PreRMO Full Syllabus Revision- Polynomials

February 23, 2022

1 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials or numbers are easy to handle and process in the factorized form.Hence
factorization of polynomials is very useful tool in problem solving. Various iden-
tities are useful for factorization of the polynomials . Few are listed here.
• a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)

• (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)

• (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
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• (a + b + c) = ( a3 ) + 3( a2 b + ab2 ) + 6abc
P P

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• (a + b + c) − ( a3 ) = 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
P

• (a + b) (b + c) (c + a) = ( a2 b + ab2 ) + 2abc
P

• (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca) = ( a2 b + ab2 ) + 3abc

P

• (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 = a3 + b3 + c3 + ab(a + b)

P

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a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca 
2 2 2
= (a + b + c) 12 (a − b) + (b − c) + (c − a)
•



= (a + b + c) a + bw + cw2 a + bw2 + cw

where ω is non-real cube root of unity

If a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = 0 , then, either (a + b + c) = 0 or a = b = c

1.1 Factorization of cyclic polynomials

1. Factorize a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 )
Method 1
Let f (a) = a(b2 − c2 ) + b(c2 − a2 ) + c(a2 − b2 )
Since this is a cyclic polynomial , factors are also cyclic
f (b) = b(b2 − c2 ) + b(c2 − b2 ) + c(b2 − b2 ) = 0
⇒ a − b is a factor of the given expression.
Therefore, other factors are (b−c)and(c−a) . As f (a) is cyclic of degree 3 ,
it has at most 3 linear factors. The given expression may have a coefficient
a constant factor which is nonzero. Let it be m.
∴ a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 ) = m(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
The coefficient of a2 b on the LHS is −1, while on the RHS a2 b appears as
m(a)(b)(−a), thus the coefficient is −m. hence −m = −1.
Method 2
a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 )
= ab2 − ac2 + bc2 − ba2 + ca2 − cb2
= a2 c − a2 b + ab2 − ac2 + bc2 − cb2
= a2 (c − b) − a(c2 − b2 ) + bc(c − b)
= (c − b)(a2 − ac − ab + bc)
= (c − b)(bc − ab − ac − a2 )
= (c − b) (b(c − a) − a(c − a))
= (c − b)(b − a)(c − a) = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

• a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca



2 2 2
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) 21 (a − b) + (b − c) + (c − a)
= (a + b + c) a + bw + cw2 a + bw2 + cw where ω is non-real cube root

of unity
If a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = 0 , then, either (a + b + c) = 0 or a = b = c
• Let P denote the polynomial with roots a, b, c:
P (X) = X 3 − (a + b + c)X 2 + (ab + bc + ca)X − abc.
• Because a, b, csatisfy the equation P (x) = 0, we obtain
a3 − (a + b + c)a2 + (ab + bc + ca)a − abc = 0,
b3 − (a + b + c)b2 + (ab + bc + ca)b − abc = 0,
c3 − (a + b + c)c2 + (ab + bc + ca)c − abc = 0.
Adding up these three equalities yields

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a3 + b3 + c3 − (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 + (ab + bc + ca)(a + b + c) − 3abc = 0.
Hence

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca
Finally, let us regard a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca as a quadratic in a,
with parameters
b, c. This 2quadratic has discriminant ∆ = (b + c) −
2
2 2
4 b + c − bc = −3(b − c) .
√
 √   √ 
Hence its roots are a1 = 12 b + c − i (b − c) 3 = b 1−i2 3 +c 1+i2 3 =
√
 √   √ 
bw + cw2 and a2 = 12 b + c + i (b − c) 3 = b 1+i2 3 + c 1−i2 3 =
bw2 + cw

2 Sophie Germain Identity

Consider the expression

a4 + 4b4 = a4 + 4b4 + 4a2 b2 − 4a2 b2
= a4 + 4b4 + 4a2 b2 − 4a2 b2
= (a2 + 2b2 )2 − (2ab)2
= (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)(a

2
+ 2b2 − 2ab)

= (a + b) + b (a − b)2 + b2
2 2

Hence a4 + 4b4 is non composite only if (a − b)2 + b2 = 1. that is if

 

(a, b) = (±1, 0) or (±1, ∓1) giving values of a4 + 4b4 as 1 and 5 respectively. for
any other integral values of a,b it is a composite number.
Also note that each factor (a + b)2 + b2 and (a − b)2 + b2 is greater than
  

or equal to b2

3 PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIALS

3.0.1 Theorem:
If a polynomial of degree n has more than n roots, then, it is an identity.

3.0.2 Theorem
If f (x) is the polynomial in Z[X] , then a − b | f (a) − f (b)for a, b ∈ Z

3.0.3 Theorem
Let F (x) be a polynomial in Z[X] with degree n . F (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +
... + an xn Let , p 6= 0, q > 0 be the rational root of F (x), then qan and pa0 .
If F (x) is monic polynomial then q = 1 , that is every rational root of F (x) is
integer.

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3.0.4 Definition
If a polynomial f (x) has a root r such that for some positive integer m the
polynomial (x − r)m is a factor of f (x) while (x − r)m+1 is not, then m is the
multiplicity of the root r.

3.0.5 Theorem
If there exists an m ∈ N and a polynomial q so that f (x) = (x−a)mq(x), q(a) 6=
0 Then the root a of f has multiplicity m. The root a has multiplicity m iff
f (a) = f 0 (a) = f 00 (a) = ... = f (m−1) (a) = 0, f m (a) 6= 0 where f 0 denotes the
derivative of f. Note polynomial functions are always continuous and differen-
tiable.

3.0.6 Corollary
Let F (x) be a polynomial in Z[X] with degree n .Let F (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 +
... + an xn = an (x − r1 ) (x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ) with roots ri .
Then each ri | a0 .
Hence while factorising polynomials we first try to check whether factors of a0
are the roots of polynomial.

3.0.7 Factorisation of a cubic polynomial

We need to find first factor using factor theorem. For polynomial ax3 + bx2 +
cx + d = 0 , if it has integer or rational root then it must be factor of ad .
Example : p(x) = x3 − 10x2 + 31x − 30
So possible candidates for roots are {±1, ±2, ±3, ±5, ±6, ±10, ±15, ±30}.
We first try ±1 but they are not factors. Now p(2) = 0
Hence (x − 2) | p(x) .
We can use synthetic division to find second factor .
p(x) = (x − 2)(x2 − 8x + 15) = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 5)

3.0.8 Vieta’s theorem

If a polynomial ax2 + bx + c has roots α and β , then ax2 + bx + c = a(x −
α)(x − β) = ax2 − a(α + β) + aαβ
∴ (α + β) = − ab , αβ = ac
For cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d with roots α, β, γ we have
∴ (α + β + γ) = − ab , (αβ + βγ + γα) = ac , αβγ = − ad
For a polynomial F (x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +...+an xn with roots α1 ,α2 , ···, αn
we get
α1 + α2 + · · · + αn = − an−1an
α1 · α2 + α1 · α3 + · · · + αn−1 · αn = an−2
an and so on , finally
n
α1 · α2 · · · αn = (−1) aan1

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4 Quadratic equation
The general form of a quadratic expression in x is, f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,where
a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0.

4.1 The roots of quadratic equation

The√solution of the quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by x =
−b± b2 −4ac
2a The expression D = b2 –4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic
equation.
If α & β are the roots of √the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,then;
(i)α + β = –b/a (iii)|α − β| = |a|D . (ii) αβ = c/a

4.2 Nature of the roots

Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ R and a 6= 0.
then;
(i)D > 0 ⇔ roots are real & distinct (unequal).
(ii)D = 0 ⇔ roots are real & coincident (equal).
(iii) D < 0 ⇔ roots are imaginary.
(iv) If p + iq is one root of a quadratic
√ equation, then the other must be the
conjugate p–iq(p, q ∈ R and i = −1). That is complex roots occurs in pairs.
Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ Z and a 6= 0.
then;
(i)D > 0, D is a perfect square ⇔ roots are rational
(ii)D > 0, D is not a perfect square ⇔ roots are irrational
√
(iii)If p + q is one root of a quadratic equation, then the other must be the
√
conjugate p − q(p, q ∈ Z). That is irrational roots occurs in pairs.

5 Various methods of solving problems over poly-

nomials
• Writing an integer as a difference of two squares
Imp for pre RMO note (a+b) and (a-b) should have the same parity.
• Completing the perfect square
• Remainder and factor thm
• Creating dummy poly

• Quadratic discriminant
• Higher degree polynomial in x, treat it as quadratic in other variable.p49
• Algebraic number theory

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 • Vieta’s thm (Remember we don’t have only Vieta but extra equations by
roots substitutions so for nth degree poly we have 2n equations)
• Creating a poly with required roots
• a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc

• a − b | p(a) − p(b)
• p | a0 , q | an
• P on R has real roots in pairs.
• Special factorization p16,17

Problems
(104 +324)(224 +324)(384 +324)(504 +324)(624 +324)
1. Prove that (164 +324)(284 +324)(404 +324)(524 +324) is a composite in-
teger.
n n−1
2. f (n) = 22 + 22 + 1 has at least n different prime factors.
3. Find all primes of the form nn + 1, which are less then 1019 .
4. Find the largest divisor of 1001001001 that does not exceed 10000.

5. (PreRMO 2012) Let Sn = n2 + 20n + 12 , n ∈ N . What is the sum of all

possible values of n for which Sn is the perfect square?
6. (PreRMO 2012) How many integer pairs (x, y) satisfy x2 + 4y 2 − 2xy −
2x − 4y − 8 = 0?

7. (PreRMO 2013) Three real numbers x, y, z are such that x2 + 6y =

−17, y 2 + 4z = 1 and z 2 + 2x = 2. What is the value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 ?
8. (PreRMO 2017) If the real numbers x, y, z are such that x2 + 4y 2 + 16z 2 =
48 and xy + 4yz + 2zx = 24 , then , what is the value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 ?

9. (PreRMO 2019 P1)Each of the P numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , x101 is ±1. What is

the smallest positive value of 1≤i<j≤101 xi xj ?

10. Find the number of quadratic polynomials, ax2 + bx + c, which satisfy the
following conditions: (a) a, b, c are distinct; (b) a, b, c ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...1999}
and (c) x + 1 divides ax2 + bx + c.(RMO 1999)
11. (RMO 2013 p3) A polynomial is called a Fermat polynomial if it can
be written as the sum of the squares of two polynomials with integer
coefficients. Suppose that f (x) is a Fermat polynomial such that f (0) =
1000. Prove thatf (x) + 2x is not a Fermat polynomial.

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12. (RMO2001)Prove that the product of the first 200 positive even integers
differs from the product of the first 200 positive odd integers by a multiple
of 401.
13. Solve the system x + y + z = 1, xyz = 1, knowing that x, y, z are complex
numbers of absolute value equal to 1.

14. Let f (x) be a monic polynomial of degree 4 such that f (1) = 10, f (2) =
20, f (3) = 30. Find the value of f (12) + f (−8). (TST 1984)
15. Find the monic cubic polynomial such that p(1) = 2 ,p(2) = 4 , p(3) = 8 .

16. (HMMT; 1999) If f (x) is a monic quartic polynomial such that f (−1) =
−1, f (2) = −4, f (−3) = −9, and f (4) = −16, find f (1).
17. (PUMaC; 2008) What is the polynomial of smallest degree that passes
through (−2, 2), (−1, 1), (0, 2), (1, −1), and (2, 10)?

18. (Soviet Math Olympiad) Given 2n distinct numbers a1 , a2 , · · ·, an , b1 , b2 , · ·

·, bn an nxn table is filled as follows into the cell in the ith row and j th
column is written the number ai + bj Prove that if the product of each
column is the same then also the product of each row is the same .
19. If p(k) = 1
k for k = 1, 2, 3, · · ·, n find p(n + 1) .

20. (RMO 2013)Let P (x) = x3 +ax2 +b and Q(x) = x3 +bx+a, where a, b are
non-zero real numbers. Suppose that the roots of the equation P (x) = 0
are the reciprocals of the roots of the equation Q(x) = 0. Prove that a
and b are integers. Find the greatest common divisor of P (2013! + 1) and
Q(2013! + 1).

21. Prove that there is no polynomial with integral coefficients P (x) with the
property such that P (7) = 5 and P (15) = 9.
22. Let p(x) be a polynomial over integers. If there exists three different
integers a, b, c, such that p(a) = p(b) = p(c) = −1, then p(x) has no
integral zeros.

23. Let f (x) be a polynomial over integers. If there exists four different inte-
gers a, b, c, d such that f (a) = f (b) = f (c) = f (d) = 5, then there is no
integer r such that f (r) = 8.
24. The polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has integral coefficients a, b, c, d with ad
odd and bc even. Show that at least one root of polynomial is irrational.

25. (RMO 2015 Mumbai)Let P (x) be a non-constant polynomial whose co-

efficients are positive integers. If P (n) divides P (P (n) − 2015) for every
natural number n, prove that P (−2015) = 0.

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26. (PUMaC; 2010) Let p be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that
p(15) = 6, p(22) = 1196, and p(35) = 26. Find an integer n such that
p(n) = n + 82.

27. Factorize the polynomial x5 + x4 + 1 into two polynomials with integral

coefficient and degree less than 5. (RMO1999)
28. Find the number of nonnegative integers n for which the expression
n+1 n
55 + 55 + 1

is a prime

29. Find all triples (a, b, c) of positive integers such that (1+ a1 )(1+ 1b )(1+ 1c ) =
3. (RMO 1996)