Science Notes

SCIENTFIC SKILLS

Aim
 Starts with ‘To…’
 Use appropriate verbs like
 Includes independent variable (IDV) and dependent variable (DV)
 Example: To investigate the effect of different concentrations of hydrochloric acid on the
reaction time of the aspirin dissolving.

Hypothesis
 An ‘if’ and ‘then’ statement
 Includes IDV and DV
 Example: If the concentration of the hydrochloric acid increases, then the reaction time of
the aspirin dissolving will decrease.

Variables
 Independent variable (IDV): The changed variable
o Example: How do different concentrations of hydrochloric acid affect the reaction
time of an aspirin dissolving? The independent variable is the concentration of the
hydrochloric acid.
 Dependent variable (DV): The measured or studied variable
o Example: How do different concentrations of hydrochloric acid affect the reaction
time of an aspirin dissolving? The dependent variable is the reaction time of the
aspirin dissolving.
 Controlled variable (CV): The constant (consistent) variable
o Examples: SAME person timing, SAME temperatures, SAME amounts of hydrochloric
acid, SAME amounts of aspirin, SAME environmental conditions

Risk Assessment Example

Risk Hazard Precaution

Glassware breaking
Toxic/corrosive acid
Glassware may cause cuts to
skin and shards of glass may
be inserted into skin
Acids may cause irritation and
burning of skin, and if inhaled
can cause light-headedness
and damage to the respiratory
system
Keep glassware away from the
edge and keep to the centre of
the bench
Keep the acid away from face,
never inhale and always use
safety gloves when handling
with acids. If acid comes in
contact to skin, run hand
under tap water.
Results
 Results table example:

Concentration of Reaction time of acid dissolving (s)

acid (M)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

0.5 105 103 106 104.7

1 90 88 94 90.7
2 40 46 46 44

 Graph of results:
o Title must include IDV and DV
o Label the x and y axis
o Give units for both axis
o IDV is on the x axis whereas the DV is
on the y axis
o Constant scale for both axes
o Use ruler and pencil to draw entire
graph
 Trends and pattern statement:
o Trends are the relationship between
the IDV and the DV.
o Example: From the graph above, it is
evident that as the hydrochloric acid
increases, the reaction time of the dissolving aspirin decreases.
o Pattern takes data from the results to prove the trend.
o Example: This is clear as the results gathered as when the concentration of the
hydrochloric acid was 0.5 M, the average reaction time of the dissolving aspirin was
104.7 seconds. However, as the concentration of the acid increases to 2M, the
average reaction time of the dissolving aspirin was 44 seconds.
o Restate the trend after proving with the pattern statement
o Example: Thus, as the concentration of the hydrochloric acid increases, the reaction
time of the dissolving aspirin decreases.

Assessing the experiment

 The verb assess is to identify (define), explain how it was achieved (use examples), explain
the effect of the example, and judge (state whether the experiment was reliable, accurate,
valid, or how it wasn’t).
 Reliability (repeat):
o Trials gather a range of results, calculating the average, comparing results
o Outcome: Decreases bias, random errors are eliminated, data is consistent
o Example: The reliability of this experiment was determined to be reliable. The
average was calculated through a wide range of results compared and gathered by 3
trials, resulting in the elimination of random data that stays consistent and has
minimum bias. Therefore, this experiment is reliable.
 Accuracy (apparatus):
 o Correct use of equipment, minimise errors (parallax error, human reflex error,
reading error)
o Outcome: Minimises errors and mistakes, avoids outliers or random data.
o Example: The accuracy of this experiment was determined to be accurate. When
timing the reaction time of the aspirin dissolving, there was only one person timing
with a stopwatch, avoiding human reflex error. This caused minimum errors,
mistakes, outliers, and random data in the results. Therefore, this experiment is
accurate.
 Validity (variables):
o Only the IDV can be changed, all other variables are same and constant, control
groups demonstrate how ?
o Outcome: Fair test.
o Example: The validity of this experiment was determined to be valid to a certain
extent as only the concentration of the hydrochloric acid was changed, whilst
keeping the amount of hydrochloric acid the same as well as making sure to only
have one person timing the reaction time. However, there was no control group,
resulting in having a test that was fair in some aspects but unfair in others.
Therefore, this experiment is valid to a certain extent.

Strengths and Limitations:

 Stating the best and worst cases of your experiment and relating it back to reliability,
accuracy, and validity.
 Example: This experiment performed well in particular aspects but not so well. Among its
strengths was the repetition of the experiment through its 3 trials which enabled a wide
range of results, resulting in the elimination of random data that stays consistent and has
minimum bias. Also, the appropriate uses of equipment were utilised through the use of
stopwatches when timing the reaction time of the aspirin dissolving. This caused the
experiment to have minimum errors, mistakes, outliers, and random data in the results.
Among this experiment’s limitations, there was no control group given on the bench, causing
this experiment to be somewhat unfair. Also, when measuring the amount of hydrochloric
acid, the measuring cylinder still had water left as it was difficult to dry its cylindrical shape.
This resulted in inaccurate measurements; thus, errors and mistakes may have affected the
accuracy of the experiment.

Conclusion:
 Restate the aim
 State whether your results supported your hypothesis or not and why?
 Summarise the major trend

CHAPTER 1- ENERGY TRANSFER

1.1: Energy Transfer
Conduction
 Conduction is a process that allows heat to move through solids
 When heat is applied to a solid, it has an increase of heat energy , resulting in an increase of
kinetic energy. The particles in the solid begin to move more rapidly causing the particles to
collide with one another passing the heat though, thus an increase in the space between
particles and heating up the entirety of the material by balancing the heat throughout it.
 Materials such as metals are conductors of heat and electricity, whereas materials such as
wool, rubber, etc are called insulators and instead of allowing heat to pass through, it
absorbs it.
Convection
 Convection is a process that allows heat to pass through liquids and gases.
 When heated, liquids and gases undergo a process of convection. In convection heat energy
is absorbed into the pot and and this increases the kinetic energy, resulting in more
movement, vibrations, and collision, decreasing the water density. This allows the. Heated
water particles to rise. Dues to the water at the top of the pot not having heat energy, they
have less kinetic energy, movement, vibrations, and collision. This leads to the contraction of
space between the water particles and them being less dense. As a result, these particles ink
to the bottom of the pot, repeating the cycle. This is called a convection current.
 A convection current is the rising of the hotter, less dense particles and the sinking of the
cooler, more dense particles circulating.

1.2: Waves Transfer Energy

Waves are energy carriers
 Some waves are e handicap waves as thy require air particles for the sound to move
through.
 Sound cannot travel through a vacuum as there are no free matter and there is no
medium for it to pass through
 Light can travel through a vacuum as it doesn’t require any medium.
Three properties of a wave
 Frequency is the number of
vibrations per second, measured
in hertz (Hz) and is related to
pitch. A high frequency wave
carries more energy than a low
frequency wave.
 Wavelength the distance
between two peaks. A wave with
a shorter wavelength carries
more energy than a wave with a
longer wavelength.
 Amplitude is related to the
loudness of a sound. The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound. A wave with a higher
amplitude carries more energy than a wave with low amplitude.

Longitudinal waves
  Longitudinal waves require a medium to pass through in which particles vibrate in the same
direction as the wave.
 Examples
o Sound waves
o Tsunamis
o Earthquakes
 Longitudinal waves are made up of contraction and rarefactions
 Compressions are when particles are all bunched together
 Rarefactions are when particles are all stretched out
 The denser the material, the faster sound travels through it
Transverse waves
 Transverse waves may or may
not require a medium to pass
through
 Examples
o Strings in musical
instruments
o Ocean waves
o Light
 Transverse waves vibrate at
right angles to their direction
of motion.
Measuring velocity
1.3: Sound Energy
Sound travels quickly though solids
 Sound waves travel through longitudinal waves
 They travel faster through dense solids such as metals than less dense solids like rubber
Sound can also travel through solids and liquids
 The particles in liquids are more spread apart than those in solids, so the sound waves move
more slowly
 Examples: Dolphins, whales, submarines
 Gas particles are even further spread, so sound waves even slower
Sound can be Reflected and Absorbed
 Hard surfaces reflect sound waves
 Soft surfaces absorb sound waves
1.4: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Radiation travels in waves
 The electromagnetic spectrum is the
range of electromagnetic radiation
 All electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves made up of electric
and magnetic fields
 They differ in wavelength and
frequency. As wavelength increases,
frequency decreases and vice versa.
Gamma rays
 Shortest wavelength but highest
frequency of 40Hz
 Can penetrate materials such as lead and concrete
 They’re dangerous and can damage the cells in your body
 Used in industries for detecting cracks in metal structures and infrastructure
 Used in sterilising medical equipment, radiation therapy for cancer trace ent and CT scans
X-rays
 Wavelength of 0.01 – 10 nm
 High frequency rays that are produced when high energy electrons hit a metal surface
 You can’t see them directly, but affect photographic film
 Denser materials absorb more x-rays than less dense materials
 Produce images of bones
 Used to kill cancer cells, and check baggage in the transport industry
UV light
 Wavelength shorter than visible light, longer than X-rays
 Used in forensic sciences to detect blood, checking signatures for forgeries, sterilisation
Visible light
 Wavelength of 380 700 nanometers, frequency of 4 x 1014 to 8 x 1018 Hz
 Part of the spectrum we can see with our eyes
Infrared radiation
 Lower frequency and longer wavelength that red light.
 People give off infrared heat, used in electrical heater, short range communications and
thermal imaging
Radio waves
 A wavelength longer than infrared light, penetrative waves, varied frequencies. Wavelengths
range from 170mm – 1mm
 Given off by mobile phones
 Used in telecommunications such as satellite communication towers, cooking food,
broadcasting, television, radio communications and satellite transmission
Microwaves
 Long wavelength and low frequency
 Given off in mobile phones

1.5: Absorption, Reflection and Refraction

Properties of light
 Light travels as transverse waves and unlike sound doesn’t need to be transmitted through a
material
 When light hits a material, it may either be transmitted, reflected or absorbed
Light is an electromagnetic wave
Hits at a surface and: The material is Examples
called:
 Almost all the light is transmitted Transparent  Clear glass
through the substance  Shallow water
 A clear image can be seen
 Some light may be reflected, the light Translucent  Tissue paper
that passes through is scattered  Fingernails
 The image seen through is fuzzy  Frosted glass
 Light is either reflected or absorbed Opaque  Brick
into the substance  Piece of wood
 No light is transmitted  Football
 No image can be seen through it
Light can be reflected and absorbed
 The law of reflection: the incoming ray of
light (incident ray) is reflected off a
mirror at the same angle producing a
reflection ray
Why does reflection occur?
 Light travels at different speeds
through different substances.
 The difference in speed causes
refraction.
 The higher the density, the light travels
slower and bends away from the
normal
 The lower the density, the light travels faster and bends towards the normal
Light bends when it travels through different mediums
 When light hits a smooth surface such as water, it is reflected at the same angle and is bent
towards the normal line.
  Light travels at different speeds through different mediums.

Convex lenses
 A lens that bulges outwards
 It causes the rays of light to converge or come together.
 Used for long sided vision
Concave lenses
 A lens that carves inwards
 Causes the light to diverge or spread out
 Only produces images that are smaller, upright and virtual.
 Used for long sided vision

CHAPTER 4 — ENERGY USE

4.1: Conservation o Energy
Law of conservation of energy
 Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed or transferred.
Types of energy
Energy Transfer
 Some forms of energy can move from one place to another
 Examples: Rolling a marble transfer the kinetic energy to a stationary marble and both move
after collision and heat energy transferring from a hot cup to your fingers
Energy Transformations
 When energy changes from one form to another
 Example
o Toasting bread: electrical energy converting to hear, sound and light energy
o A ball being thrown up: it initially starts off with kinetic energy wit converts to
gravitational potential energy. As it gains heigh, it loses speed and slows down but
as it comes down, it loses gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy.
4.2: Wasted Energy
 Devices are usually designed to produce a certain type of energy, usable energy
 However, devices inevitably produce another type of energy, wasted energy
 Energy is lost in energy transfers and transformations
Most devices lose energy
 Devices are designed t produce usable energy. Almost all devices lose energy
 Moving abject lose some energy often as heat energy, due to friction
All devices are less than 100% energy efficient
 The energy efficiency of a device is expressed s a percentage calculated by:

4.3: The Importance of Energy Efficiency

Most of our energy is generated by burning fossil fuels
 Fossil fuels are finite resources
 They emit greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere
Energy efficient devices are becoming more popular
 They have lower running costs
 They benefit the environment

4.4: Non-renewable energy sources

Fossil fuels contribute to Australia’s economy
 They’re relatively cheap in Australian because the tut are abundant
 Makes up roughly 85% of Australia’s energy supply
Burning fossil fuels damages ecosystems
 Causes pollution
 When fossil, fuels are burnt, chemicals are released into the environment, leading to
problems such as acid rain
 Pollutant also het into the air and cause Lund diseases and other medical conditions when
breathed in.
 Burning coal also releases heavy metals such as mercury with enter water sourced and
contaminate fish and Maine life
Burning fossil fuels increases climate change
  Sea levels begin to rise as polar ice melts
 Animals that live in frozen regions will lose their habitats
 Living things we rely on for food won’t survive
 More extreme weather
 Cool bleaching
 Increase of certain diseases

CHAPTER 12 – INSIDE ATOMS

12.1: Matter is made of atoms

Atomic theory: Matter takes up space and has mass
Matter is made of atoms
 Atoms are the building blocks of
matter
 Three subatomic particles of
atoms:
o Electrons
o Protons
o Neutrons
 Can only be seen using a Scanning
Tunnelling Microscope (STM)
 Nucleus is positively charged whilst
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons
 Electrons are much smaller than protons and neutrons.
 Neutrons and protons are held together by a
strong nuclear force.
 Atoms are held together by the attraction of a
proton and electron. This is because they
opposite charges, like poles of a magnet. The
electrical charge of a proton is exactly equal,
and opposite of an electron and atoms have
equal numbers of both, therefore an atom
has no charge/neutral charge.
Atoms in elements
 Single/monatomic atoms:
o Non-metal gases
o Very rare (only 6 of them)
o Part of Group 18
o Example: Neon (lights), argon (globes), helium (balloons)
 Molecular elements:
o Cluster of atoms
o Example: Non-metals like nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, carbon.
 Lattices:
o Repeats the arrangement of atoms over and over
 o Can be hammered and bent in sheets
o Example: Metals like sodium and chlorine (salt)

12.2 Atomic Theories

The atomic theory states that all matter is made up of tiny particles.
Democritus proposed that everything is made of atoms
 He suggested that all substances are made of small particles that are indivisible and
indestructible (atomos)
 He classified the basis of matter in elements (earth, fire, air and water)
John Dalton proposed that compounds are made of two or more different types of atoms
 He proposed the atomic theory
 Concluded that atoms of different elements combine
with each other in fixed ratios to form compounds
JJ Thomson discovered electrons -plum pudding model
 Atoms are composed both positively charged and
negatively charge material in every atom to balance
the electrical charge.
 He investigated this by passing cathode rays through
gases. By observing how the cathode ray beam
behaved, Thomson identified these as electrons
 A cathode ray tube is a glass tube that fires a beam of
negatively charged particles
Earnest Rutherford reposed the nuclear model of atoms
 He tested Thomson theory by bombarding a piece of
gold foil with alpha particles, which are small positively
charged particles
 He concluded that an atom is mostly empty space with
a tiny, dense, positively charged particles -protons- and
electrons orbiting the nucleus
Neil Bohr proposed the concept of electron orbits
 Proposed that electrons move around the nucleus in
orbits/ shells, producing spectral lines
 He also proposed that each shell contains a certain
number of electrons
Schrodinger took Bohr’s model a step further
 He used mathematical equations too describe the probable location of electrons
 He worked out that electrons move around in clouds rather than shells
James Chadwick discovered the neutron
 He bombarded beryllium atoms with alpha particles and discovered that a new particle was
ejected that had the same mass as the proton but had no charge – the neutron
12.3 Radiation
Radiation occurs in nuclear reactions when a nucleus breaks down and releases energy (alpha, beta,
and gamma rays).
Radioisotopes
 Radioactive isotopes of an element that breaks down and releases electromagnetic energy
from the nucleus.
 Unstable nuclei eject particles and undergo nuclear decay.

Half-life
 The half life of a radioisotope is the time it takes for half of the nuclei to decay measured in
radioisotopes.
Carbon decay
 Carbon dating is based on the fact that all living things have a small amount of carbon-14.
The amount remains constant though out the lifetime of a plant or animal.
 But when they die the absorption increases and the carbon-14 begins to decay into nitrogen-
14 and has a half life of 5730 years.
Alpha decay
 When a nucleus emits an alpha particle which is identical to the nucleus of a helium particle,
made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
 Alpha particles are a type of ionising radiation known as alpha rays.
 Only occurs in atoms with a heavy nucleus, usually with a mass number higher than 100.
Beta decay
 Occurs when the nucleus ejects a beta particle, identical to an electron.
 Beta particles are a form of ionising radiation known as beta rays
 When a nucleus undergoes beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton, increasing the
atomic number by 1, making a new element.
Gamma decay
 Sometimes protons and neutrons rearrange, emitting a form of electromagnetic radiation
known as a gamma ray.

12.4 Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is used to detect and treat cancer
 Technologies such as PET scans use radiation to detect cancer sites
 Radiotherapy is used to de tech cancer
 Radiation ca be used to destroy tumour and eliminate cancer cell. However, they also
eliminate the healthy cells
 Side effects include nausea, swelling, skin irritation, ulcers, loss of hair and secondary
cancers
Nuclear energy has many industrial uses
 Sterilise food too extend shelf life
 Sterilise equipment in dust rise and medical fields
 Baggage checking (X-ray inspection)
 Teeth whiteners
 X-rays
 Could be used to generate electricity instead of fossil fuels. It has low emissions of carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide gases and is more effective
Nuclear energy has safety concerns
 Can lead to cancer and leukaemia
 Can lead to birth defects
 Creates waste with a half life of 24 000
 People in working in nuclear industries and medical industries are required to wear special
detectors called dosimeters that measures and monitors exposure to radiation
 Expensive

CHAPTER 13 – THE PERIODIC TABLE

13.1: Elements and their atoms

Every element is unique
 An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of atom
o Example: The element oxygen is only made up of oxygen atoms
 Elements have unique symbols to ensure that scientists from different countries, still use
the same symbols in their work.
 118 elements in the periodic table
Different elements have different numbers of protons
 All elements have a different amount of protons
 But one element can have multiple numbers of electrons and neutrons
 Example: Carbon will always have 6 protons, but its 6 neutrons can change into carbon-14,
with 6 protons and 8 neutrons. The neutral atom of carbon can be charged (ion), losing or
gaining 4 electrons.

13.2: Organising elements

Making atomic structure
 1st shell: maximum of 2 electrons
 2nd shell: maximum of 8 electrons
 3rd shell: maximum of 8 electrons (1-8), maximum of 18
Elements in the same group share elements
 Indicates valence electrons
 18 groups (vertical columns)
 Alkali metals:
o One valence electron
o Soft, shiny, malleable, conduct heat and electricity
o Most reactive
o Charge of +1 (loses one electron)
 Alkaline earth metals:
o Two valence electrons
o Charge of +2 (loses two electrons)
o Similar to alkali metals but less reactive
 Transition metals:
o Middle of the periodic table
o All solids except mercury
 Carbon family:
o Four valence electrons
 o May or may not lose 4 electrons
 Halogens:
o Seven valence electrons
o Most reactive non-metals
o Ends with ‘ine’
 Noble/inert gases:
o 8 valence electrons
o Not reactive at all

13.3: Properties of elements

Metallic properties
 Found on left side of periodic table
 Shiny and lustrous (able to reflect light)
 Malleable (able to be bent) and ductile (drawn out in wire)
 Good conductors of heat and electricity (metallic bonds in lattices)
 Group 1 (alkali metals) and group 2 (alkaline earth metals)
 Example: Electronics and jewellery
Non-metals
 Found on the right side of periodic table
 Tends to be dull
 Does not conduct heat or electricity (weaker bonds as non-metals are molecular not lattice)
 Brittle
 Group 17 (halogens) and group 18 (noble gases)
 Example: Balloons and respiration
Metalloid/Semi-metals
 Properties of both metals and non-metals
 Usually brittle and sometimes shiny
 Example: Silicon is a good conductor or heat and electricity but its brittle and dull.

13.4: Development of the Periodic Table

Dalton produced an early periodic table of 20 elements
 Dalton proposed his atomic theory, stating at all matter is made of tiny particles called
atoms
 He used his own symbols
 May atomic masses he used were incorrect
Dobereiner group elements into triads
 Saw the relationship between physical and chemical properties of some elements
Newlands arranged the elements by mass number
 Arranged 60 known elements of increasing mass number using his law of octaves.
 He noticed every eighth element for this, however some did not.
Mendeleev arranged elements into groups and left gaps
 Arranged the known elements by mass number into families
 He predicted unknown elements using the chemical properties
 Later when the elements were discovered, their properties closely matched Mendeleev’s
Moseley arranged elements by atomic number
 Suggested that elements should be sorted by atomic number instead of mass number.
  Refined the previous periodic table models and came up with a more accurate version with
fewer elements missing

CHAPTER 14 – CHEMICAL REACTION

14.1: Atoms and matter

Matter is made up of different types of atoms
 Everything is made up of different types of atoms
 The mass of the atom is concentrated on the nucleus and is the sum of the mass of the
protons or neutrons.
Pure substances can be elements or compounds
 Elements contain the same type of atoms. Most are formed naturally, or scientists have
made them (don’t last for long) through nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.
 Compounds is made up of two or more atoms held together in fixed ratios by chemical
bonds.
Matter has mass
 Mass the amount of matter in an object
 Weight is not mass as it is the measure of gravity’s pull on an object.
 Mass is constant, only able to change if object itself is changed (breaking off a piece)
Isotopes are different forms of the same
element
 Isotopes are the same elements with
different number of neutrons in the
nucleus
 Different mass numbers = different
properties
 Same atomic number and space in the
periodic table

Rate of reaction
 The speed at which the chemical reactions proceeds
 Can be increased or decreased
 Temperature:
o Increasing temperature = increase rate of reaction
o Provide particles with more heat energy (converts into kinetic energy)
o Kinetic energy causes the speed of particles to increase in liquids and gases, collision
occurs more often, thus chemical reactions occur in less time.
o Also, by providing heat/kinetic energy, collision occurs more frequently, making
chemical bonds break. This results atoms in the reactant to rearrange to from
products.
 Concentration:
o Increased concentration = increase rate of reaction
 o Concentration is the amount of reactant
o Collision will occur more when highly concentrated
o Example: Increasing the flow of gas on a stove will cause a bigger flame/more heat.

 Agitation:
o Stirring reactants = increase rate of reaction
o Makes sure the reactants are in contact by moving the
products from blocking the reactants
 Surface area of reactant:
o Reactants are in lumps = less surface area
o Reactants are fine powder = more surface area
o Dividing the big reactant into smaller pieces = more
surface area in contact in between the pieces.
 Catalyst:
o Chemicals that speed up the reaction (not used in reaction)
o Reduces the amount of energy for reactants to convert to products OR makes
reactant molecules collide (form products) easier.

14.2: Bonds between atoms

Octet rule
 Matter always wants to be stable
 Stability is achieved through having a full outer shell with,
usually, 8 valence electrons
Covalent compounds are bound together by shared electrons
 When two or more non-metals bond, they share their
valence electrons, creating a bond called a covalent bond.
 Arranged in individual molecules
Ionic compounds are bound together by electron loss or gain
 The bonding of a non-metal and a metal
 Atoms with an electrostatic charge
 When metals lose electrons, it becomes positively charged, called cations
 When non-metals gain electrons, it becomes negatively charged, called anions
 Cations reacting with anions form an ionic bond as the metal gives its electrons to the non-
metals.
 Arranged in lattices
Metal atoms are bond together by free electrons
 All metal atoms lose electrons
 Those sea of electrons surround positive metal ions through attraction and are packed
closely together (held in place).
 Metallic bonds are weaker than ionic bonds
 Metallic compounds are good conductors of heat and energy.

14.3: Identifying chemical compounds

Scientific names
 Compounds have scientific names
 Examples:
o Water: Dihydrogen monoxide
o Vinegar: Ethanoic acid
o Bleach: Sodium hydrochloride
 Based on chemical formulas (tells the number and types of atoms in compounds)

Covalent compounds
 How to write them:
o Find out if it is ionic (metal and non-metal) or covalent (two or more non-metals)
o Name the first element
o Name the second element, ending with ‘ide’.
o Add prefix in front of each element depending on the number of elements.
 Examples:
o P2 05: Diphosphorus
pentaoxide
o C 0 2: Carbon dioxide
Ionic compounds
 Metal (cation) is always first in the name then the non-metal (anion)
 To write the scientific name, it is the same as covalent compounds except do not add the
prefixes for the number of atoms.
 However, when finding the chemical formula from the scientific name:
o Use the swap and drop method
o Write each elements with its charges with the metal on the
left and non-metal on the right.
o Swap the non-metal’s charge to become the cation’s
subscript.
o Swap the metal’s charge to become the anion’s subscript.
o Simplify using bracket and lowest common multiple.
 Examples:
o Monatomic:
 Barium nitride = B a2+¿ ¿ and N 3−¿=B a N ¿
3 2

 Sodium sulfide = N a+1 and S−2 = Na2 S

o Polyatomic:
Ammonium oxide = N H 4 and 02−¿ ¿ = ( N H 4 ) 2 O
+1

2−¿¿
 Magnesium carbonate = M g +2 and C O3 = Mg CO 3
14.4: Writing chemical equations
Law of conservation of mass
 Matter cannot be created or
destroyed
 The amount of matter at the start of
a chemical reaction must stay the
same as the amount of mass left at
the end of the reaction.
Strong acids
 HCl = Hydrochloric acid
 HNO3 = Nitric acid
 H 2 SO 4 = Sulfuric acid
Weak acids
 H 2 CO3 = Carbonic acid
 H 3 PO 4 = Phosphoric acid

14.5: Acids and Bases

Properties of acids
 Releases hydrogen ions when mixed with water
 Corrosive
 Turns blue litmus paper red
 The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the stronger the acid (lower pH).
 The lower the concentration of hydrogen ions, the weaker the acid (higher pH).
Examples of acids
 Hydrochloric acid
 Nitric acid
 Sulphuric acid
 Phosphoric acid
 Carbonic acid
 Acetic acid
Properties of bases
 Releases hydroxide ions when mixed with water
 Caustic
 Turns red litmus paper blue
 The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions,
the stronger the base (higher pH)
 The lower the concentration of hydroxide ions,
the weaker the base (lower pH).
Types of bases
 Metal hydroxide (e.g. potassium hydroxide)
contains metals bonded with hydroxide
 Metal oxide (e.g.zinc oxide) contains metals
bonded with oxygen
 Metal carbonate (e.g. copper carbonate) contains
metals bonded with carbonate
Examples of bases
  Sodium hydroxide
 Calcium hydroxide
 Ammonium
 Magnesium hydroxide
 Zinc oxide
 Copper carbonate
Indicators
 They are chemicals that change colour to shoe whether a substance is acidic, basic or
neutral.
 E.g. the universal indicator

14.6: Acid reactions

Acid/metal reactions
 Acids corrode metal, forming salt and hydrogen gas Balance ALL chemical
 Acids always have hydrogen (H) equations
 Hydrogen gas = H 2
 Equation: Acid + metal  salt + hydrogen gas
 Example:
o Hydrochloric acid + magnesium  ________ + hydrogen gas
o HCl + Mg  ______ + H 2
o HCl + Mg  Mg Cl 2 + H 2 (salt = cancel the hydrogen (reactants), make formula with
what is left using the swap and drop method)
o Balanced equation: 2HCl + Mg  Mg Cl 2 + H 2
Neutralisation reactions
 Acids and bases neutralise each other when mixed, changing into harmless substances
(water and salt).
 Bases always have hydroxide (OH)
 Water = H 2 O
 Equation: Acid + base  salt + water
 Example:
o Nitric acid + calcium hydroxide  _______ + water
o H NO3 + Ca ¿  _______ + H 2 O
o H NO3 + Ca ¿  Ca ¿ + H 2 O (crossover method and swap-and-drop)
o Balanced equation: 2 H NO 3 + Ca ¿  Ca ¿ + 2 H 2 O
Acid and metal carbonate reactions
 Acid reacts with a metal carbonate, producing carbon dioxide, salt, and water
2−¿¿
 Metal carbonates = CO 3 (carbonate)
 Carbon dioxide = CO 2
 Equation: Metal carbonate + acid  salt + carbon dioxide + water
 Example:
 o Magnesium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  salt + carbon dioxide + water
o Mg Co3 + HCl _______ + CO 2 + H 2 O
o Mg Co3 + HCl  MgCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O
o Balanced equation: Mg Co3 + 2 HCl  MgCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O

14.7: Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions involve oxygen
 A combusts reaction takes place between a hydrocarbon and oxygen to produce heat and a
new product.
 All products formed in combustion reactions are oxides
 Most of the energy is transformed fro chemical energy to heat and light energy
 E.g. Burning of wood in fire
 When a metal is burnt in oxygen, metal oxide is formed and energy is released
 Example:
o burning magnesium in oxygen produces heat and light energy and a white solid
called magnesium oxide
o Mg + O2  MgO2

Complete Combustion
 Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen
 When a hydrocarbon is burnt , the products are usually carbon dioxide and water
 Example
o Methane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water
o CH4 + O2  CO2 + H20
Incomplete Combustion
 Incomplete combustion takes place when there is a limited supply of oxygen, producing
carbon monoxide or soot and water.
 Examples
o Methane + Oxygen  Carbon Monoxide + Water
o Methane + Oxygen  Carbon soot + Water
 The products are toxic.

14.8: Corrosion and Decomposition

Corrosion
 Corrosion is a process where metals gradually degrade metals with oxygen
 Metals + Oxygen Metal Oxide
Differences between combustion and corrosion
Similarities Differences
 Both are oxidation reactions  Combustion is a fast reaction that gives
 Both are exothermic reaction (produce off a lot of heat
heat)  Corrosion ties longer and gives off less
 Produce oxides heat
Ways of Preventing Corrosion
 Paint the metal
 Grease it
 Put a protective layer of zinc on the metal – galvanising
 Coat the metal with plastic
  Attach the metal to a more protective metal, which would be sacrificed, Leaving the less
reactive metal intact – sacrificial protection
 Form alloys
 Use passivating metals, which are metals that form inactive surface layers that prevents
further corrosion
Decomposition Reactions Break Down Substances
 Decomposition reactions occur when one substance breaks down into two or more simple
substances
 Most decomposition reactions require energy to get the started.
 Thermal decomposition is started by heat energy
 Examples
o If you heat copper carbonate over a Bunsen burner, it decomposes into copper
oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
Copper Carbonate  Copper oxide + Carbon dioxide gas
o Sodium Azide is a chemical used in airbags . When heated, it decomposes into
nitrogen gas which rapidly inflates airbags during collision.
2NaN3(s)  2Na(s) + 3N2(g)
 Electrical decomposition (electrolysis) is performed by passing a electrical current through a
liquid reactant.
 Examples
o If you apply electricity to water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen gas.
2H2O  2H2 + O2
 Photochemical decomposition is triggered by light energy (a very slow reaction).
 Example
o Silver chloride is exposed to light , it slowly decomposes into silver and chlorine.
AgCl  Ag + Cl