Biology

and
Psychology
Prepared by: Mr. Carlo Jerome Pulanco,
RPm
 The Nervous System
• Is a highly complex system of organs
which enables individuals to have
intelligence, memory, personality,
emotion, perceptions and sensation.
• It has 3 major organs:
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
• Neurons (Nerve cells)
 The Central Nervous
System
• Processes all information from our
sensory organs
• Controls our limbic and motor
functions
• Directs our cognition, memories,
intellect and behavior

• Two major parts:

• The Brain
• The Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral
Nervous System
• Somatic Nervous System
• Controls the muscles of
the body
• Automatic Nervous System
• Sympathetic – mobilizes
the body during times of
danger or stress
• Parasympathetic –
regulates the sympathetic
nervous system
• It also regulates the
cardiovascular system
and the endocrine system
Neurotransmitters
• Also called “Nerve cells”
or “Neurons” are small
tendril shaped proteins
scattered all over the
body
• They transmit
messages to the brain,
via an electrical signal
that lights up when it’s
triggered
 Anatomy of a Neuron
• Neurons
• Responsible for the transmission of
electrical signals in the brain
• Contains the cell body, nucleus, dendrites
and axons
• Dendrites – a thread like structure in the
outer most part of the neurons which
increases the receptive surface range of the
neuron
• Axons – a long, and thin thread that carries
the electrical impulse to the next receptor
• Myeline Sheath
• Keeps neurons, brain and spinal cord
electrically charged
• It is a thin membrane that encapsulates
them
• It helps in the transmission of neural
impulses
 Anatomy of a
Neuron
• Glial Cells
• Provide supporting functions to the
nervous system, they are smaller than
neurons
• They assist in the growth,
development and regulation of
neurons and the other organs of the
nervous system
• They provide the ffg functions:
• Proper oxygenation of the organs of
the nervous system
• Recovery to brain injury
• Facilitation of neurotransmission
• Removal of waste products in the
nervous system
• Regulation of neurochemicals
 Anatomy of a Neuron
• Synapse
• This is a fluid filled gap between neuron to
neuron, it is usually located near the axon
terminals
• Neurochemicals are transferred here where
they are then transmitted to the next axon or
dendrite of the next neuron.
• Synaptic Vesicles
• These are small vesicles located in the
synapses, they aid in the release and
reuptake of neurochemicals
• These vesicles can be manipulated by certain
drugs like cocaine and reuptake inhibitors
Parts of a
Neurotransmitter
How a Neuron Works
 Afferent and Efferent
• Afferent Neurons
• They carry electrical signal inputs towards
the brain
• These signals usually come from our sensory
organs (eyes, skin, ears, tongue and nose)
and other body tissues which are then
analyzed by our brain
• General Somatic - senses pain, touch and
temperature
• General Visceral – analyzes muscle
movements from various organs
• Special Visceral – intakes sensory input
from the nose, tongue, eyes and ears
• Efferent Neurons
• They carry electrical signal outputs away
from the brain
• These signals usually control our motor
skills (musculoskeletal and muscles in the
organs) which would then simulate movement
 Firing: Neuron to
Neuron
• Firing
• States the nerve impulse sent throughout
the neuron
• This electrical signal is shot from cell to cell
in a very fast time frame (156 to 270 mph)
• Threshold
• Refers to a certain level of aptitude a
neuron must reach for it to shoot an
electrical signal
• All or None Principal
• Neuron firing is not based on the amount
of stimulus it receives, it is usually
dependent on the “threshold”
• This means that an individual might respond
or not to a certain stimuli.
 Neurochemicals
• Serotonin – regulates behaviors,
mood and thought processes; low
levels of serotonin can lead to
aggression and suicide.
• Norepinephrine – mobilizes the
brain for action; it increases
vigilance, caution and memory
formation
• Dopamine – regulates pleasure in
food, sex and other drugs;
responsible for outgoing and
 Neurochemicals
• Acetylcholine – stimulates muscle
contraction. It deals with the relaxation of
our muscles and their paralysis (especially
the limbs) during sleep
• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) – they
inhibit neurotransmission to encourage
relaxation, often associated with minimizing
stress and anxiety
• Endorphins – they act as “natural
painkillers”, they are released in the body to
aid in the recovery of injury, discomfort and
stress
• Oxytocin – arouses sexual activity and
childbirth in females (labor and lactation)
 The Brain
• Separated into two hemispheres
• Left Hemisphere - primarily focuses on
more analytic, objective and linear thinking
• Right Hemisphere - primarily focuses on
creativeness, imagination, subjective and holistic
thinking
• Lobes of the Brain
• Temporal lobe – sights, sounds and
long-term memory
• Parietal lobe – sensations of touch and body
positioning
• Occipital lobe – responsible for visual inputs
• Frontal lobe – contains the pre-frontal cortex
(responsible for high cognitive functioning)
 Structures of the Brain
• The Hind Brain
• Lower part of the brain; contains the
medulla, pons and cerebellum
• Regulates automatic body
functions, such as: breathing,
pumping of the heart and digestion
• The Cerebellum controls motor
coordination
• The Mid Brain
• Coordinates movement with
sensory input
• Contains the reticular activating
system (contributes to arousal and
tension)
 Structures of the
Brain
• Thalamus and
Hypothalamus
• Located at the top
of the brain stem
• Regulates
emotion and
behavior
• It also controls the
following functions;
sleep, hunger,
sexual behavior,
emotions and the
pituitary gland
 Structures of the
Brain
• The Limbic System
• Contains the Hippocampus,
Septum and Amygdala
• Regulates our emotional
experiences and expression
• Maintains our ability to learn and
control of impulses
• The Cerebral Cortex
• Largest part of the brain, contains
80% of all neurons
• Provides our human qualities;
compassion, reasoning and intellect
 Structures of the
Brain
• Broca’s Area
• Known as, the “motor speech area” it is
responsible to simulating and regulating our
speech patterns
• It coordinates our muscles in respiration, larynx,
pharynx, as well as the lips, cheeks, jaws and
tongue
• Damage to this area will result in speaking problems
• Wernicke's Area
• This area is often connected to language
comprehension and the input of sensory data
• This area is important for personality development
since it helps in formulating memories
• Damage to this area will result in blank
communication and lack of speech understanding
 Structures of the Brain
• Meninges
• These are membranes that envelop both the
brain and spinal cord , they act as form of
extra protective layer for both
• They are typically divided into three parts:
• Pia Matter – the thinnest membrane located
closely to the brain and spinal cord, it
contains blood vessels and cerebrospinal
fluid
• Dura Matter - this membrane is located
closely to the skull and the spinal vertebrae.
These membranes are usually thicker
• Arachnoid membrane - sits between the
pia and dura matter, usually made of
collagen, provides extra security for the
brain and spinal cord against injury
• Damage or infection to these membranes will
result in serious neurological abnormalities,
even death
 Brain Imaging
Techniques
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• A medical diagnostic tool used to detect
electrical activity in the brain, they are shown
as wavelengths
• Several metal discs with wires are pasted into the
scalp to detect electrical charges
• EEG is often used to diagnose or detect
epilepsy, but can also be used for Alzheimer's,
sleep disorders (narcolepsy), lesions, and many
more.
• Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan)
• A medical tool used to scan internal tissue, can
also be used to scan the tissues of the brain
• It provides more in-depth imagery of the brain and
other organs. Usually, a patient is run through a
large scanner
• CT scans are usually done to study the brain
thoroughly, but is also used in diagnosing;
brain tumors, damaged neural tissues and
clots
 Brain Imaging
Techniques
• Positron Emission Topography (PET Scan)
• It is a medical diagnostic procedure that uses an
injected radioactive substance and scan to trace
abnormalities or damages to internal organs, including
the brain
• PET scan actually shows the activity of the tissues
and parts of the brain, unlike other imaging
techniques
• This diagnostic technique is used to detect epilepsy,
memory disorders, and neuro-degenerative disorders.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• A medical tool that uses magnets to manipulate
protons in the blood to produce images
• Patients are usually put inside a scanner that
produces frequencies to manipulate blood flow
• Typically, it is used to study the brain and spinal cord,
they are also used to diagnose tumors, developmental
disorders, dementia, brain or spinal cord infections,
brain injury, and many more
 Brain Imaging
Techniques
• Functional MRI (fMRI)
• It is like an MRI scan, but
instead of highlighting
anatomical functionality and
abnormalities. fMRI focuses
on metabolic functions
• Patients are usually told to
interact during the scan since
functionality of the brain is
highlighted. Sensorimotor
skills and cognitive
function can be seen in this
procedure
• It provides more in-depth look
into diagnosis, and is often
more accurate compared to
a typical MRI scan
 The Spinal Cord

• Is a long collection of major nerves that extends

from the skull, all the way to the lower back.
• It is usually protected by our vertebral column and
several meninges. It is usually subdivided into 3
parts (cervical, thoracic and lumbar)
• Major nerve cells are usually divided into 4 parts:
• Cervical Nerves – Controls breathing and most
motor functions of the hands, arms, head and neck
• Thoracic Nerves – Controls most of the motor
functions of the chest and trunk area, and
temperature regulation
• Lumbar Nerves – Controls the motor functions of
the legs and feet, plus the hips and ejaculation
• Sacral Nerves – Controls bowel and bladder
activity as well as sexual arousal (erections)