = (1 - cos 0)z + sinr 0

= I- 2 cor 0 = + ,in'*.
Now sin2(0/2) = 0 if and only if rot 0 = .L Thus, unless nrt 0 = f, the
equation (/ * mt 0)x = f has a sslution (see Appendix D), and thus Thas
a fixed point. Because I has no fixed point, rot 0 = f and I = rp.
Conversely, of course, a nontrivial translation has no fixed point.
We now examine the second case, T = ?p r€f 0. Obwrve that I is the
product of three reflections. Using Theorem 35, we sae that T is a
nontrivial glide reffection. f-onversely, a nontrivial glide reffection can
have no fixed points. For if Osr, is a glide reflection with f = P + [u], and

.r = Oe(r * u) = x * u * 2\x * u* P, Ar)/V,

then, because (4 N) = g,
u = 2{x - P, N}N. 33
 -l

Plane Euclidean geometry But then

('' = 2{x - P' /V} (iY' u} = 0'
')
sothatu=0.
Thus, an isometry has no fixed points if and only if it is a nontrivial
translation or $ide reflection. In particular, statements (i) and (iv) hold,
f
L€t be an isometry with jrst one flxed pint P. From Case 2 of the
previous section, Iis a rotation absut P ot a reflection in a line through P,
By Theorem 21 the fixed point set of a reflection consist$ ot the axis of
reflection itself. Hene, I
must be a rotation. C-onversely, a nontrivial
rotation has exaetly one fixed point. For if
I
= rr(rot 0)r-r,
then x is a fixed point if and only if
x=Pt(rotSXr-P);
that is,
(I-rot0X.r-P)=0.
Again, because det (I * rot 0) + 0, the only possibility is x - P = 0; that is,
r = P. Thu$, an isometry has exactly one fixed point if and only if it is a
nontrivial rotation. This implies (ii).
Statement (iii) is just Theorern 21, and statement (v)is trivialty true. Thie
completes the proof. tl
Corollary. The fixed point set of an isometry must be one of the following:
i. a point (rotation)
ii. a line (reflection)
iii. the empt.v set (translation or glide reflection)
iv. the wkole plane Ez (the identity).

If f is any line and I is an isometry, then Tf is a line, as we will s€e in

Chapter 2. An isometry induces a bijection T: 9-+ I af.the set I of lines
onto itself. If { is a line such that ff = 8, we say that t is a fixed line af. T. lt
is usefut to classify the isometries of Ea with respect to their fixed lines.

Theorem 40,
i. A nantrivtal (
translation along a linc has a pencil of pardtels as ix
ftxed lina. This pencil consrirrs o{ all lines parallel to 4.
ii. A half-*rn centered at C has the pencil of lkes krough C as ils sa of
fix*d lines. A nontrivi*l rotation that * not a half-tum has *o faed
lines.
iii. A rSeainn {L* has the linc m and, i* pencil of common perpendiculars
34 as iu ftxed lines.
iv, A *ontrivial glide rcfiection has exactly one faed line - its aris. Fixed points and
v. Tttc idenrtty leavrs all lfues fued. fixed lines of isometries

When trying to undemtand the effect of a particular isometry, de-

termination of its fixed polnts and fixed lines is a good starting pint. These
notions and techniques apply in a wider context and will be pursued further
in later chapters.
We will defer the proof of Theorem 40 uatil we have developed more
convenient algebraic machinery.