Unit 1

Soil Formation and

Composition

Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav

Assistant Professor-I
Dept of Civil Engineering
NIT Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra Haryana

1
• Introduction
• Soil and rock
• Soil mechanics and foundation engineering,
• Origin of soils
• Weathering
• Soil formation
• Major soil deposits of India
• Particle size
• Particle shape
• Interparticle forces
• Soil structure
• Principal clay minerals
 Cooling Cooling
Gases Molten Magma Igneous rocks

Weathering
4.5 billion
years ago

Rock Cycle Residual soils

Heat and pressure

Sedimentary
deposits

Weathering, transportation, deposition

Sedimentary Metamorphic
Consolidation and cementation rocks
rocks
Heat and pressure
 Rock
Rocks are made from various types of minerals. Minerals are substances of crystalline form
made up from a particular chemical combination. The main minerals in rocks include
quartz, feldspar, calcite, and mica. Geologists classify all rocks into three basic groups:
Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

• Igneous Rock: These rocks have become solid from a melted liquid state. Extrusive igneous
rocks are those that arrived on the surface of the earth as molten lava and cooled. Intrusive
igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock) that forced itself through cracks into rock
beds below the surface and solidified there.

• Example: granite, Basalt, gabbro

Igneous Rock: example and characteristics

Name Grain Texture Color Composition

Granite Coarse Light Gray Mainly quartz and orthoclase mixed
with biotite, muscovite, hornblende,
magnetite

Gabbro Coarse Dark Mainly plagioclase and pyroxenes

mixed with biotite and magnetite
Basalt Fine Dark Mainly plagioclase and pyroxenes
mixed with biotite and magnetite
• Sedimentary Rock: Weathering reduces the rock mass to fragmented particles, which
can be more easily transported by wind, water and ice. When dropped by the agents of
weathering, they are termed sediments. These sediments are typically deposited in layers
or beds called strata and when compacted and cemented together (lithification)they form
sedimentary rocks.
• Example: shale, sandstone, chalk
Name Group Type Grain Texture Brief description
Lime Chemical Usually Fine Mainly calcium carbonate in the form of calcite or arogonite. Usually
stone relatively soft and easily soluble in acidic solutions
Sand Clastic Intermediate Mainly pressure cemented particles of sand, feldspar, hornblende,
stone volcanic matter,. Porous and sandrock mass is relatively easily crushed
into smaller particles
Shale Clastic Fine Mainly clay minerals and fine particles of silica. Two types :
cementation shale and Compaction shale
 Metamorphic Rock: Metamorphism through high temperatures and pressures acting
on sedimentary or igneous rocks, produces metamorphic rocks. The original rock
undergoes both chemical and physical alterations
• Example: slate, quartzite and marble
Name Texture Mineral Brief Description
arrangement

Slate Fine Foliated Metamorphized shale composed mostly of quartz and secondary mica, is a
dense rock characterised by well developed tabular cleavage
Gneiss Medium to Poor Characterised by alternating bands of different colours and highly
Coarse contorted shapes. Common minerals are mica, feldspar, hornblende and
quartz
Marble Medium to Non-foliated Formed by recrystallisation of limestone and dolomite. Used as building
Coarse material for decorative purposes and as source for lime.
 Soil Formation

In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties of soil are dictated
primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from which it is
derived.

Rock Weathering : It is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals
at or near the earth’s surface through the actions of mechanical and chemical agents into
smaller and smaller grains.

Factors affecting Weathering:

1.Changes in Temperature and Pressure
2.Erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers
3.Chemical action such as crystal growth, oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by
water.
Rock weathering is of two types

1. Physical or Mechanical : Soil formed by mechanical weathering bear a similarity in certain

properties to the minerals in the parent rock, since chemical changes which could destroy their
identity do not take place.
Temperature variations are responsible to great extent for physical weathering.
It manifest in two ways; through the so called frost action in the cold humid climates and
through thermal effects in hot dry regions.
FROST ACTION:
• In areas where climate conditions are such that temperature often falls below the freezing point of
water during winter and where humidity is high, freezing of water contained in cavities is a
common phenomenon.
• This process effects the rocks which are highly jointed or porous in nature. Water trapped in the
cracks, cavities of these rocks freezes and expands during low temperature period thereby exerting a
pushing pressure on the sides of these openings which leads to widening of these openings or
cavities.
• This freezing and thawing cycle will lead to partial or total disintegration of the rock into smaller
pieces.
• These fragments are angular or sub angular in outline and may remain over the rock from which
they have been broken. But when the slope is steeper and vegetation is less, these fragments roll
down along the slope and are deposited near the base.
THERMAL EFFECTS:
• The effect of change of temperature on rock is of considerable importance in arid and semi-arid
regions where difference between day-time and night time temperatures is often very high.
• This temperature fluctuations produce physical disintegration which breaks the rock into smaller
pieces due to stresses developing by expansion and contraction.
 (c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Taiwan
Figure A Mechanical erosion due to ocean waves and wind at Yehliu,

(c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
waves and wind at Yehliu, Taiwan
Figure Mechanical erosion due to ocean
Physical weathering
 2. Chemical Weathering
It is a process of alteration of rocks of the earth’s crust by chemical decomposition brought about by weathering
agencies. The chemical changes take place in the presence of rain water in which are dissolved many active
gases from the atmosphere like Co2, N2, H2 and water vapors. These chemical changes are brought about by the
following processes.

SOLUTION: Some rocks contain one or more minerals that can be removed in solution by water. Lime stone
and other carbonates are important examples.

HYDRATION AND HYDROLYSIS: The process involving addition of water molecule is called hydration.

CaSO4 + 2. H2O = CaSO4. 2H2O

The process involving exchange of ions is called “Hydrolysis”

K+AlSi3O8 + H+ = HAl. Si3O8 + K+

The process of hydration is important in the weathering of silicate minerals with iron as important constituent and
that of hydrolysis in the weathering of complex silicates of ignious and metamorphic rocks.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION: Iron is a chief constituent of many minerals and rocks. These iron containing
materials susceptible to chemical weathering through the process of oxidation and reduction.
2FeS2 + 2 O2 +2 H2O = 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4

The process of reduction results in the reduction of ferric iron and is brought about in the presence of special type
of environment where soil is rich in decaying vegetation.

CARBONATION: It is the process of formation of bicarbonates and carbonates from the weathering of certain
other minerals under the influence of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

2KAlSi3O8 +2H2O + CO2 = Al2 SiO2 O5 (OH)4 + 4 SiO2 +K2CO3

Soil Formation from Rock

Deposits
Water eroded are
Flow

Sand
And Silt Clay
Gravel
General Types of Soil
Residual Soils

• Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain in position at the place of origin.
In that case these are “residual soils”.
• Residual soils tend to be more abundant in humid and warm zones where conditions are
favorable to chemical weathering of rocks and have sufficient vegetation to keep the products
of weathering from being easily transported as sediments. These soils have the following
characteristics.
1.Sizes of grains are not definite because of the partially disintegrated condition.
2.Grains may break into smaller grains with the application of little pressure.
 Transported Soils
The soils which are transported from the place of origin by various agencies such as wind, water,
ice, gravity etc. and get deposited when favorable conditions like a decrease of velocity occur.
These soils have the following characteristics.
1.High degree of alteration of particle shape, size and texture
2.High degree of smoothness and fineness of individual grains.

Transported soils are further subdivided into the following types.

1. Alluvial Soils: Soils transported by rivers and streams such as sedimentary clays.
This is generally found along the banks of rivers (Northern India).
2. Lacustrine soils. : Soils deposited in lake beds such as Lacustrine silts and clays.
3. Marine Soils: Soils deposited in sea beds such as marine silt and clay.
4. Aeolian Soil: Soils transported by wind such as Loess.
5. Glacial soils. Soils transported by glaciers: Glacial till.
 Glacial soil

Aeolian soil Marine soil

Broad classification of soils

Broad classification of soils may be:

1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size greater than 0.075 mm, e.g., gravels and sands.
2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less than 0.075 mm, e.g., silts and clays.
These exhibit different properties and behaviour but certain general conclusions are possible even with this
categorisation. For example, fine-grained soils exhibit the property of ‘cohesion’—bonding caused by inter-
molecular attraction while coarse-grained soils do not.
Thus, the former may be said to be cohesive and the latter non-cohesive or cohesionless.
Some commonly used soils
• Bentonite: Decomposed volcanic ash containing high percentage of clay mineral such as
montmorillonite. It exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.
• Black Cotton Soil: Black soil containing high percentage of montmorillonite and colloidal
material exhibits high shrinkage and swelling.
• Glacial Till or Boulder Clay: Glacial clay containing all sizes of rocks fragments from
boulders down to clay materials.
• Calche: Soil conglomerate of gravel, sand and clay cemented by calcium carbonate.
• Hard Pan: Densely cemented soil which remains hard when wet (Glacial Till).
• Laterite Soils: Deep brown soil of cellular structure, easy to excavate but gets hardened on
exposure to air owing to the formation of hydrated iron oxides.
• Loam: It is a mixture of silt, sand and clay size particles in equal proportions.
• Loess: Uniform wind blown yellowish brown silt or silty clay
• Marl: Mixtures of calcareous sands or clays or loam; clay content not more than 75 % and lime
content not less than 15 %.
• Moorum: Gravel mixed with red clay.
• Top-Soil: Surface material which supports plant life.
• Peat Soil: It is highly organic soil that almost entirely consists of vegetative matter in different stages
of decomposition. Its color varies from black to dark brown and it possesses organic matter. This soil
is highly fibrous and possess high compressibility. It is formed to chemical weathering.
• Muck Soil: It is fine particle mixture of inorganic soil and black decomposed organic soil. It is
generally found in the area having in deficient sewerage facilities or may be observed after over-
flooding of the river. It is formed to chemical weathering.
• Mixure of peat soil and muck soil is termed as Cumulose Soil.
 1. Alluvial Soils: Deposition of sediments by rivers.
• Great Northern plain, lower valleys of Narmada and Tapti
and Northern Gujarat.

2. Black Soils: Volcanic rocks and lava-flow.

• Deccan Lava Tract which includes parts of Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.

3. Red Soils: Weathering of ancient metamorphic rocks

• Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and parts of Orissa.

4. Laterite Soils: Leaching and are well developed on the

summits of hills and uplands.
• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and hilly
areas of Orissa and Assam.

5.Mountain Soils: Accumulation of organic matter derived

from forest growth.
• Himalayan region and vary in different regions according to
altitude.
6. Desert Soils: Sandy and deficient in organic matter
• NITH
Dr. Jitendra Singh Yadav, In the desert regions of Rajasthan, soils are 24not well
Thank You!!!