ZONE TECH Measurement 1

SSC-JE Mains Test Series 2022

Electrical Engineering
Measurement Mains Test Paper
Detailed Solution
Test ID. 274 Date:- 29/01/2023
Duration : 2:00 hr. Maximum Marks : 300

Q.1
(a) Write a short note on A.C. bridge:

[20 Marks]
Sol.:
Used to measure inductance, capacitance, internal resistance of the coil, Q-factor dissipation factor, µ,
r
frequency.

B
Z
1 
1 Z 

A I1
3
C
D 3
I2 I=0
3

Z2 2 4
Z
D

Bridge balance condition

VAB  VAD
I1Z1 1  I 2 Z2 2

Z1 I
 1  2 2
Z2 I1

Z1 I
1 –  2  2 .......(i)
Z2 I1
& VBC  VDC
I 1 Z 3  3  I 2 Z4 4

Z3 I
 3 –  4  2 ........(ii)
Z4 I1
ZONE TECH Measurement 2
Z1 Z
1 –  2  3  3 –  4
Z2 Z4
(i) |Z1Z4|  |Z2Z3|
(ii) 1   4  2  3

Z2 Z3
 Z1 1   2   3 –  4
Z4

f Detector  D 
DC galvananometer
2  200 Hz vibration galvanometer
200  2 KHz telephone det ector
 2KHz tuned amplifier det ector

1 components of Z1
0 R
900 L
–90 0 C
090 0 R, L
–900 R, C

(b) Explain with neat sketch the working principle of repulsion type moving iron instrument. Prove that
the deflection of the moving iron ammeter is proportional to the square of rms value of the current.

[20 Marks]
Sol. Repulsion type moving iron instrument: In this instrument, there are two vanes inside the coil. One
is fixed and other is movable. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable vane is attached
to the spindle of the instrument. When the current flows through the coil and it becomes electromag-
net. Due to this both fixed and movable vane are similarly magnetized with same polarity. Due to the
same polarity one vanes, there is a force of repulsion between two vanes resulting in the movement
of movable vanes. The controlling torqe is provided by air friction damping with the help of light
aluminium piston attached to the moving system which moves in a fixed sector shape.

Moveable Spindle
vane

Coil Moveable
vane Fixed
vane

Spring
ZONE TECH Measurement 3
Torque equation of moving vane : When a small increment in current supplied to the instrument, a
small deflection d and some mechanical work will be done.
Let Td is deflecting torque
 Mechanical work done
 Td .d
Suppose initial current is I. the instrument inductance L and the deflection  .
If the current change by dI then deflection change by d and then inductance change by dL.
In order to effect an increment dI in the current there must be increase in the applied voltage.
d  LI  dL dI
e  I L
dt dt dt
The electrical energy supply
eI dt  I2dL + LIdI
The stored energy changes from
1 2 1 2
LI to  L  dL  I  dI 
2 2
Hence the change in stored energy from
1
 L  dL  ×(I2+2IdI+dI2)
2
Change in stored energy
1 1
  L  dL   I 2  2 IdI  dI 2   LI 2
2 2
As the higher order terms of differential values are vary small so, neglecting second and higher
order terms.
2 1
In small quantities this becomes ILdI  I dL from the principle of the conservation energy.
2
Electrical energy supplied  Increase in stored energy + Mechanical work done
1
I2 dL+LI dI  LIdI  I 2 dL  Td .d
2
Where Td is in Newton-meter
I is in ampere
L is in henery
 is in radian
The moving system is provided with control springs and it turns the deflection torque Td is balanced
by the controlling torque.
T c  K (Where K is control system constants in Nm/rad)
At steady-state position
T c  Td
1 2 dL
K  I
2 d

1 2 dL
Deflection,   I    I2
2 K d
Hence, the deflection is proportional to square of the value operating. The deflectiong torque is
unidirectional (acts in the same direction) whatever may be the polarity of the current.
ZONE TECH Measurement 4
2
(c) The inducatnce of a M.I. instrument is given by L   0.01  K 1   H . Where  is angular deflection in
radians from zero position.The angular deflection in radians carresponding to current of 1.5 & 4.5
 
ampers are & respectively find the value of K1
6 3

2
L   0.01  K 1   H  

 
1.5 4.5 & K1
6 3

[20 Marks]

2
Sol. L   0.01  K 1   10 6 H

dL
 2  0.01  K1   K1  10 H / rad
6

d


at I1  1.5 A  1  rad
6

I 12 dL
 1  .
2Kc d at 1  
6

2
  1.5    ........(i)
 .2 0.01  K1 .   K 1  10 6
6 2 Kc  6


at I2  4.5 A  2  rad.
3

2
I 22 dL   4.5   
2  .    2 0.01  K1    K 1  10 6 ........(ii)
2 K c d 3 2Kc  3

equation (i) divide by equation (ii)

 
 0.01  K 1  
1 1 6
 
2 9  
0.01  K 1  3 

 
0.09 + K1× ×9  0.02+K1× ×2
3 6

[K1  –8.35×10-3]
ZONE TECH Measurement 5
Q.2
(a) Define the following terms:

(i) Deflecting torque (ii) Voltmeter sensitivity

[10 Marks]

Sol.:
(i) Deflecting torque:– The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the various effects (magnetic
effect, induction effect, thermal effect, hall effect) of electric current of voltage and causes the moving
system and hence the pointer to move from zero position to indicate the value of electrical quantity
being measured on a scale.
The actual method of producing the sensitivity torque depends upon the type of instrument. it is
denoted by Td.
(ii) Voltmeter Sensitivity:- Voltmeter sensitivity is the ratio of the total resistance of voltmeter to its full
scale reading in volts. It is denoted by SV.
RV
SV   /Volt.
VFSD
where RV  Total resistance of voltmeter
VFSD  Full scale reading of voltmeter

(b) Describe the constructional details of an electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Derive the expres-
sion for torque when the instrument is used on a.c.

[30 Marks]
Sol.
Eelectrodynamometer Type Wattmeter Constructional Detail:

Moving coil

Fixed field
coils

(i) Fixed Coils:- The fixed coils carry the current of the circuit.. They are divided into two halves. The
fixed coils are wound with wires.
In case of precision wattmeters, the two halves of the fixed coils are connected in series. For basic
measuring range, can be connected in parallel to increases the wattmeter current range to twice of
its original value.
(ii) Moving Coil: The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted spindle and is entirely embraced by the
fixed current coils. Spring control is used for the movement. Both fixed and moving coils are air
cored.
ZONE TECH Measurement 6
(iii) Control: Spring control is used for the instrument.
(iv) Damping:Air friction damping is used. The moving system carries a light aluminium vane which
moves in a sector shaped box.
(v) Scale and Pointers: They are equipped with mirror type scales and knife edge points to remove
reading errors due to parallax.
Expression for torque with a.c.

I ic

ip

Supply
Load
P.C.
R

The instantaneous torque is given by,

dM
Ti  i 1 i 2
d
Where i1 and i2  instantaneous value of current in two coils (Amp.)
Let V and I be the rms values of voltage and current being measured.
 Instantaneous value of voltage across the pressure coil circuit
V  2V sin t
Pressure coil can be treated as purely resistive as it has a very high resistance.
Therefore current ip in the P.C. is in phase with the voltage and its instantaneous value is

V 2 V sin t
iP    2 I P sin t
RP RP
Where, I P  rms value of current in P.C. circuit
If the current in the C.C. lag the voltages by an angle  then

ic  2 IC sin  t –  
 Instantaneous torque,
dM
T1  2 I P sin t  2 IC sin  t – 
d

dM
 2 IPIC sin t . sin  t   
d

dM
Ti  I P IC  cos  – cos  2 t –  
d
Average deflecting torque
1 T
Ti d  t 
T 0
Td 

1 T  dM 

T 0
I P IC  cos  – cos  2t –   d  d  t 
 

dM
 I P IC cos 
d
ZONE TECH Measurement 7
(c) What is phantom loading? With a neat diagram, explain how it is carried out?

[10 Marks]
Sol.
Phantom Loading: When a energy meter is designed for high current loads, it is uneconomical to
arrange such loads for testing purposes as it involves a considerable waste of time and power. To
avoid this problem "Phantom" or "Fictitious" loading is done.
Phantom loading consists of supplying the pressure coil from normal supply voltages and current coil
is excited from a separate low voltage supply. The low impedance of current coil circuit makes it
possible to circulate the required current even with low supply voltage. The total power required for
testing the meter with phantom loading is comparatively very small.

Shunt magnet
p.c.
V
RP

c.c. c.c.

Series magnet

I R VF

Total power consumed in phantom loading

V2
  VF .I
Rp

(where, Rp  resistance of pressure coil circuit)

But in case of direct loading power is consumed when testing the meter.

(d) Why C.T. sec. never be open circuited.

[10 Marks]
Sol.:
Primary mmf dvelop in secondary due to load current & which is connected in series with the pri-
mary wdg.
This primary mmf appears the secondary wdg & induce emf may damage the insulation of secondary
winding & dangerous to a person who working near to it.
ZONE TECH Measurement 8
Q.3
(a) Explain in detail the principal of operation of Attaction-type Moving-iron instruments.

[20 Marks]
Sol.
Moving iron (MI) Instruments:
1.The moving iron instruments are most common and can be constructed to measure current and
voltage to an accuracy needed in most engineering works.
2.Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil of a magnetic field is produced. The
ironvane experiences magnetic field in one part of vane and hence it moves (rotates) towards the
minimum reluctance path and the pointer indicates the current flowing through the coil.
3.Figure shows two type of moving iron instruments namely attraction type and repulsion type.

Piston
E
AL

Air chamber
SC

Pointer

Coil

Moving
iron disc

Spring
Balance
weight

General Torque Equation of Moving iron Instruments

 Deflection torque
1 2 dL
Td  I
2 d
Where   deflection of the pointer
L  Inductance of the coil
I  rms value of the current in in the coil
Controlling Torque,
T C  k (k  spring constant)
At equalibrium position
T c  Td
2
1 2 dL
or, k  I or   1 I . dL or   I 2
2 d 2 K d
Thus, the deflection is proportional to the square of the value of the operating current
ZONE TECH Measurement 9
(b) A current of 8  6 2 sin  t  30 0
 amperes is passed through a centre zero PMMC meter and moving
iron meter. What be their readings?
PMMC

[10 Marks]
Sol.

I  8  6 2 sin  t  30 0 
Center zero PMMC meter,
Iavg  –8A
Moving iron meter,

1 2
Irms  82 
2
6 2   64  36  10 A

(c) What are main characterstics of instrument

[20 Marks]
Sol.:
(i) Accuracy :
Accuracy is degree of closness between measured value and true value.
Accuarcy is defined in term of error.
If error is more, then accuarcy will low.
E = AM – AT
AM = AT
E = 0, 100% accurate
AM  AT, Highly accurate
100A 10A
A B
AM = 9.9 A AM = 9.8 A
E = 0.1 E = 0.2
Here A is more accurate than B.
(ii) Precision :
Precision is defined by repeatability or reproducibily.
If multiple reading are taken from an instrument and reading are repeated then instrument will
precise.
Note : If any instrument is accurate the it will be garnted precise and if any instrument is precise
then there is no guarnty of being an accurate.
accuracy = precision
precision  accuracy

Change of output
(iii) Sensitivity : S
Change in input
The smallest change in input that can change the output also is called sensitivity of Instrument.
ZONE TECH Measurement 10
Sensitivity is also defined by Torque upon weight ratio.

Torque 
S
weight 

For Better senstivity instrument.

Torque
weight > 1
Note:- If sensitivity is high then loading effect low.
(iv) Resolution :
The smallest change in input that can be detected by pointer at scale is called resolution of the
instrument.
(v) Lineratity : If output follow the input with proportional relationship then Instrument is said to be
linear
* For linear Instrument constant sensitivity available.

output  Input
I
 I
• Linear scale is also called uniform scale.
• Linear scale has an advantage that it has to be calibrated at singal time.

(vi) Deadzone/Threshold/Dead Time :

The value of input for which pointer does not respond are called Deadzone.
The value of input after which pointer does respond is called Threshold.

Threshold
Dead Zone

(d) Explain the phenomena of 'creeping'

[10 Marks]
Sol.:
In some meters a slow but continuous rotation is obtained even when there is no current flowing
through the current coil and only pressure coil is energized. This is called creeping. The major cause
for creeping is over-compensate for starting friction compensating device is adjusted to give a driving
torques to compensate for starting friction which is bigger than the running friction, there is a ten-
dency for the disc to run even when there is no current through the current coils because the friction
compensating torque is independent of the load current as the compensating device is voltage actu-
ated.
ZONE TECH Measurement 11
Q.4

(a) Explain how you would use a CRO to measure the phase between two sinusoidal signals.

[10 Marks]

CRO

Sol. Measurement of phase between two sinusoidal signals using CRO: To determine the phase angle
the two sinusoidal signals (voltage waveforms) of same frequency and amplitude are applied to the
vertical and horizontal deflection plates of the CRO. The ellipse patterns obtained are shown in
figure below:

Yint Ypeak Ypeak Yint

Let the two voltage waveforms be

For voltage at vertical plate, ev = E sin (2  ft)

For voltage at horizontal plate, eh = E sin (2  ft +  )

Then the deflection in vertical (x-axis) and horizontal (y-axis) directions will be

Dv = KE sin (2  ft)

and Dh = KE sin (2  ft +  )

For t = 0, Dv = 0 and Dh = KE sin 

Therefore, Dh at t = 0 is the deflection in horizontal (Y-axis) direction when deflection in X-axis is

zero i.e. the intercept on Y-axis. But, KE is the peak deflection. Hence, the sine of the phase angle
between the two signals is equal to the ratio between the Y-axis intercept Y int and the maximum
vertical deflection Ypeak. It is given as

Yint
sin  
Ypeak

 Yint 
or,   sin-1  

 Ypeak 

For convenience, the gains of the vertical and horizontal amplifiers are adjusted so that the ellipse
fits exactly within a square as marked by the coordinate lines on the graticule.
ZONE TECH Measurement 12
(b) In a single-phase power measurement test by three-voltmeter method, the following readings were
obtained. Across AC mains is 200V; across the non-inductive resistance of 10  is 110V; across the
load consisting of resistance (R) and inductance (L) is 120V.
(i) Calculate the power supplied to the load.
(ii) Calculate the inductive reactance (XL) and resistance (R) of the load.
200V 10
Ohm 110V (R) (L) 120V
(i)
(ii) (XL) (R)
[20 Marks]
Sol. Three voltmeter method for power measurement:

I
~
200 V
Load, ZL = Rx + jXL

Let, Supply voltage  VA

Voltage across pure resistance  V B  I R

Voltage across load  V C  I  R x  jX L 

Given, VA  200 V

V B  110 V

VC  120 V

R  10 
Phasor diagram:

VA= VB = VC

Vc
jIXL


I
IR = 110V IRx
ZONE TECH Measurement 13
I R  110 V

 VB

then, V2A  V2B + V2C + 2VBVC cos 

V 2A  V 2 B  V 2 C
V C cos  
2VB

Hence, (i) power delivered to load,

P  VC I cos   (VC cos  ). I

V 2 A  V 2 B  V 2 C VB
 .
2VB R

(200)2  (110)2  (120)2

  675 watt
2  10

V 2A  V 2 B  V 2 C (200)2  (110)2  (120)2

Also, (ii) cos     0.511
2VB VC 2  110  120

Now, from phasor diagram, we can write

V C cos   IRx

VC cos  120  0.511

 Rx    5.57 
I (110 /10)

and, Vc sin   IXL

2
VC sin  120  1   0.511 
 XL    9.377 
I 110 /10

i.e., Load, ZL  (5.57 + j9.377) 

(c) State only the methods to minimise the ratio error of a current transformer.A 1000/5A, 50 Hz CT
has a bar primary and has total secondary burden of 1  (non inductive). Calculate the primary
current and phase angle error for a rated current of 5 Amps. The magnetising current is 100 A and
excitation loss is negligible. Assume there is no turns compensation.
[20 Marks]
1000/5 A, 50
Secondary burden 1 ohm 5
100 A
Sol. Causes of errors in a CT:
(i) Losses in the core of the transformer
(ii) Losses in the windings of the transformer
(iii) Magnetic leakage
(iv) Requirement of exciting mmf to produce  in primary winding
ZONE TECH Measurement 14
Methods to reduce errors in CT:
(i) By adopting core of the material, silicon steel, Ni-Fe alloy, CRGO steel etc. (high permeability
core)
(ii) To reduce magnetic leakage the separation between primary and secondary winding is reduced.
(iii) By using ferrite core both errors are reduced
(iv) Turn compensation:
By reducing 1012 turns on CT secondary side we can minimised the ratio error.
(v) Wilson compensation method

1000
Given; CT ratio 
5

Magnetising current ( I  )  100A; I2  200 × 5  1000A

Core loss component ( I )  0

 I0  I   100 A

Primary current: Ip  I2  I22  100 2  (1000)2  102 101  1004.99A

I 0 cos 100  1 180

Phasor angle error (  )    0.1  0.01 ×  5.73°
nI s 200  5 

Q.5
(a) A simple shunted ammeter using a basic meter movement with an internal resistance of 1800  and
a full scale deflection current of 100µA is connected in a circuit and gives reading of 3.5 mA on its 5
mA scale. The reading is checked with a recently calibrated dc ammeter which gives a reading of 4.1
mA. The implication is that the ammeter has a faulty shunt on its 5 mA range.
1800  100A
5mA 3.5mA
4.1mA 5mA

Calculate:
(i) The actual value of faulty shunt, and

(ii) The current shunt for the 5 mA range.

5mA
[20 Marks]
Sol.

4.1mA

Ish 7×10-5 =Im

(i)
Rsh 1800= R m
ZONE TECH Measurement 15
5mA corresponds to 100 µA
For 3.5mA
100  10 6  3.5
  7×10-5A  Im
5
Actual current is 4.1 mA
Ish  (4.1 × 10-3 – 7 × 10–5)
 4.03 × 10-3]
RshIsh  Rm.Im
1800  7  10 5
Rsh   31.26
4.03  10 3

5 mA

Ish 100µA

(ii) R sh 1800

For 5 mA range:
Rm Rm 1800
Rsh     36.73
 m  1   I   5  10 3 
 1
 – 1  6
 Im   100  10 

(b) Describe a method of power measurement for a 3-phase 3-wire unbalanced load. How can power-
factor of a balanced load be determined by the method?
3- 3-

[20 Marks]
Sol. In a three phase three wire system we require 3 elements but if we make the common points of the
pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only n - 1 = 2 elements. Instantaneous
power consumed by load
= V 1 I1 + V2 I2 + V3 I3
Star (Wye) connection: Instantaneous reading of P 1 wattmeter,
P1 = I1(V1 - V3)

P1
I1
1
V1
0
V3
V2
C
3
I3

2
I2
P2
ZONE TECH Measurement 16
Instantaneous reading of P2 wattmeter,
P2 = I2 (V2 - V3)
Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters
= P1 + P2
= I1 (V1 - V3) + I2 (V2 - V3)
= V1I1 + V2I2 - V3(I1 + I2)
By Kirchhoff's law,
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0
or I3 = -(I1+I2)
 Sum of instantenous readings of two wattmeters
= V 1 I1 + V2 I2 + V3 I3
Therefore, the sum of the two wattmeter reading is equal to the power consumed by the load. Let
V1, V2, V3 be the rms values of the phase voltage and I 1, I2, I3 be the rms value of phase currents.

V1 V13
I1
30°
I3 
 –V3
V3
90°
 30°

I2 V2 V23

The load is balanced therefore,

Phase voltages, v1 = v2 = v3 = V (say)
Line voltages, V13 = V23 = V12 = 3V
Phase currents, I1 = I2 = I3 = I (say)
Line currents, I 1 = I2 = I3 = I
Power factor = cos 
The phase current lag the corresponding phasor voltages by an angle 
The current through wattmeter P 1 is I1 and voltage across its pressure coil is V 13.I1 leads V13 by an
angle (30°-  )
 Reading of P1 wattmeter,
P1 = V13I1 cos (30°-  ) = 3 VI cos (30°-  )
The current through wattmeter P 2 is I2 and voltage across its pressure coil is V 23.I2 lags V23 by an
angle (30 +  ).
 Reading of P2 wattmeter,
P2 = V23I2 cos (30°+  ) = 3 VI cos (30°+  )
Sum of reading of two wattmeters:
P1 + P 2 = 3 VI [cos (30°-  )+ cos (30°+  )]
= 3 VI cos 
This is the total power consumed by load.
ZONE TECH Measurement 17
 Total power consumed by load, P = P 1 + P2
Difference of readings of two wattmeters
P1 - P2 = 3 VI [cos (30°-  ) - cos (30°+  )] = 3 VI sin 

P1  P2 3 VI sin  tan 
 
P1  P2 3 VI cos  3

P1  P2
  tan 1 3
P1  P2

 P P 
Power factor, cos  = cos  tan 1 3 1 2 
 P1  P2 

(c) Write advantage and Disadvantage of Permanent Magnet moving Coil Instrument

[10 Marks]
Sol.:
Advantage:
1. The scale uniformly divided
2. The power consumption is very low 25µW to 200µW.
3. Torque to weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy.
4. Stray magnetic field error is low.
5. Lesser frictional error.
6. Hysteresis error is low.
Disadvantage:
1. It works only for dc
2. Cost of these instruments is high
3. Delicate construction i.e. not robust.

Q.6
(a) In a Hay's bridge, the four arms are R1– L1, R2, R3–C3, R4 connected in clockwise order, show that,
Voltage acrossC 3
under the 'phase null' condition, Q of the coil is given by Q 
Voltage across R3
R1– L1, R2, R3–C3, R4 Q
Voltage acrossC 3
Q
Voltage across R3
[20 Marks]
Sol.:
At balance the phase angle should be equal
X L1 L1
tan L   Q
R1 R1

XC 3 1
tan C  
R3 C 3 R3

tan L  tan C
ZONE TECH Measurement 18
Under phase null condition,

R1
R2
L1

~ A
C3
C

R4
R3

1
or QX 
C 3 R3
The current I passing through arm CD is the same for both C 3and R3
1 1
 QX  I  
C 3 IR 3

1
I  Voltage across C3
C 3
I R3  Voltage across R3
Voltage acrossC 3
 QX 
Voltage across R3

(b) A CRO screen has ten divisions on the horizontal scale. If a voltage signal 5 sin (314t + 45°) is exam-
ined with a line base setting of 5 msec/division the number of cycles of signal displayed on the screen.
CRO 10 5 sin (314t + 45°) 5
msec/division
[20 Marks]
Sol.:
Given that:
Horozontal scale division of CRO screen  division
Line base setting  5 m sec/division
Total time period of horizontal  10 × 5 = 50 msec.
Voltage signal V  5 sin(314t + 45°) Given
  314 rad
2f  314
f  50 Hz
Time period of signal in one cycle,
1 1
T    20 m sec
f 50
Number of cycles of signal displayed on the screen
Total time period of horizontal scale 50  10 3
  2.5 cycles
Time period of signal in one cycle 20  10 3
ZONE TECH Measurement 19
(c) Describe the working of vacuum tube voltmeter VTVM. State the disadvantages of VTVM.
VTVM VTVM
[20 Marks]
Sol. Vacuum tube voltmeters were considered as one of the most useful instrument for the measurement
of a.c. and d.c. voltages in the past.
Working of VTVM
• The simplest type of diode voltmeter is similar to a rectifier instrument. Figure (a) show a schematic
diagram of an average reading voltmeter using a vacuum tube diode. The arrangement includes a
vacuum tube diode, a resistance R, and a PMMC instrument, all connected in series. The applied
voltage is
e = Ein sin t

0
Time Plate current

R=
5

Vacuum 10
tube diode R=

i
Im Iav

e
e = Esin t T o amplifier Plate voltage
Em
and meter
a.c. input
Em

PMMC meter

(a) (b)

Fig. Average reading vacuum tube diode voltmeter

A high series resistane R is desirable both to limit the current and to make the plate voltage-current
characteristics linear. A linear plate characteristics are essential in order to make the current directly
proportional to voltage. The plate resistance of a diode is not constant and hence in order to
swamp out the variations in plate resistance, a high value of series resistance, R is used. If the series
resistance is sufficiently high, the resistance of the tube is negligible in comparison, and therefore
we get a linear plate voltage current characteristics thereby the scale of PMMC instrument is uniform
and is independent of the variations of tube resistance. A series resistance of the variations of tube
resistance. A series resistance of 10 5  or more is used for the purpose of measurement of a sinusoidal
input voltage as shown in figure (a). The diode conducts during the positive half cycle and does not
conduct during the negative half cycle, the average current through the meter is thus:
E av Erms E
I av    0.45 rms
2R 2  1.11  R R
where Erms and Eav are respectively the rms and average values of applied voltage.
The disadvantage of average reading VTVM are:
• Frequency range: The frequency range of this instrument well over the audio-frequency range,
but at radio frequencies the valve capacitance and the distributed capacitance of the series resistance,
R upset the voltage division and make the instrument useless.
Response to low voltages: The instrument gives a deflection proportional to the mean value during
the conducting half cycle provided it is not used for voltages comparable with the voltage drop
across the valve. The instrument has an evenly divided scale because of linear characteristics for
higher voltages but exhibits non-linearity for lower voltages and therefore for lower voltages, a
graphical treatment may have to be used to determine the voltage.