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GE -3: Solid State Physics

Elementary band theory
[Kronig Penny model. Band Gaps. Conductors, Semiconductors and insulators. P and N type
Semiconductors. Conductivity of Semiconductors, mobility, Hall Effect, Hall coefficient.]

1.1. f¢lh¡q£, A¿¹lL J AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (Conductors, insulators and semi-

conductors):
¢h¢iæ fc¡­bÑl j­dÉ a¢sv f¢lhq­Zl rja¡ Ae¤k¡u£ fc¡bÑ…¢m­L ¢ae¢V i¡­N i¡N Ll¡ qu -
 f¢lh¡q£ (Conductors):
­kph fc¡­bÑl jdÉ ¢c­u M¤h pq­SC a¢sv f¢lh¡¢qa qu, a¡­cl f¢lh¡q£ h­mz
p¡d¡lZa ph d¡a¥C a¢s­al p¤¤f¢lh¡q£, ­kje - l¦­f¡, a¡j¡, ­p¡e¡, AÉ¡m¤¢j¢eu¡j, f¡lc CaÉ¡¢cz
 A¿¹lL h¡ Af¢lh¡q£ (Insulators):
­kph fc¡­bÑl jdÉ ¢c­u pq­S a¢sv fËh¡¢qa q­a f¡­l e¡ a¡­cl Af¢lh¡q£ h¡ A¿¹lL h­mz
­kje - ­L¡u¡VÑS, ¢q­l, Aï CaÉ¡¢cz
 AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (Semiconductors):
Hje LaL…¢m fc¡bÑ B­R k¡­cl a¢sv f¢lhqZ rja¡ f¢lh¡q£ J A¿¹lL fc¡­bÑl j¡T¡j¡¢Tz HCph
fc¡bÑ…¢m­L AdÑf¢lh¡q£ h­mz
­kje - S¡l­j¢eu¡j, ¢p¢mLe (­j±¢mL AdÑf¢lh¡q£), NÉ¡¢mu¡j B­pÑe¡CX (𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠), NÉ¡¢mu¡j gpg¡CX
(𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠𝑃), LÉ¡X¢ju¡j p¡mg¡CX (𝐶𝑑𝑠), LÉ¡X¢ju¡j ­p­me¡CX (𝐶𝑑𝑆𝑒) CaÉ¡¢cz
1.2. L¢We fc¡­bÑl f¢V-ašÄ (Band theory of solids):
Bjl¡ S¡¢e, ­h¡­ll ašÄ¡e¤k¡u£ flj¡Z¤l C­mLVÊe…¢m
¢eE¢LÓu¡p­L ¢O­l LaL…¢m ¢e¢cÑø n¢š²¢h¢nø
Ae¤­j¡¢ca Lrf­b (permitted orbits) BhaÑe
Ll­a f¡­lz p¤¤al¡w, HL¢V ¢h¢µRæ flj¡Z¤l Lb¡ ¢Q¿¹¡
Ll­m C­mLVÊe…¢m LaL…¢m ¢h¢µRæ n¢š²Ù¹­l
(discrete energy) AhÙÛ¡e L­l (¢Qœ 1.2a)z ¢L¿¹¥
L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ A­eL…¢m flj¡Z¤
d¡l¡h¡¢qL p‹¡u Oep¢æ¢hø b¡­L h­m flj¡Z¤…¢m
flØf­ll M¥h L¡R¡L¢R Q­m B­pz g­m ¢h¢iæ flj¡Z¤l
C­mLVÊe…¢m H­L Afl­L fËi¡¢ha L­l Hhw
C­mLVÊ­el n¢š²Ù¹l…¢m f¢lh¢aÑa q­u k¡uz HC
f¢lhaÑe flj¡Z¤l h¡C­ll ­M¡m­Ll C­mLVÊe…¢ml ­r­œC ph­Q­u ­h¢n qu Hhw ¢ia­ll ­M¡mL…¢ml
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C­mLVÊ­el ­r­œ HC f¢lhaÑe M¥hC Lj quz Hl L¡lZ q­µR ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ flj¡Z¤l phÑh¢qÙÛ L­rl
C­mLVÊe…¢m ­Lhmj¡œ HL¢V flj¡Z¤l Ad£­e b¡­L e¡z
C­mLVÊ­el n¢š²Ù¹l…¢ml HC f¢lhaÑ­el g­m ­Lm¡¢pa L¢We fc¡­bÑl j­dÉ flj¡Z¤l h¡C­ll ¢c­Ll
n¢š²Ù¹l…¢m ­i­P ¢N­u n¢š²-f¢V (energy band) NWe L­lz
c¤¢V flØfl pwhÜ flj¡Z¤l Lb¡ ¢h­hQe¡ Ll­m
c¤¢V flj¡Z¤l SeÉ fË¡ç n¢š²Ù¹­ll pwMÉ¡ ­k-­L¡­e¡
HL¢Vl ­r­œ fË¡ç n¢š²Ù¹­ll pwMÉ¡l ¢à…e q­hz
­k­qa¥ H­r­œ C­mLVÊ­el ¢ÙÛ¢an¢š² HL¢Vj¡œ
flj¡Z¤l SeÉ fË¡ç ¢ÙÛ¢an¢š² A­fr¡ ¢iæ qu, a¡C
H­r­œ n¢š²Ù¹l…¢ml n¢š² f§hÑ¡­fr¡ ¢iæ q­hz
Hi¡­h k¢c flj¡Z¤l pwMÉ¡ œ²jn h«¢Ü Ll¡ k¡u,
a­h pñ¡hÉ n¢š²Ù¹l…¢ml pwMÉ¡J œ²jn h«¢Ü f¡­hz
­L¡­e¡ L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ 𝑁 pwMÉL
flj¡Z¤ b¡L­m HL¢V flj¡Z¤l SeÉ fË¡ç ­k-­L¡­e¡
n¢š²Ù¹l 𝑁 pwMÉL ¢h¢µRæ n¢š²Ù¹­l ¢hi¡¢Sa q­u
k¡­hz HC ¢hi¡¢Sa n¢š²Ù¹l…¢m Ha L¡R¡L¡¢R b¡­L ­k ­p…¢m­L Bl ¢h¢µRæ n¢š²ÙÛl ¢q­p­h ­h¡T¡ k¡u
e¡z ­p…¢m­L HL¢V n¢š²-f¢V (energy band) ¢qp¡­h LÒfe¡ Ll­a quz fË¢a¢V n¢š²-f¢V­L
Ae¤­j¡¢ca n¢š²-f¢V (permitted energy band) BMÉ¡ ­cJu¡ qu (¢Qœ 1.2b)z
¢h¢µRæ flj¡Z¤l ­r­œ ­kje ¢h¢iæ n¢š²Ù¹l…¢m flØfl ­b­L ¢h¢µRæ (separated) b¡­L, ­aj¢e
­Lm¡¢pa L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ flfl c¤¢V nš²-f¢Vl jdÉhaÑ£ hÉhd¡e­L h­m ¢e¢oÜ f¢V (Forbidden
band) h¡ ¢e¢oÜ A’m (Forbidden zone)z ¢h¢µRæ flj¡Z¤l ­r­œ ­kje ­L¡­e¡ C­mLVÊe flfl
c¤¢V n¢š² f¢Vl j¡TM¡­e b¡L­a f¡­l e¡, ­aj¢e ­Lm¡¢pa L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­r­œJ C­mLVÊe…¢m ¢e¢oÜ
A’­m b¡L­a f¡­l e¡z ¢h¢iæ n¢š² f¢Vl NWe Hhw Hl¡ L£i¡­h C­mLVÊe à¡l¡ f§ZÑ b¡­L, a¡l Jfl
L¢We fc¡­bÑl a¢sv f¢lh¡¢qa¡ ¢eiÑl L­lz
1.3. ¢h¢iæ n¢š²-f¢Vl p‘¡ (Definitions of different energy bands):
 pw­k¡S£ f¢V (Valence band):
Bjl¡ S¡¢e, f¡E¢ml AfhSÑe e£¢a Ae¤k¡u£
­Lm¡¢pa L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ ¢h¢iæ Ae¤­j¡¢ca
f¢V…¢m ¢e­Ql ¢cL ­b­L il¢a q­a öl¦ L­lz
HL¢V ¢ejÀal n¢š²-f¢V C­mLVÊe à¡l¡ f§ZÑ qJu¡l
fl Ah¢nø C­mLVÊe…¢m flh¢aÑ EµQal
Ae¤­j¡¢ca f¢Vl j­dÉ Ae¤l©fi¡­h ¢e­Ql ¢cL
­b­L öl¦ L­l ¢h¢iæ n¢š²Ù¹­l ¢heÉÙ¹ quz
flj¡Z¤l phÑ¡­fr¡ h¡C­ll L­r Ef¢ÙÛa
C­mLVÊe…¢m­L h­m ­k¡SÉa¡ C­mLVÊe (valence electron)z ­Lm¡¢pa L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ ­k¡SÉa¡
C­mLVÊe…¢ml n¢š² ­k ¢hÙ¹«a f¡õ¡l j­dÉ b¡­L, a¡­L ­k¡SÉa¡ f¢V h¡ pw­k¡S£ f¢V h­m (¢Qœ 1.3)z
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 f¢lh¡q£ f¢V (Conduction band):

pw­k¡S£ f¢Vl flhaÑ£ ­h¢n n¢š²pÇfæ f¢V­L h­m f¢lh¡q£ f¢V (¢Qœ 1.3)z d¡a¥l ­r­œ ­k¡SÉa¡
C­mLVÊe…¢m M¥h q¡mL¡i¡­h flj¡Z¤­a BhÜ b¡­Lz g­m O­ll Eo·a¡­aC ­hn ¢LR¥ pwMÉL ­k¡SÉa¡
C­mLVÊe ¢h¢µRæ q­u A¢dL n¢š²pÇfæ f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a Q­m B­pz HCph j¤š² C­mLVÊe…¢mC d¡a¥­a
a¢sv f¢lhq­Z AwnNËqZ L­lz a¡C HC S¡a£u C­mLVÊe…m­L f¢lh¡q£ C­mLVÊe h­mz f¢lh¡q£
C­mLVÊe…¢ml n¢š² ­k ¢hÙ¹«a f¡õ¡l j­dÉ b¡­L, a¡­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V h­mz
A¿¹lL fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ f¢lh¡q£ f¢V qm phÑ¢ejÀ pÇf¨ZÑ gy¡L¡ f¢Vz f¢lh¡q£ fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ f¢lh¡q£ f¢V
Bw¢nL f§ZÑ b¡­L Hhw ¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­r­œ HC f¢V fË¡u pÇf¨ZÑ gy¡L¡ b¡­Lz
 ¢e¢oÜ f¢V (Forbidden band):
flfl c¤¢V Ae¤­j¡¢ca f¢Vl jdÉhaÑ£ gy¡L¡ A’m­L h­m ¢e¢oÜ f¢V h¡ A’m (¢Qœ 1.3)z ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ
­L¡­e¡ C­mLVÊeC HC A’­ml j­dÉ b¡L­a f¡­l e¡z
­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ ­L¡­e¡ C­mLVÊe­L pw­k¡S£ f¢V ­b­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a a¥m­a ­N­m C­mLVÊe­L ­k phÑ¢ejÀ
n¢š² plhl¡q Ll­a q­h a¡ qm ¢e¢oÜ A’­ml n¢š²l pj¡ez
1.4. f¢V a­šÄl ¢i¢š­a L¢We fc¡­bÑl ­nË¢Z¢hi¡N (Classification of solids according to
band theory):
 f¢lh¡q£ fc¡bÑ (Conductors):
f¢lh¡q£ fc¡­bÑl n¢š²-f¢Vl ¢heÉ¡p 1.4a ¢Q­œ ­cM¡­e¡
q­u­Rz H­r­œ pw­k¡S£ f¢V J f¢lh¡q£ f¢V pj¡f¢aa
(overlap) AhÙÛ¡u b¡­L; g­m HC c¤C f¢Vl jdÉhaÑ£
¢e¢oÜ A’m Ae¤f¢ÙÛa b¡­Lz ­pCSeÉ A¢a AÒf
a¢sv­rœ fË­u¡N Ll­mJ pw­k¡S£ f¢Vl ¢LR¥ pwMÉL
C­mLVÊe N¢an¢š² m¡i L­l gy¡L¡ f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a Eæ£a
(transition) qu, g­m a¢svfËh¡­ql p«¢ø quz Bh¡l
¢LR¥ ¢LR¥ d¡a¥l ­r­œ (­kje-­p¡¢Xu¡j) f§ZÑ pw­k¡S£ f¢V
J Bw¢nL f§ZÑ-f¢lh¡q£ f¢Vl j­dÉ M¥h pwL£ZÑ ¢e¢oÜ
A’m b¡L­mJ p¡j¡eÉ a¢sv­rœ fË­u¡­N C­mLVÊ­el Eæue O­V, g­m a¢svfËh¡­ql p«¢ø quz
 A¿¹lL fc¡bÑ (Insulators):
A¿¹lL fc¡­bÑl n¢š²-f¢Vl ¢heÉ¡p 1.4b ew ¢Q­œl
j­a¡ quz HC S¡a£u fc¡­bÑl ­r­œ pw­k¡S£ f¢V
C­mLVÊe à¡l¡ pÇf¨ZÑ il¢a b¡­L Hhw f¢lh¡q£ f¢V
pÇf¨ZÑ gy¡L¡ b¡­Lz HC c¤C f¢Vl jdÉhaÑ£ ¢e¢oÜ A’m
A­eL fËnÙ¹ (fË¡u 4 𝑒𝑉 Hl ­h¢n)z Ec¡qlZül©f,
¢q­ll ­r­œ ¢e¢oÜ A’­ml n¢š²-f¡bÑLÉ (energy
gap) fË¡u 6 𝑒𝑉z HC ¢hn¡m n¢š² f¡bÑ­LÉl SeÉ
O­ll Eo·a¡u (Hje¢L EµQal Eo·a¡­aJ h¡ EµQ
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a¢sv­rœ fË­u¡N Ll­mJ) fË¡u ­L¡­e¡ C­mLVÊeC pw­k¡S£ f¢V ­b­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a Eæ£a q­Q f¡­l
e¡z g­m A¿¹lL fc¡­bÑl j­dÉ ¢c­u ­L¡­e¡ a¢sv fËh¡¢qa qu e¡z
 AdÑf¢lh¡q£ fc¡bÑ (Semiconductors):
AdÑf¢lh¡q£ fc¡­bÑl n¢š²-f¢Vl ¢heÉ¡p 1.4c ew
¢Q­œl j­a¡ quz 0 𝐾 Eo·a¡u HC S¡a£u fc¡­bÑl
pw­k¡S£ f¢V C­mLVÊe à¡l¡ f§ZÑ a¡­L Hhw f¢lh¡q£
f¢V pÇf¨ZÑ gy¡L¡ b¡­Lz HC c¤¢V f¢Vl jdÉhaÑ£ ¢e¢oÜ
A’m A¿¹lL fc¡­bÑl a¥me¡u A¢dL¡wn ­r­œC
A­eL Lj quz Ec¡qlZül©f, S¡l­j¢eu¡­jl ­r­œ
n¢š²-f¡bÑLÉ fË¡u 0.67 𝑒𝑉 Hhw ¢p¢mL­el ­r­œ
fË¡u 1.12 𝑒𝑉 (300 𝐾 a¡fj¡œ¡u)z g­m fc¡bÑ­L
0 𝐾 ­b­L p¡j¡eÉ Ešç Ll­mC (­kje-O­ll Eo·a¡u) ¢LR¥ pwMÉL
C­mLVÊe pw­k¡S£ f¢V ­b­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a E¢æa quz aMe p¡j¡eÉ
¢hihfË­ic fË­u¡N Ll­m HCph C­mLVÊe N¢an¢š² m¡i L­l fc¡bË¢Vl
jdÉ ¢c­u Qm¡Qm Ll­a f¡­lz g­m AdÑf¢lh¡q£l jdÉ ¢c­u a¢svfËh¡­ql
p«¢ø quz fc¡bÑ¢Vl Eo·a¡ ka h¡s¡­e¡ k¡u, aa ­h¢n pwMÉL C­mLVÊe
pw­k¡S£ f¢V ­b­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a E¢æa qu, g­m AdÑf¢lh¡q£l
f¢lh¡¢qa¡ h¡­s ab¡ ­l¡d L­jz Efk¤š² LÇf¡­ˆl B­m¡l fËi¡­hJ
HLC OVe¡ O­V, AbÑ¡v AdÑf¢lh¡q£l a¢sv f¢lh¡¢qa¡ h«¢Ü f¡uz
Eo·a¡l p¡­b d¡ah f¢lh¡q£ J AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­l¡­dl f¢lhaÑe 1.4d ew
¢Q­œ ­cM¡­e¡ q­u­Rz
1.5. AdÑf¢lh¡q£ ­Lm¡­pl NWe (Structure of
semiconductor crystals):
AdÑf¢lh¡q£…¢ml j­dÉ ¢p¢mLe Hhw S¡l­j¢eu¡j ph­Q­u
­h¢n hÉhq©a quz H­cl Ei­ulC 4 ¢V L­l ­k¡SÉa¡
C­mLVÊe B­Rz S¡l­j¢eu¡j h¡ ¢p¢mLe ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ
flj¡Z¤…¢m flfl HL¢V p¤¤oj p‹¡u p¢‹a b¡­L (¢Qœ
1.5)z fË¢a¢V S¡l­j¢eu¡j (h¡ ¢p¢mLe) flj¡Z¤l p­‰ HL¢V
L­l C­mLVÊe i¡N L­l ­euz g­m fË¢a¢V S¡l­j¢eu¡j (h¡
¢p¢mLe) flj¡Z¤lC h¡C­ll Lr 8 ¢V C­mLVÊe à¡l¡
pÇf«La qu Hhw ­Lm¡­pl fË¢a¢V flj¡Z¤C ÙÛ¡¢uaÆ m¡i
L­lz
¢ejÀ a¡fj¡œ¡u (0 𝐾 Hl L¡R¡L¡¢R) ­Lm¡­pl fË¢a¢V
C­mLVÊeC pj­k¡S£ håL à¡l¡ BhÜ b¡­Lz g­m ­L¡­e¡
Bd¡e h¡qL e¡ b¡L¡l SeÉ HC a¡fj¡œ¡u ¢höÜ
S¡l­j¢eu¡j h¡ ¢p¢mLe ­Lm¡p A¿¹l­Ll j­a¡ BQlZ L­l, AbÑ¡v ­L¡­e¡ a¢sv f¢lhqZ L­l e¡z
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¢L¿¹¥ ­Lm¡­pl a¡fj¡œ¡ hª¢Ü Ll­m a¡f£u E­šSe¡l g­m ¢LR¥ ¢LR¥ C­mLVÊe fË­u¡Se£u n¢š² ASÑe L­l
pj­k¡S£ håe ­b­L j¤š² qu Hhw pj­k¡S£ f¢V ­b­L f¢lh¡q£ f¢V­a Q­m k¡uz HCi¡­h ­k håe ­b­L
HL¢V C­mLVÊe j¤š² qu ­pM¡­e HL¢V C­mLVÊ­el O¡V¢a ­cM¡ k¡uz fc¡bÑ¢h‘¡­el i¡o¡u hm¡ qu, I
ÙÛ¡­e HL¢V ­q¡m (hole) h¡ NaÑ pª¢ø q­u­R, k¡ de¡aÈL a¢s­al pja¥mÉz fË¢a­hn£ flj¡Z¤l ­L¡­e¡
C­mLVÊ­el k­bø a¡f£u n¢š² b¡L­m ­p¢V ¢eSü pj­k¡S£ håe ¢Ræ L­l JC ­q¡m f§lZ Ll¡l SeÉ R¥­V
B­p, g­m Jl ¢eSü AhÙÛ¡­e ea¥e HL¢V ­q¡­ml pª¢ø quz p¤¤al¡w ­q¡mJ ÙÛ¡e f¢lhaÑe Ll­a f¡­l,
k¡l N¢a qu C­mLVÊ­el N¢al ¢hfl£a ¢c­Lz L¡­SC, h¡C­l ­b­L ­Lm¡p¢V­a HL¢V a¢sv­rœ fË­u¡N
Ll­m C­mLVÊe…¢m a¢sv­r­œl ¢hfl£a ¢c­L Hhw ­q¡m…¢m a¢sv­r­œl ¢c­L fËh¡¢qa quz ­k­qa¥
C­mLVÊe J ­q¡­ml Bd¡e ¢hfl£a Hhw Jl¡ flØf­ll ¢hfl£a ¢c­L fËh¡¢qa qu, a¡C j¤š² C­mLVÊe
Hhw ­q¡­ml N¢al SeÉ pªø a¢svfËh¡qàu pw­k¡¢Sa qu Hhw HL¢V m¢ì a¢svfËh¡q f¡Ju¡ k¡uz
C­mLVÊ­el a¢svfËh¡q 𝐼 Hhw ­q¡­ml a¢svfËh¡q 𝐼 q­m ­j¡V a¢svfËh¡q 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 z
1.6. ¢höÜ J A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor):
¢höÜ AhÙÛ¡u fË¡ç AdÑf¢lh¡q£­L hm¡ qu ¢höÜ h¡ üi¡h£ AdÑf¢lh¡q£z HC S¡a£u AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a j¤š²
C­mLVÊe J ­q¡­ml pwMÉ¡ pj¡ez
¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ AaÉ¿¹ AÒf f¢lj¡­Z (cn mr i¡­Nl HL i¡N) ¢h­no dl­el
AfâhÉ f¢lL¢Òfai¡­h k¤š² Ll­m JCph ­Lm¡­pl a¢sv f¢lh¡¢qa¡ hý…e hª¢Ü f¡uz AfâhÉ ­jn¡­e¡l
g­m ­k ea¥e dl­Zl AdÑf¢lh¡q£ pª¢ø qu, a¡­L A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (extrinsic
semiconductor) h­m Hhw ¢jnËe fÜ¢a­L h­m ­X¡¢fw (doping)z ¢j¢nËa AfâhÉ
flj¡Z¤…¢m­L h­m ­X¡fÉ¡¾V (dopant)z
Afâ­hÉl dle Ae¤k¡u£, A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£ c¤-lL­jl qu- n-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£ Hhw p-type
AdÑf¢lh¡q£z
 n-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (n-type semiconductors):
¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£ ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ (NË¥f-IV ­j±m) ¢eu¢¿»a j¡œ¡u ­L¡­e¡ f’­k¡S£ ­j±m (NË¥f-V Hl ­j±m,
­kje - B­pÑ¢eL h¡ gpgl¡p h¡ AÉ¡¢¾Vj¢e) ­k¡N Ll­m ­k A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­Lm¡p Evfæ qu,
a¡­L n-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£ h­mz
HC S¡a£u AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a Bd¡e h¡qL qm C­mLVÊez
 p-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£ (p-type semiconductors):
¢höÜ f¢lh¡q£ ­Lm¡­pl j­dÉ (NË¥f-IV ­j±m) ¢eu¢œa j¡œ¡u ­L¡­e¡ ¢œ­k¡S£ ­j±m (NË¥f-III Hl ­j±m,
­kje- ­h¡le, AÉ¡m¤¢j¢eu¡j, C¢äu¡j CaÉ¡¢c) ­k¡N Ll­m ­k A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­Lm¡p Evfæ qu,
a¡­L p-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£ h­mz
HC S¡a£u AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a Bd¡e h¡qL qm ­q¡mz
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 ¢höÜ J A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l a¥me¡ (Comparison between intrinsic and

extrinsic semiconductors):
1. ¢höÜ AdÑf¢le¡q£ NË¥f-IV ­j±m (­kje- S¡l­j¢eu¡j, ¢p¢mLe CaÉ¡¢c)z ¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£­L NË¥f-
V h¡ NË¥f-III ­j±m à¡l¡ ­X¡¢fw L­l kb¡œ²­j n-type h¡ p-type A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£ °a¢l
Ll¡ quz
2. ¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l a¢sv f¢lh¡q£a¡ AaÉ¿¹ Lj quz Aflf­r ­X¡¢fw Ll¡l g­m A¢höÜ
AdÑf¢lh¡q£l a¢sv f¢lh¡q£a¡ hý…e hª¢Ü f¡uz
3. ¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a j¤š² C­mLVÊe J ­q¡­ml pwMÉ¡ pj¡e quz ¢L¿¹¥ n-type A¢höÜ
AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a N­aÑl pwMÉ¡l a¥me¡u j¤š² C­mLVÊ­el pwMÉ¡ A­eL ­h¢nz Bh¡l p-type
A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a C­mLVÊ­el pwMÉ¡l a¥me¡u j¤š² ­q¡­ml pwMÉ¡ A­eL ­h¢nz
4. a¡fj¡œ¡ hª¢Ü Ll­m ¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l a¢sv f¢lh¡q£a¡ hª¢Ü f¡uz Bh¡l A¢höÜ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l
a¢sv f¢lh¡q£a¡ ­X¡¢fw-Hl f¢lj¡­Zl Efl ¢eiÑl L­lz
1.7. C­mLVÊ­el pQma¡ (Electron Mobility):
­L¡­e¡ f¢lh¡q£l c¤C fË¡­¿¹l j­dÉ HLL a¢sv­rœ fË­u¡N Ll­m f¢lh¡q£l AiÉ¿¹lÙÛ j¤š² C­mLVÊe…¢m
­k a¡se¡ ­hN m¡i L­l, a¡­LC C­mLVÊ­el ­j¡¢h¢m¢V (𝜇) h­mz
¢ejÀj¡­el a¢sv­r­œl SeÉ C­mLVÊ­el a¡se¡ ­hN (drift velocity) 𝑣 fËk¤š² a¢sv­r­œl j¡­el
(𝐸) pj¡e¤f¡¢aL qu Hhw HC pj¡e¤f¡¢aL dË¥hL­L h­m C­mLVÊ­el pQm¡a¡ (electron mobility)
𝜇z p¤¤al¡w, 𝑣 = 𝜇𝐸
⃗
AbÑ¡v, 𝜇= = ∗
[Ae¤fËh¡­ql ­hN, 𝑣 = − ∗
𝜏]
o 𝑆𝐼 HLL → 𝑚 𝑉 𝑠
1.8. qm fË¢œ²u¡ (Hall Effect):
­L¡­e¡ AdÑf¢lh¡q£­a (S¡l­j¢eu¡j h¡ ¢p¢mLe) a¢svfËh¡­ql A¢ij¤­Ml mði¡­h h¡C­l ­b­L ­Q±ðL ­rœ
fË­u¡N Ll­m a¢sv fËh¡q J ­Q±ðL ­r­œl d¡lL a­ml
A¢imð A¢ij¤­M f¢lh¡q£l c¤¢V ¢hfl£a a­m ¢hih f¡bÑLÉ
p«¢ø quz HC OVe¡­L qm fË¢œ²u¡ h¡ qm fËi¡h h­mz
 qm fË¢œ²u¡l ­i±a Evp:
¢Q­œ 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 HL¢V BuaOeL¡L¡l n-type
AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­Lm¡p k¡l °cOÑÉ 𝑙, fËÙÛ 𝑤 Hhw EµQa¡ 𝑑z
­Lm¡p¢Vl jdÉ ¢c­u a¢svfËh¡¢qa q­µR 𝐴𝐸𝐻𝐷 am ­b­L
𝐵𝐹𝐺𝐶 am Hl A¢ij¤­M (de¡aÈL 𝑋-Ar hl¡hl)z HMe,
AdÑf¢lh¡q£¢V­a h¡C­l ­b­L 𝑍-Ar hl¡hl ­Q±ðL ­rœ
fË­u¡N Ll¡ qmz Bjl¡ S¡¢e, n-type AdÑf¢lh¡q£l ­r­œ Bd¡e h¡qL C­mLVÊez p¤¤al¡w,
AdÑf¢lh¡q£¢V­a C­mLVÊe Hl N¢al A¢ij¤M q­h 𝐵𝐹𝐺𝐶 am ­b­L 𝐴𝐸𝐻𝐷 am A¢ij¤­Mz ¢L¿¹¥
­Q±ðL­rœS¢ea hm (𝐹 ) Hl fËi¡­h C­mLVÊe…¢m A¢imð hl¡hl ¢e­Ql ¢c­L AbÑ¡v 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 am
 |7

hl¡hl a¡¢sa (drifted) q­h (­gÓ¢jw Hl h¡jqÙ¹ ¢euj Ae¤p¡­l)z g­m 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 am Ge¡aÈL ¢ejÀ¢hih
Hhw 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 a­m C­mLVÊe Hl O¡V¢al g­m de¡aÈL EµQ¢hih m¡i Ll­hz g­m HC c¤C a­ml j­dÉ
HL¢V ¢hih f¡bÑLÉ °a¢l q­h Hhw p¡­b p¡­b HL¢V a¢sv­rœ °a¢l q­hz HCi¡­h qm fË¢œ²u¡ pwN¢Wa
quz
­k a¢sv­r­œl p«¢ø qu a¡­L qm a¢sv­rœ, 𝐸 (Hall electric field) h­mz
­k ¢hihfË­ic p«¢ø qu a¡­L qm ¢hihfË­ic, 𝑉 (Hall potential difference) h­mz
 qm ¢hihfË­ic Hhw qm a¢sv­r­œ (Hall potential difference and Hall electric
field):
¢Qœ 1.8 Ae¤k¡u£ ­Lm¡p¢V­a qm fË¢œ²u¡u p«ø a¢sv­r­œl f¢lj¡Z d£­l d£­l ka h«¢Ü q­a b¡L­h aa
a¢sv­rœS¢ea hm (𝐹 ) Hl fËi¡­h C­mLVÊe…¢m ­Q±ðL h­ml ¢hfl£­a AbÑ¡v 𝐸𝐹𝐺𝐻 a­ml
A¢ij¤­M N¢an£m q­a öl¦ Ll­hz HCi¡­h kMe 𝐹 Hhw 𝐹 Hl j¡e flØf­ll pj¡e q­u k¡­h aMe
C­mLVÊe…¢m Bl N¢an£m e¡ q­u ¢ÙÛl q­u k¡­hz
p¤¤al¡w C­mLVÊe…¢m ¢ÙÛl q­u k¡Ju¡l naÑ, 𝐹 = 𝐹
Bh¡l, Bjl¡ S¡¢e, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑉 [𝑉 = Ae¤fËh¡q h¡ a¡se¡ ­hN]
Hhw 𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸
p¤¤al¡w, 𝐵𝑒𝑉 = 𝑒𝐸
h¡, 𝐸 = 𝐵𝑉 --- (i)
HMe qm ¢hihfË­ic Hhw qm a¢sv­r­œl j­dÉ pÇfLÑ ­b­L f¡C,
𝐸 =

h¡, 𝐵𝑉 = [(i) ew pj£LlZ ­b­L 𝐸 Hl j¡e h¢p­u f¡C]

h¡, 𝑉 = 𝐵𝑑𝑉 --- (ii)
Bh¡l, ­h­Nl p‘¡e¤k¡u£ Bjl¡ ¢mM­a f¡¢l, 𝑉 = =
[­kM¡­e, 𝑙 = AdÑf¢lh¡q£¢Vl °cOÑÉ, 𝑡 = Bd¡e fËh¡­ql pju]
Hhw Bd¡e OeaÆ 𝜌=

h¡, 𝜌= [𝑣 = Buae, 𝑞 = Bd¡e]

∴𝑙=
 |8

Bjl¡ S¡¢e, fËh¡qj¡œ¡, 𝐼 =

h¡, 𝑡=

∴𝑉 = × =

HMe 𝑉 Hl j¡e (i) ew Hhw (ii) ew pj£Ll­Z h¢p­u f¡C,

𝑩𝑰 𝑩𝑰 𝑩𝑰
𝑬𝑯 = Hhw 𝑽𝑯 = ×𝒅=
𝝆𝒘𝒅 𝝆𝒘𝒅 𝝆𝒘

 qm pqN (Hall co-efficient):

HLL ­Q±ðL­rœ fË¡hmÉ Hhw HLL fËh¡q Oe­aÆl SeÉ ­k f¢lj¡Z qm a¢sv­rœ Evfæ qu a¡­L qm
pqN (𝑅 ) h­mz
p¤¤al¡w 𝑅 =
×

h¡, 𝑅 =

h¡, 𝑅 = ×

h¡, 𝑅 = × [∵ 𝐽 = = ]
𝟏
∴ 𝑹𝑯 =
𝝆

p¤¤al¡w, qm pqN (Hall co-efficient) Hl j¡e S¡e¡ b¡L­m ­L¡­e¡ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l h¡ f¢lh¡q£l Bd¡e
Oe­aÆl j¡e ¢eZÑu Ll¡ pñh quz
 fË­u¡N (Applications):
1. qm fË¢œ²u¡l à¡l¡ ­L¡­e¡ AdÑf¢lh¡q£l Bd¡e h¡q­Ll (C­mLVÊe h¡ ­q¡m) OeaÆ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡uz
2. HC fË¢œ²u¡l à¡l¡ ­L¡e¢V - AdÑf¢lh¡q£ Hhw ­L¡e¢V - AdÑf¢lh¡q£ a¡ ¢edÑ¡lZ Ll¡ k¡uz
3. qm fË¢œ²u¡ à¡l AdÑf¢lh¡q£l f¢lh¡¢qa¡, fË¢a­l¡d rja¡ ¢eZÑu Ll¡ k¡uz