Materials in Analytic Geometry

\Philippine Normal University
National Center of Teacher Education

College of Teacher Development
FACULTY of SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, and TECHNOLOGY
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MODULE
In
2S – MATH 09 - ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Chapter 1- INEQUALITIES
Wilmer G. Marquez
Definitions
It is a statement that expresses the inequality of two algebraic expressions. It is formed by two unequal
quantities separated by an inequality symbol.
An inequality can be true or false, just like an equation. The solutions of an inequality are the values of the
variable that make the inequality true.
Inequality Symbols
Symbol Meaning Example
> Greater than 5>–1
< Less than 11 < 13
≥ Greater than or equal to 5≥–5
≤ Less than or equal to 8≤8
The fundamental property behind the study of inequalities is known as the trichotomy law. This law states
that for any two real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following statements must be true:
a>b a=b a<b
Properties of Inequalities
Rule 1: If a < b and b < c, then a < c. (Transitive Property)
Rule 2: If a < b then a + c < b + c for any real number c.
Examples: Since 5 < 7, then 5 + 10 < 7 + 10; that is, 15 < 17.
Since 5 < 7, then 5 + (-10) < 7 + (-10); that is, - 5 < - 3.
Rule 3: If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc.
Examples: Since 5 < 10, then 5 (3) < 10 (3); that is, 15 < 30.
Since – 4 < 6, then – 4 (2) < 6 (2); that is, - 8 < 12.
Rule 4: If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.
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Examples: Since 5 < 10, then 5 (- 3) > 10 (- 3); that is, - 15 > - 30.
Since – 4 < 6, then – 4 (- 2) > 6 (- 2); that is, 8 > - 12.
Rule 5: If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d.
Example: Since 5 < 10 and – 15 < - 4, then 5 + ( - 15) < 10 + ( - 4), that is – 10 < 6.
Rule 6: If 0 < a < b and 0 < c < d, then ac < bd.
Example: Since 3 < 7 and 5 < 9, then (3)(5) < (7)(9); that is, 15 < 63.
1 1
Rule 7: If a < b and ab > 0, then  .
a b
1 1
Examples: Since 5 < 10, then  .
5 10
1 1
Since – 3 < - 2, then −  − .
3 2
Caution: Rules 3 and 4 often cause trouble! If you multiply both sides of an inequality by a positive number,
the sense of the resulting inequality is the same as the sense of the original inequality. Multiplying by a negative number
changes the sense of inequality.
Interval Notation and Graphs

If an inequality involves one variable, then which real numbers can be used in place of the variable to obtain a
correct statement? The set of all such numbers is the solution set to the inequality.
Let x = the variable.
Solution Set
Inequality Interval Graphical Notation B/U
Notation
1. x > 1 (1, ∞) U
-1 0 1
2. x ≥ 1 [1, ∞) U
-1 0 1
3. x < 1 (- ∞, 1) U
-1 0 1
4. x ≤ 1 (- ∞, 1] U
-1 0 1
5. 0 ≥ x ≥ 0 [0, 0] B
-1 0 1
6. 1 > x > -1 (-1, 1) B

-1 0 1
7. 1 > x ≥ -1 [-1, 1) B
-1 0 1
2
8. 1 ≥ x ≥ -1 [-1, 1] B
-1 0 1
9. 1 ≥ x > -1 (-1, 1] B
-1 0 1
The integer 1 is the boundary point of each of the graphs of the first 4 inequalities. These inequalities define
unbounded intervals. The boundary point is the solution to the equation x=1.The integers –1 and 1 are the boundary
points of the graphs of the last 4 inequalities. These inequalities define bounded intervals. The symbol parenthesis ( )
implies that the boundary point is not included as a solution of the inequality. While the symbol bracket [ ] means that
the boundary point is a part of the solution set.
Conditional Inequality
Inequalities that are not true for all allowable values of the variable are called conditional inequalities. The
inequality 3x – 4 > 11 is true for some values of x, such as 10, and false for others, such as 3. It is a conditional
inequality.
Equivalent Inequalities
Inequalities which have the same solution set. The inequality 2x > 1 + x is equivalent to the inequality 2x > 2.
Graphs of the two inequalities show their equivalence.
Consider this:
Which inequality sign has the same meaning as the phrase “is at least”? “is at most”?
Exercises
1. Translate each verbal statement into a statement of inequality.
a. x is at most 12. g. x is a positive number less than 40.
b. x is to the left of 2. h. Chris paid more than P200 for a t-shirt.
c. x is no more than 6. i. x is more than –10 but less than or equal to 7.
d. x is between –1 and 4. j. The capacity of an elevator is at most 1,500 kilos.
e. x is to the right of –2/3. k. A candidate for president must be at least 35 years old.
f. x is at least as large as 5. l. The company must hire no fewer than 10 programmers.
2. Show each of the following intervals as a graph on a number line.
a. (-3, -1) c. (-3, -1] e. [0, 5] g. (-∞, 0]
b. [-3, -1) d. [-3, -1] f. (-1, 3) h. [2, ∞)
3. Express each inequality in interval notation.
a. –5 ≤ x ≤ 2 e. –2 < x ≤ 4 i. x ≤-1
b. –6 ≤ x < 0 f. 3 ≤ x ≤ 7 j. x ≤ -2
c. –10 < x < 10 g. x < 5 k. 2 < x
d. 0 < x < 7 h. –2 ≤ x l. x < 3
3
First-Degree Inequality
A first-degree inequality in one variable x is any inequality of the form ax + b < 0, where a and b are real
numbers, with a ≠ 0. In place of <, we may also use ≤, >, or ≥.
First-Degree Inequalities in One Variable

Example 1: State and graph the solution set of 2x – 7 < -1.
Solution: We proceed exactly as we do when solving equations.
2x – 7 < -1 Original Inequality
2x < 6 Add 7 to each side
x<3 Multiply each side by ½
The solution set is written in set notation as {x│x < 3} and in interval notation as (-∞, 3). The graph is shown
below: 2x – 7 < -1
0 1 2 3
Checking:
Check the boundary point Check the inequality
(x = 3) Point on the graph (x < 3) Point not on the graph (x ≥ 3)
– 7 = -1 x = 1 : 2(1) – 7 < -1 x = 4: 2(4) – 7 < -1
2(3) – 7 = -1 2 – 7 < -1 8 – 7 < -1
6 – 7 = -1 – 5 < -1 1 < -1
- 1 = - 1 (TRUE) The inequality is TRUE The inequality is FALSE
Example 2: Write and solve an inequality for the statement “the sum of a number and 4 is at
least 6.
Solution: Let x = the number
x+4≥6 Transform the phrase into mathematical phrase
x≥2 Add –4 to each side.
The solution set in set notation is {x│x ≥ 2} and in interval form is [2, ∞). The graph below
shows its solution set.
1 2 3 4
TRY THESE:
Write and solve an inequality for each statement. Graph and check your solutions.
a. The sum of a number and 3 is less than 5.
b. Three times a number plus 4 is at most 18.
c. Two more than a number is not equal to ten.
d. Three more than a number is greater than two.
e. Twice the sum of a number and 5 is at least 10.
f. Twice a number is not less than or equal to twelve.
g. Six less than one-third of a number is less than eight.
h. The negative of twice a number is greater than eighty.
i. Twenty is not greater than or equal to a certain number.
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j. One less than twice a number is greater than or equal to five.
k. Eight less than four times a number is not greater than twenty.
l. Five times a number is not less than three less than twice a number.
m. Four more than thrice the difference of a number and seven is less than or equal to three less than
the number.
Linear Inequality in Two Variables

If a , b, and c are real numbers with a and b not both zero, then ax + by ≥ c is called a linear inequality. In
place of ≥, we can also use <, > or ≤.
Phrases like south of the border and out of bounds describe regions to one side or the other side of the
boundary. When the boundary of a region is a line, the points on one side of it represent solutions to a linear
inequality with 2 variables. There are an infinite number of ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy the inequality.
Graphing a Linear Inequality in two variables
Example: Graph the inequality y ≤ - x – 2.
Steps in Graphing
1. Graph the boundary line defined by y = -x – 2. Should the boundary line drawn be a solid or dashed
line?
-2 x
-2
y=-x-2
2. Point Test Method: Choose two points on opposite sides of the boundary line. Substitute the
variables using the coordinates in the original inequality. Which point makes the statement TRUE?
y≤-x–2
Pick a point above the line, P(0,0) Pick a point below the line, P(- 2, - 2)
0 ≤ - (0) – 2 - 2 ≤ - ( -2) – 2
0≤ –2 -2≤2–2
The inequality is FALSE -2≤0
The inequality is TRUE.
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3. Shade the region that contains the point that makes the inequality TRUE.
-2 x
-2
y=-x-2
Note: We use a dashed line when the inequality symbol is < or > to show that the boundary line is not
included in the solution. Use a bold line when the inequality symbol is ≤ or ≥ to show that the boundary
line is included in the solution.
Consider this: How many points do you have to test to determine which region to shade?
Graphing a Linear Inequality
1. Solve the inequality for y, then graph y = mx + b.
y > mx + b is satisfied above the line.
y = mx + b is satisfied on the line itself.
y < mx + b is satisfied below the line.
2. If the inequality involves x and not y, then graph is the vertical line where x = k.
x > k is satisfied to the right of the line.
x = k is satisfied on the line itself.
x < k is satisfied to the left of the line.
TRY THESE: Graph the Inequalities

1. Inequalities with horizontal and vertical boundaries
a. y ≤ 5 b. x > - 2
2. Point Test Method
x
a. y < −1 b. y ≤ - 2x + 1 c. 3x – 2y < 6
2
Graphing Compound Inequalities
1. Compound Inequality with and
We can write compound inequalities with two variables just as we do for one variable. For example,
x
y > x – 3 and y < – + 2 is a compound inequality. Because the inequalities are connected by the word
2
and, a point is in the solution set of the compound inequality if and only if it is in the solution sets to both
of the individual inequalities. So the graph of this compound inequality is the intersection of the solution
sets to the individual inequalities.
x
Example: Graph the compound inequality y > x – 3 and y<– +2
2
6
x
Solution: 1. Graph the equations y = x – 3 and y = – +2 .
2
y 3 ◙ A(3, 3)
y = – (x/2) + 2 y=x–3
2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 ◙ B(0, 0) ◙ D(5, 0) x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-2 ◙C(4, -2)
-3
2. Test one point of each region to determine which region satisfies the compound
inequality. Test the points (3, 3), (0, 0), (4, -2), and (5, 0).
Point x Remarks
y > x – 3 and y < – +2
2
A(3, 3) 3>3–3 and 3 < – (3/2) + 2 Second inequality is false.
B(0, 0) 0>0–3 and 0 < – (0/2) + 2 Both inequalities are true.
C(4, - 2) -2>4–3 and - 2 < – (4/2) + 2 First inequality is false.
D(5, 0) 0>5–3 and 0 < – (5/2) + 2 Both inequalities are false.
The only point that satisfies both inequalities is (0, 0). So the solution set to the compound
inequality consists of all points in the region containing (0, 0). The graph is shown below.
3. Shade the region that satisfies the compound inequality.
y
y = – (x/2) + 2 3 y=x–3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-2
-3
2. Compound inequality with or

Compound inequalities are also formed by connecting individual inequalities with the word or. A
point satisfies a compound inequality connected by or if and only if it satisfies one or the other or both of
the individual inequalities. The graph is the union of the graphs of individual inequalities.
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Example: Graph the compound inequality 2x – 3y ≤ – 6 or x + 2y ≥ 4.
Solution:
1. Graph the equations 2x – 3y = - 6 and x + 2y = 4.
2x-3y= - 6
y 3
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1 x + 2y = 4
-2
-3
2. Test one point of each region to determine which region satisfies the compound
inequality. Test the points (0, 0), (3, 2), (0, 5), and (-3, 2).
Point 2x – 3y ≤ – 6 or x + 2y ≥ 4 Remarks
A(0, 0) 2(0) – 3(0) ≤ – 6 or 0 + 2(0) ≥ 4 Both inequalities are false.
B(3, 2) 2(3) – 3(2) ≤ – 6 or 3 + 2(2) ≥ 4 Second inequality is true.
C(0, 5) 2(0) – 3(5) ≤ – 6 or 0 + 2(5) ≥ 4 Both inequalities are true.
D(-3, 2) 2(-3) – 3(2) ≤ – 6 or -3 + 2(2) ≥ 4 First inequality is true.
The solution set of this compound inequality is the set of all points that satisfy either
inequality or both. As shown on the table, only point (0, 0) fails to satisfy at least one of
the inequalities. So, only region containing the origin is left unshaded.
3. Shade the region that satisfies the compound inequality.
2x-3y= - 6
y
x + 2y = 4
As shown above, the region containing the point of origin is not shaded
because it fails to satisfy at least one of the inequalities.
TRY THESE:
Graph each of the compound inequalities.
1. 2x – y < 3 and 3x – y > 0. 3. x + y ≤ 5 and x – y ≤ 3
2. 2x ≤ y + 3 or y ≥ 2 - x 4. y < x or y > 0
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Consider:
1. How do you know which side of the line to shade when graphing a linear inequality?
2. How do you graph a compound inequality?
3. Which compound inequality is similar to the system of linear inequalities?
System of Linear Inequalities
Two or more linear inequalities considered together form a system of linear inequalities. The solutions to a
system of linear inequalities are the points the coordinates of which make all the given inequalities true. The graph of
the solutions to a system of inequalities is the region where the graphs of the inequalities overlap.
Example: Graph the system of inequalities
y>-2
y < 2x
The double - shaded region or the graphs that overlap is the solution of the given system of linear
inequalities.
TRY IT:
Graph each system of inequalities.
1. y > 3 2. x > y 3. x + 2y ≤ 4 4. y ≥ 2x – 3 5. y < 2x + 1
x≤–2 y<4 3x – y > 6 y < - 2x + 1 y≥-x+1
REFLECT:
1. How is a system of inequalities like a system of equations? How is it different?
2. For a system of linear inequalities, what is true of all the ordered pairs in the overlapping region?
3. Do you think it is possible for a system of inequalities to have no solutions? If no, explain. If yes, sketch a
graph of an example.
Exercises
Set up the inequality and solve the word problem.
1. Find five consecutive integers whose sum is between 82 and 100.
2. Find four consecutive even integers whose sum is between 78 and 98.
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3. Fely made a score of 76 on her midterm exam. For her to get a B in the course, the average of the midterm
exam and the final exam must be between 80 and 89 inclusive. What possible scores on the final exam
would give Fely a B in the course?
4. The length of a rectangle is 2 feet more than four times the width. If the dimensions of the rectangle are
integers, what is the maximum width of the rectangle if the perimeter is less than 48 feet?
5. One side of a triangle is 1 inch longer than the second side. The third side is 2 inches longer than second
side. Give (to the nearest whole number) the length of the second side of the triangle if the perimeter is
more than 15 inches and less than 25 inches.
6. The PNU Multi-Purpose Coop offered the students Rice Option 1, a rate of P19.95 per day for unlimited
cups of rice, and Rice option 2, a rate of P4.95 per day with 3 free cups of rice plus P2.50 for each cup
rice thereafter. How many cups of rice must you consume if the second option is to cost you less than
the first?
7. Salesman Bob is paid P1,000 a week, plus 5% commission on the amount of sales. What amount of
sales will enable Bob to earn at least P3,200 per week?
Inequalities Involving Absolute Values
Absolute Value
 x if x  0
1. Definition: For any real number x, x = 
− x if x  0
Example: a) 6 = 6 b) − 6 = − (−6)
What do numbers – 5 and +5 have in common?
Properties of Absolute Value

1. If a = k , then a = k or – a = k, that is a = k or a = - k.
Examples
a) x = 2 c) x + 3 = 5 e) 3x + 2 = 5 g) 4 x + 3 =1
b) 5 − x = 7 d) 2 x − 1 = 3 f) x − 2 = 3 h) 1 − 2 x = 2
2. a  k if and only if – k < a < k, that is (a < k) and (a > - k).

Examples
a) x  2 c) x − 2  4 e) 2 − x  3
b) 2 x  3 d) x + 3 1 f) x + 4  − 2
3. a  k if and only if a < - k or a > k, that is (a < - k)  (a > k).

Examples
a) x  3 c) x  5 e) x − 5  − 3 g) x + 3 1
b) x + 1  2 d) x − 1  3 f) x + 2  4 h) x − 4  5
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4. a = −a
The absolute value of a real number is the same as the absolute value of its negative.
Examples
a) 2 = − 2 b) x − y = y − x
5. - a  a  a
A real number is always between its absolute value and the negative of its absolute value.
Examples
a) - 7  7  7 or - − 7  − 7  − 7 b) - 3  3  3 or - − 3  − 3  − 3
6. ab = a  b
Examples
a) (− 3)(5) = − 3  5 b) (− 2)(− 4) = − 2  − 4
a a
7. = ;b  0
b b
Examples
−9 −9 − 48 − 48
a) = b) =
3 3 − 24 − 24
8. a + b  a + b . Triangle Inequality
Examples
a) (− 2) + (− 7)  −2 + −7 b) (− 2) + (7 )  − 2 + 7
EXERCISES
Set up the inequality and solve the word problem.
1) The absolute value of the difference of twice a number and 5 is 33.
2) If 4 subtracted from twice the absolute value of the difference of twice a number and 2, the result is 24.
3) A poll shows that 85% of the sportscasters watched the Super Bowl. The poll has a plus or minus 3
percentage-point margin of error. Write an absolute value inequality for the given situation.
4) An essay contest requires that essay entries consist of 500 words with an absolute deviation of at most 30
words. Write an absolute value inequality to represent this.
5) The normal human body temperature is 98.6°F. A temperature, x, differs from normal by at least 2°F is
considered unhealthy. Write an absolute inequality to represent this.
6) For a door to meet specifications at a carpentry shop the width must be within ½ inch of the expected width
of the door. The shop gets an order for doors that are 4.5 feet wide. Write an inequality that expresses the
range of widths for acceptable doors.
7) Your car averages 28 miles per gallon in the city. The actual mileage varies from the average by at most 4
miles per gallon. Write and solve the absolute value that shows the range for the mileage your car gets.
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Chapter 2 – PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Wilmer G. Marquez
A. The Rectangular Coordinate System, Directed and Undirected Line Segment

1. Rectangular Coordinate System
The union of Algebra and Geometry, credited to French mathematician Rene Descartes
(1596-1650) who led to the development of Analytic Geometry. In his honor, we often refer to this as
the Cartesian coordinate system, simply the Cartesian plane, (xy-coordinate system).
a) xy-coordinate system is based on two perpendicular number lines called the axes.
b) Coordinate is a real number associated to a point on the number line.
c) Origin (0, 0) is then intersection of the axes.
d) X-axis is the horizontal number line on the xy-coordinate plane.
e) Y-axis is the vertical number line on the xy-coordinate plane.
f) X-coordinate (abscissa) is the directed distance of a point from the y-axis.
g) Y-coordinate (ordinate) is the directed distance of a point from the x-axis.
h) The axes divide the Cartesian plane into four regions called quadrants.
i) All points are symmetric about the origin. It means that (+a) on the right side of the y-axis
has a mirror image (-a) on the left side of the y-axis. Or a point (2, 2) in the first quadrant
has a mirror image on the third quadrant with respect to the origin which is (-2, -2).
j) Signs of the Coordinates of a Point in a Quadrant
Quadrant x-coordinate y-coordinate
I + +
II - +
III - -
IV + -
k) If x = 0, then the point is on the y-axis.
l) If y = 0, then the point is on the x-axis.
Definition 1: A pair of numbers (x, y) in which the order of the occurrence of the numbers is
distinguished is an ordered pair of numbers.
Definition 2: (See f and g above)
2. Directed and Undirected Line Segment

a) Directed line is a line on which one direction is chosen as positive and the opposite direction
as negative.
b) Directed line segment is a segment of the line, consisting of any two points and the part
between them.
c) Directed distance is the distance from A to B, measured in positive direction as AB, while
the distance from B to A, measured in negative direction as BA (Figure 1).
A B
9 units
Figure 1
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Directed distances should satisfy the equation AB = − BA .
d) Undirected distance is the length of the segment, which we take as positive.

Example:
AB = BA = 9
Theorem 1
If A, B, & C are three points of a directed line, then the directed distance determined
by the three points satisfy the equations (based on Figure 2).
a) AB + BC = AC b) AC + CB = AB c) BA + AC = BC
A B C
Figure 2
3. Plotting of Points on the Cartesian Plane
A. Use Definition 2, plot the following points on the xy-coordinate plane.
a) A(3, 2) b) B(0, - 3) c) C(- 4, 5) d) D(2, 0) e) E(3, - 4)
B. Determine the coordinates of each point.
B
C
D
x
E
F
A
A B C D E F G H II J K L M N
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4. Distance Between Two Points
4.1 Horizontal or Vertical Line
y
A P1 P2
Q2
B X
Q1
Let P1( x1, y) and P2( x2, y) be any two points on a horizontal line, and let A( 0, y) be
the point where the line cuts the y – axis as shown above, by Theorem 1, we have
AP1 + P1P2 = AP2
P1P2 = AP2 − AP1
Eq. 1 x = x2 − x1 → increment in x
Similarly for the vertical line Q1Q2 , where Q1( x, y1), B( x, 0), and Q2( x, y2) are
vertically collinear, we have
Q2Q1 = Q2 B + BQ1
= BQ2 − BQ1
Eq. 2 y = y2 − y1 → increment in y
Note:
 The length of a horizontal line segment joining any two points is the abscissa of
the point on the right minus the abscissa of the point on the left.
 The length of a vertical line segment joining any two points is the ordinate of the
upper point minus the ordinate of the lower point.
 If it is not known which point is to the right of the other, or which point is above the
other, we may use the equivalent equation
P1P2 = x1 − x2 = (x 1 − x2 )
2
for the undirected distance between P1( x1, y) and P2( x2, y).
Similarly, Q1Q2 = y1 − y2 = (y
1 − y2 )
2
is the distance between Q1( x, y1) and
Q2( x, y2).
14
Exercises
Plot the following points on the xy-coordinate plane and find the distance between two points that are
either vertically collinear or horizontally collinear.
1. A( 1, 0) and B( 5, 0) 2. C( - 2, 4) and D( 6, 4) 3. E(- 3, - 4) and F( - 3, 1)
4.2 Slant Line
R Q
( )
Let P (x1 , y1 ) and Q x2, y2 be any two points on the Cartesian plane which are non-vertically collinear
or non-horizontally collinear. And let R be a point which is vertically collinear with point P and horizontally
( )
collinear with point Q, then point R has the coordinates x1, y2 . This implies that PR = y1 − y2 and
RQ = x1 − x2 . Since the triangle formed is a right triangle, then we can find the hypotenuse PQ by the
Pythagorean Theorem which states that “The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the legs”.
If a and b represent the measures of the legs of a right triangle and c represents the measure of the
hypotenuse, then using the Pythagorean theorem, we have c 2 = a 2 + b2 .
Let a = PR , b = RQ and c = PQ , using the substitution property of equality, we have
2 2 2
PR + RQ = PQ
Using the coordinates of the vertices of the right triangle above, the measure of the hypotenuse can
be computed as illustrated below.
2 2 2
PR + RQ = PQ
2 2
PQ = PR + RQ
Eq. 3 PQ = ( y1 − y2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2
15
Example 1: Find the distance between points P(2, - 2) and Q(-3, 4).
Y
Q
P
A B C D E F G H II J K
Since PQ is a slant line, we use Eq. 3, thus PQ = ( y1 − y2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2

PQ = 4 − (− 2)2 + (− 3 − 2)2
PQ = (6)2 + (− 5)2
PQ = 36 + 25
PQ = 61
Suppose P(- 3, 4) and Q(2, - 2), will the distance between P and Q still the same?
Exercises
Plot each pair of points on the Cartesian plane and find the distance between the two points.
a) A( 3, 1); B( 5, - 2) c) E( 5, - 4); F( 5, 4) e) M( 3, - 2); N( - 3, - 2)
b) C( 3, 0); D( 0, - 4) d) G( - 2, - 4); H( 2, 4) f) I(3, - 1); J(- 4, - 5)
Example 2: Find the perimeter of the triangle whose vertices are A( - 2, - 3), B( 6, 1), and C( - 2, 5)
and determine what kind of triangle according to side it is.
y
C
B
x
A
16
The perimeter of a triangle is obtained by getting the sum of the measures of its sides, thus
P = AB + BC + AC
= (− 2 − 6)2 + (− 3 − 1)2 + 6 − (− 2)2 + (1 − 5)2 + − 2 − (− 2)2 + 5 − (− 3)2
= (− 8)2 + (− 4)2 + 82 + (− 4)2 + (0)2 + 82
= 64 + 16 + 64 + 16 + 64
= 80 + 80 + 64
= 4 5 + 4 5 +8
P = 8 5 +8
Since two of the sides are of the same length AB and BC , then the triangle is an
isosceles triangle whose perimeter is 8 5 + 8 units.
Exercises
Given three points which serve as vertices of a triangle. a) Find the perimeter of each triangle, and b) Determine the
kind of triangle according to its sides.
a) A( 0, 0); B( 5, - 2); C( - 3, 3) e) J( 2, - 1); K( 4, 2); L( 5, 0) h) P( 1, 3); Q( 10, 5); R( 2, 1)
b) b) D( - 3, 8); E( 5, 5); F( - 6, 0) f) K( 5, - 1); L( 2, 3); M( 6, 6) i) M( - 1, 1); N( 6, - 2); O( 4, 3)
c) G( - 2, - 3); H( 4, 3); I( - 3, 4) g) A( 1, 3); B( - 2, 4); C( - 3, 0) j) S( - 2, 0); T( 2, 0); U( 0, 2 3 )
d) V( − 3 , 1); W( 2 3 , - 2); X( 2 3 , 4)
Example 3: Show that the points A( 1, - 1), B( 5, 2), C( 2, 6), and D( - 2, 3) are vertices of a rhombus.
Y C
B
X
A
The sides of a rhombus are congruent. So, we need to show that the quadrilateral formed by the given
points has four congruent sides.
? ? ?
AB = BC = CD = AD
(1 − 5)2 + (− 1 − 2)2 = (5 − 2)2 + (2 − 6)2 = 2 − (− 2)2 + (6 − 3)2 = (− 2 − 1)2 + 3 − (− 1)2
(− 4)2 + (− 3)2 = (3)2 + (− 4)2 = 42 + (3)2 = (− 3)2 + 42
16 + 9 = 9 + 16 = 16 + 9 = 9 + 16
17
25 = 25 = 25 = 25
5 = 5 = 5 = 5
Since the measures of the four sides are all equal, then the points A, B, C, and D are vertices of a rhombus.
Exercises
1. What quadrilateral is formed by the points A( - 2, 7), B( 5, 4), C( - 1, - 10), and D( - 8, - 7)? Why?
2. Determine whether the points A( - 5, 6), B( 2, 5), and C( 1, - 2) are the same distance from O( - 2, 2).
3. Determine whether the points in each item are collinear or non-collinear.
a) P( 3, 3), Q( 0, 1), R( 9, 7) b) S( - 3, 1), T( 1, 3), U( 10, 8) c) V( - 2, - 2), W( 5, - 2), X( - 11, 2)
4. If point M( x, 4) is equidistant from A( 5, - 2) and B( 3, 4), find x.
5. If point N( - 3, y) is equidistant from P( 2, 6) and Q( 7, - 2) find y.
6. Find the point on the a) x-axis, b) y-axis that is equidistant from the two given points.
a) A( - 4, - 2) and B( 3, 1) b) M( - 2, 5) and N( 4, 1)
B) Midpoint, Division of Line Segment

1. Midpoint of a Line Segment
The midpoint between two points is the halfway or in the middle of the line segment that joins the two
points. It is equidistant from the two points which are the endpoints of the line segment.
Let A (x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) be any two distinct points and P (x, y ) be the point on the midway joining
points A and B.
Y
B
P X
A M N
From point P, locate a point M ( x, y1 ) which is vertically collinear with it and horizontally collinear with
point A. And from point B, locate a point N ( x2 , y1 ) which is vertically collinear with it and horizontally collinear
with points A and M.
Since PM and BN are parallel, then AMP is similar to ANB . The ratio of two corresponding
sides of two similar triangles is proportional to the ratio of any other two corresponding sides.
AP PM AM
= = .
AB BN AN
And since point P is the midpoint of AB , then
AP PM AM 1
= = =
AB BN AN 2
18
Thus
AM
=
(x − x1 ) = 1 and PM
=
( y − y1 ) = 1 . From these two proportions, we
AN ( x2 − x1 ) 2 BN ( y2 − y1 ) 2
solve for x and y.
x − x1 1 y − y1 1
= and =
x2 − x1 2 y2 − y1 2
2(x − x1 ) = x2 − x1 2( y − y1 ) = y2 − y1
2 x − 2 x1 = x2 − x1 2 y − 2 y1 = y2 − y1
2 x = 2 x1 + x2 − x1 2 y = 2 y1 + y2 − y1
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= y=
2 2
 x + x2 y1 + y2 
Therefore, point P, the midpoint of AB , is located at  1 , .
 2 2 
Note: Midpoint Theorem
The midpoint of a line segment has coordinates half the sum of the abscissas and half the sum of the
ordinates of the endpoints of the line segment.
Exercises
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment whose endpoints are given. Do it analytically and graphically.
1. A( - 5, 2) & B( 3, 4) 3. E( - 3, 1) & F( 3, - 1) 5. I( - 2, 5) & J( - 2, - 1)
2. C( 3, - 4) & D( 7, 2) 4. G( 1, 0) & H( 5, 2) 6. K( - 3, - 2) & L( 5, 4)
2. Coordinates of the Other Endpoint if One Endpoint and the Midpoint are Given
Let A (x1 , y1 ) be one endpoint and P ( x2 , y2 ) be the midpoint and B (x, y ) be the other endpoint. We
can compute the coordinates of point B in terms of the coordinates of the endpoint A and midpoint P.
For the abscissa of B For the ordinate of B
x +x y +y
x2 = 1 → 2 x2 = x1 + x → x = 2 x2 − x1 y2 = 1 → 2 y2 = y1 + y → y = 2 y2 − y1
2 2
So the ordered pair of the coordinates of point B is (2 x2 − x1 , 2 y2 − y1 ) .
Exercises
Find the coordinates of the other endpoint given one endpoint and the midpoint of a line segment.
First Endpoint ( A ) Midpoint ( M ) Other Endpoint ( B )
1 ( 6, 4 ) ( - 2, 9 )
2 ( 3, - 1) ( - 2, 5 )
3 ( 5, 4 ) ( 3, 1 )
4 ( - 3, 1 ) ( - 1, - 1 )
5 ( 4, 2 ) ( 0, - 1)
3. Division of a Line Segment
A line segment can be divided into more than two parts. The theorem about the coordinates
of a midpoint of a line segment can be generalized by letting P (x, y ) be any division point of the line
through points A (x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) . If the ratio

AP 1
is a number r instead of , then
AB 2
AP AP
=r =r
AB AB
19
− x1 + x − y1 + y
=r =r
− x1 + x2 − y1 + y2
− x1 + x = r (− x1 + x2 ) − y1 + y = r (− y1 + y2 )
x = r ( x2 − x1 ) + x1 y = r ( y2 − y1 ) + y1
So, the ordered pair of the coordinates of P is r (x2 − x1 ) + x1 , r ( y2 − y1 ) + y1  .
Examples
a) Find the two trisection points of the line segment joining A( - 3, - 4) and B( 6, 11).
1 2
Solution: Let P1(x, y), so r = , and let P2(x, y), so r =
3 3
Y B
P2
P1
x
A
B C D E F G H II J K L M N
For the coordinates of P1

x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
x = −3 +
1
6 − (− 3) y = −4 +
1
11 − (− 4)
3 3
1
x = −3 + (9)
1
y = −4 + (15)
3 3
x=-3+3 y=-4+5
x=0 y=1
So the point P1 is located at ( 0, 1).
x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
x = −3 +
2
6 − (− 3) y = −4 +
2
11 − (− 4)
3 3
20
x = −3 +
2
9 y = −4 +
2
15
3 3
x=-3+6 y = - 4 + 10
x=3 y=6
b) Find the coordinates of P if it divides the line segment joining A( 2, - 5) and B( 6, 3) so that
AP 1 AP
i) = ii) = 3.
PB 3 PB
Y
B
P2
x
P1
A N
AP1 1 AP1 1
i) If = , then = .
P1B 3 AB 4

x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
x = 2+
1
6 − 2 y = −5 +
1
3 − (− 5)
4 4
x = 2+
1
4 y = −5 +
1
8
4 4
x=2+1 y=-5+2
x=3 y=-3
So the point P1 is located at ( 3, - 3).
AP2 AP2 3
ii) If = 3 , then = .
P2 B AB 4

21
x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
x = 2+
3
6 − 2 y = −5 +
3
3 − (− 5)
4 4
y = −5 + 8
3
x = 2 + 4
3
4 4
x=2+3 y=-5+6
x=5 y=1
c) A point P(x, y ) is on the line through A(- 4, 4) and B(5, 2). Find i) the coordinates of P given that
AB is extended through B to P so that P is twice as far from A as from B. ii) the coordinates of
P given that AB is extended through A so that P is 3 times as far from B as from A.
y
P2
A
B
x P1
A B C D E F A B C J J C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
AP1 2 AP 2
Solution: a) = which implies that AB = BP1 . Thus, the ratio 1 = .
P1B − 1 AB 1

x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
x = −4 + 2 5 − (− 4 ) y = 4 + 2 2 − 4
x = −4 + 29 y = 4 + 2 − 2
x = - 4 + 18 y = 4 + ( - 4)
x = 14 y=0
AP2 − 1 AP − 1
b) = which implies that 2 P2 A = AB . Thus, the ratio 2 = .
P2 B 3 AB 2

x = x1 + r ( x2 − x1 ) y = y1 + r ( y2 − y1 )
 −1  −1
x = −4 +   5 − (− 4) y = 4 +   2 − 4
 2   2 
 −1  −1
x = −4 +  9 y = 4 +   − 2
 2   2
−8−9
x= y =4 +1
2
22
− 17
x= y=5
2
 − 17 
So the point P2 is located at  , 5 .
 2 
Exercises
Solve each problem analytically and graphically.
a) The line segment connecting A( x, 6) and B( 9, y) is bisected by point M( 7, 3). Find the values of x & y.
b) Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the hypotenuse of the right triangle whose vertices are A( 2, 2),
B( 6, 3), and C( 5, 7), and show that the midpoint is equidistant from the three vertices.
c) Given are the endpoints of a line segment and point P is the line divisor. Find the coordinates of point P(x,
y) so that the ratio AP to AB is equal to r.
Point A Point B Ratio ( r)

1 ( - 1, 0) ( 3, 2) 4/3
2 ( 6, - 2) ( 1, - 7) 2
3 ( 2, - 4) ( - 3, 3) 2/3
4 ( - 5, 1) ( 3, 3) 5/2
5 ( 2, 9) ( - 4, - 3) -1/3
6 ( 1, 5) ( 6, 3) 4/5
C) Slopes of Straight Lines / Inclination of Straight Line

Definition 1
The inclination of a line that intersects the x – axis is the smallest angle (𝑚∠ ≥ 00 ) that the straight
line makes with the positive direction of the x – axis.
y y
l1 l2
𝜃
𝜃 x x
Definition 2
The slope of a line is the tangent of inclination.
Let 𝑚 be the slope of the line and 𝜃 is the inclination.
a) 𝑚𝑙1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 b) 𝑚𝑙2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
( m is positive) ( m is negative)
Where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180 except for 900.
0 0
Theorem about slope:

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑦 −𝑦 Δ𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 = 𝑥2−𝑥1 = Δ𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2 1
23
Slope is the measure of the steepness of a line with respect to the horizontal axis. Vertical line does
not have slope (undefined) but a horizontal line has a slope of 0.
Exercises
1. Sketch and find the slope of the line that passes through the given points. Find the inclination to the nearest
number minutes.
Point A Point B Slope ( m) Inclination
a ( 3, - 1) ( 4, 2)
b ( - 1, 5) ( 1, 2)
c ( 1, 3) ( - 2, 3)
d ( 3, 4) ( 3, - 1)
2. Draw a line through the given point P( x, y) having the given slope m.
Point P Slope (𝑚)
a ( - 2, 1) 3/4
b ( 2, 2) -3
c ( 4, 0) 2/3
d ( - 2, - 1) -5/2
e ( 4, - 2) 0
3. Draw a line through a point P(x, y) with the given inclination (𝜃).
Point P Inclination
a ( 2, 2) 300
b ( - 4, 0) 1350
c ( - 3, - 1) 600
d ( 1, - 3) 00
e ( - 4, 3) 1500
Theorem: Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal.
4. Using slope, show that each of the 4 points given is a vertex of a parallelogram.
Point A Point B Point C Point D
a ( 3, 0) ( 7, 0) ( 5, 3) ( 1, 3)
b ( - 2, 3) ( 6, 1) ( 5, - 2) ( - 3, 0)
c ( - 1, - 2) ( 3, - 6) ( 11, - 1) ( 7, 3)
d ( 0, 0) ( 6, 3) ( 9, 9) ( 3, 6)
e ( - 1, - 1) ( 5, 0) ( 4, 3) ( - 2, 2)
Theorem: Two slant lines are perpendicular if and only if the slope of one line is the negative reciprocal
of the slope of the other line.
5. Verify that each triangle with the given points as vertices is a right triangle.
Point A Point B Point C
a ( 4, - 4) ( 4, 4) ( 0, 0)
b ( 1, 1) ( 4, - 1) ( 3, 4)
c ( 7, 1) ( 0, - 2) ( 5, - 4)
d ( - 1, 2) ( 3, - 6) ( 3, 4)
e ( 2, 5) ( - 5, 7) ( - 2, - 9)
6. Using slope, determine whether the four given points are vertices of a rectangle.
24
a ( - 4, 3) ( 0, - 2) ( 5, 2) ( 1, 7)
b ( 2, 2) ( 7, - 3) ( 9, 0) ( 5, 5)
c ( 5, - 1) ( 7, 6) ( 0, 8) ( - 2, 1)
d ( 5, 7) ( 1, 1) ( 4, - 1) ( 8, 5)
e ( - 2, 3) ( 6, 1) ( 5, - 2) ( - 3, 0)
7. Using slopes, determine which of the sets of 3 points lie on a straight line.
a ( 0, - 2) ( 3, 0) ( 9, 4)
b ( 0, 1) ( 9, 6) ( - 4, - 1)
c ( - 1, 2) ( 2, 1) ( 5, 0)
d ( - 10, 2) ( 1, - 2) ( 6, - 5)
e ( 4, - 4) ( 7, 0) ( 9, 4)
f ( 2, 6) ( 4, 1) ( 6, - 3)
8. Using slope, solve each of the following problems.
a. A flat board leans against a wall. The upper edge is 6 ft above the floor and the lower edge is 2
ft out from the wall. What is the slope of the board?
b. A ladder 10 ft long leans against a wall, touching it 8 ft above the ground. i) What is the slope of
the ladder? ii) Can a person who is 6 ft tall pass under the ladder 1 foot away from the wall?
iii) Can the same person pass under the ladder 2 ft away from the wall?
D) Angle between Two Lines
Two intersecting lines form two pairs of congruent angles, and an angle of one pair is the supplement
of an angle of the other pair.
y M
l2 l1 B
x A 𝜃1 𝜃2
O N
C C A B C D E F G H C J C C C C K
Let 𝜃1 and 𝜑 be any two interior angles of a triangle and 𝜃2 be the supplement of the third angle of
the triangle. A certain theorem states that the sum of the measures of any two interior angles of a triangle
is equal to the measure of the supplement of the third angle, thus
25
 2 = 1 +  or  2 − 1 = 
Using the formula for the tangent of the difference of two angles, we have
tan  2 − tan 1
tan  = tan ( 2 − 1 ) = .
1 + tan  2 tan 1
From the graph above, let l1 and l2 be any two intersecting lines on the Cartesian plane and let l1 be
the initial side and let l2 be the terminal side of the angle formed by the two intersecting lines, and using the
Def. 2 of the slope of the line, we say that tan 1 = m1 and tan  2 = m2 , then using the substitution property,
m2 − m1
we get tan  = ,
1 + m2 m1
where 𝑚1 is the slope of the initial side, 𝑚2 is the slope of the terminal side, and 𝜑 is the measure of the angle
measured in counterclockwise direction.
𝑚1 −𝑚2
The angle 𝛼 is the supplement of 𝜑, therefore 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 = 1+𝑚 𝑚 1 2
Theorem:
If 𝜑 is an angle formed by two intersecting, measured in counterclockwise direction, then
𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜑 = 1+𝑚 .
𝑚 2 1
Theorem:
Two lines are perpendicular, if and only if, the slope of one line is the negative reciprocal of
the slope of the other line.
−1
Note: Two lines are perpendicular if and only if a) 𝑚2 = 𝑚 , b) 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1, or c) 1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 = 0.
1
Example:
Find the tangents of the angles of the triangle whose vertices are A( 3, - 2), B( - 5, 8) and C( 4, 5) to
the nearest number of degrees.
Solution: i) Plot the points and draw the triangle.

B y
A
26
ii) Compute for the slopes of the sides of the triangle.
8 − (− 2) 10 5 5 − (−2) 5−8 − 3 −1
mAB = = = mAC = =7 mBC = = =
−5−3 −8 − 4 4−3 4 − (−5) 9 3
iii) Compute for the measures of the angles of the triangle

mA mB mC
mAB − mAC mBC − mAB mAC − mBC
tan A = tan B = tan C =
1 + mAB mAC 1 + mBC mAB 1 + mAC mBC
−5 −1  − 5   −1
−7 −  7− 
tan A = 4 3  4   3 
tan B = tan C =
 −5  − 1  − 5   −1
1+  ( 7 ) 1+    1 + (7) 
 4   3  4   3 
− 5 − 28 − 4 + 15 21 + 1
tan A = 4 tan B = 12 tan C = 3

4 − 35 12 + 5 3−7
4 12 3
− 33 33 11 22 − 11
tan A = = tan B = tan C = =
− 31 31 17 −4 2
mA = 47 0 mB = 330 mC = 1000
Exercises
A. Find the tangents of the angles in each triangle formed by the given three points to the nearest number of
degrees.
1 ( 1, 1) ( 5, 2) ( 3, 5)
2 ( 2, 2) ( - 4, - 1) ( 6, - 5)
3 ( - 1, 1) ( 2, - 1) ( 3, 5)
4 ( 3, 8) ( - 4, - 3) ( 6, - 1)
B. Solve each problem accurately.

1) The line through the points A( 3, 4) and B( - 5, 0) intersects the line through C( 0, 0) and D( - 5, 0). Find the
angles of intersection.
−3
2) What acute angle does a line of slope make with a vertical line?
2
C. Find the slopes of the lines passing through the two pairs of points then decide whether the line are parallel,
perpendicular, or intersecting obliquely.
Line 1 Line 2
1 ( 1, - 1) ( - 5, - 5) ( 1, - 2) ( 7, 2)
2 ( 1, 8) ( - 3, - 4) ( - 1, 8) ( 0, 10)
3 ( 6, 5) ( 11, 9) ( 2, 5) ( 12, 9)
4 ( 1, - 1) ( - 4, - 4) ( 1, 1) (4, - 4)
5 ( 2, - 3) ( 0, 2) ( 1, 0) ( 6, 2)
6 ( - 6, - 4) ( 22, 8) ( - 5, 7) ( 7, - 8)
27
E) Analytic Proofs of Geometric Theorems
Example 1: Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
Procedure: Let point O be one of the vertices of the parallelogram located at the origin, and
let points A, B, and C be the other vertices whose coordinates could be assigned based
from the coordinates of the point O.
y
B C
x
O A
C C C C C C C C C C C C
Let the coordinates of point A be ( a, 0) and the coordinates of point B as ( b, c), then
the coordinates of point C would be ( a+b, c). Let point M be the midpoint of the diagonals
of the parallelogram.
Objective: Show that the coordinates of the midpoint of diagonal OC are the same with the
coordinates of the midpoint of the diagonal AB.
Solution:
a) Midpoint M( x, y) of diagonal OC using the midpoint theorem.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= y=
2 2
0 + ( a + b) 0+c
x= y=
2 2
a+b c
x= y=
2 2
a+b c
So the coordinates of M as the midpoint of the diagonal OC are and .
2 2
b) Midpoint M( x, y) of diagonal AB using the midpoint theorem.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= y=
2 2
a+b 0+c
x= y=
2 2
a+b c
x= y=
2 2
a+b c
So the coordinates of M as the midpoint of the diagonal AB are and .
2 2
The sameness of the coordinates of M in both diagonals shows that the theorem is proven.
Example 2: Prove that in any triangle, the line segment joining the midpoints of any two sides is parallel, and
one-half as long as the length of the third side.
28
Procedure: Let point O be one of the vertices of the triangle located at the origin, and let
points A, and B be the other vertices whose coordinates could be assigned based from
the coordinates of the point O.
y B
C D
x
O A
C C C C C C C C C C C
Let the coordinates of point A be ( a, 0) and let the coordinates of point B be ( b, c).
And let point C and point D be the midpoints of the sides of the triangle OB and AB,
respectively whose coordinates can be determined through the coordinates of the endpoints
of the corresponding sides.
OA
Objectives: Show that a) CD// OA through slopes, and b) CD = .
2
a) Parallel lines have equal slopes.
mCD = mOA
c c 0
−
2 2 = 0−0 2 = 0 0=0
b a+b 0−a −a −a
−
2 2 2
b) The length of the segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is one-
half the length of the third side.
OA
CD =
2
a+b b a−0 a a a a
− = = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Theorem has been proven.
Example 3: Prove that the parallelogram whose diagonals are perpendicular to each other is a rhombus.
Procedure: Let point O be one of the vertices of the parallelogram located at the origin,
and let points A, B, and C be the other vertices whose coordinates could be assigned
based from the coordinates of the point O.
29
y
B C
x
O A
C C C C C C C C C C C
Let the coordinates of point A be ( a, 0) and the coordinates of point B as ( b, c), then
the coordinates of point C would be ( a+b, c).
Objectives: a) Show that OC is perpendicular with AB , that is mOC • mAB = −1 .
b) Show that OA  OB .
Solution: a) mOC • mAB = −1
c c c2
• = −1 = −1 c 2 = a 2 − b2 a = c 2 + b2
a+b b−a b2 − a 2
b) OA  OB
a − 0 = c 2 + b2 a = c 2 + b2
The left side is 𝑂𝐴 and the right side is 𝑂𝐵. Hence, OACB is a rhombus.
Example 4: The points A( x1, y1), B( x2, y2) and C( x3, y3) are vertices of a triangle. Find the coordinates of the
point on each median that is two-thirds of the way from the vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side. Show that the medians are concurrent.
Example 5: The segments that connect the midpoints of consecutive sides of a square form a square of one-
half the area of the original square.
Example 6: The segments that join the midpoints of the consecutive sides of a plane quadrilateral form a
parallelogram.
Example 7: The segments that join the midpoints of the consecutive sides of a rhombus form a rectangle.
Example 8: The midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from the vertices.
Example 9: If the midpoint of one side of a triangle is equidistant from the three vertices, then the triangle is
right.
Example 10: The line segment joining the midpoints of the non-parallel sides of a trapezoid is parallel to the
bases and its length is the average of the lengths of the bases.
Example 11: If the diagonals of a rectangle are perpendicular to each other, then the figure is a square.
Example 12: The sum of the squares of the diagonals of a rhombus is equal to four times the square of a side.
Example 13: The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle bisects the median drawn to the
third side.
Example 14: If the diagonals of a trapezoid are equal, then the figure is an isosceles trapezoid.
Example 15: If P is a point on the circumference of a circle, then the line segment joining P to the extremities
of a diameter are perpendicular.
30
F) Equations of Straight Lines or First-Degree Equations
Theorem:
The equation of every straight line is expressible in terms of the first-degree. Conversely, the
graph of a first-degree equation in two variables is a straight line.
The general form of the equation of a straight line is ax + by + c = 0 , where a, b, and c are any real
numbers and both a and b can’t be zero.
Standard Forms of the Equations of Straight Lines
1. Two-Point Form
It is used when two distinct points on the line are given.
 y − y1 
y − y1 =  2 (x − x1 ) = m( x − x1 )
 x2 − x1 
Where (x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) are the two distinct points.
Example: Find the equation of the line in general form through points A( - 3, 2) and B( 4, - 1).
Solution:
 −1− 2 
y − 2 =  (x − (− 3))
 4 − (− 3) 
 −3
y − 2 =  (x + 3)
 7 
7 y − 14 = −3x − 9
3x + 7 y − 5 = 0
Exercises
Find the equation of the line in general form through the given two points.
Point A Point B Equation
a ( - 1, 3) ( 5, - 4)
b ( 2, 0) ( - 6, 4)
c ( 5, 1) ( 1, 4)
d ( - 2, 3) ( 7, 4)
e ( - 1, - 6) ( - 1, 4)
f ( 4, 1) ( - 2, - 5)
2. Point-Slope Form
It is used when a point on the line and the slope of the line are given.
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
Example: Find the equation of the line in general form passing through the point P(- 2,- 6) and having
3
a slope of .
4
y − (− 6) = x − (− 2)→ y + 6 = (x + 2)
3 3
Solution:
4 4
4 y + 24 = 3x + 6 → 3x − 4 y − 18 = 0
Exercises
Find the equation of the line in general form passing through the given point and with a given slope.
31
Point A Slope (m) Equation
a ( 1, 3) 2
b ( 0, 2) 0
c ( - 6, - 3) 1
d ( 4, 0) -3
e ( - 3, 0) 3/2
F ( - 2, 5) -1/2
3. Intercept Form
It is used when x-intercept and y-intercept are given.
x y
+ =1
a b
where a is the x-intercept and b is the y-intercept and both a and b are not equal to zero.
Example 1: Find the equation of the line in general form with x-intercept equals - 3 and y-intercept
equals 4.
x y  x y 
Solution: + =1 → − 12 + = 1
−3 4 −3 4 
4 x − 3 y = −12 → 4 x − 3 y + 12 = 0
Example 2: Write the equation 4 x − 9 y = −36 in the intercept form.

Solution: 4 x − 9 y = −36
−1
(4 x − 9 y = −36)
36
−x y
+ =1
9 4
Exercises
A. Find the equation of the line in general form given its x- and y-intercepts.
x-intercept y-intercept Equation
a 3 -5
b -3 2
c 1 4
d -2 -3
e -5 3
B. Write the equation in the intercept form
Equation Equation
a 4x – y = 8
b 3x + 2y = 6
c 4y = 9x + 36
d 3x 12 y 4
− =
5 5 3
e 2x y 5
+ =
3 2 6
f 3x 5 y 2
− =
4 2 3
32
4. Slope-Intercept Form
It is used when slope of the line and the y-intercept are given.
y = mx + b
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
Example: Write the equation of the line with slope = - 3 and y-intercept = 4 in general form and graph
the equation.
Solution: y = −3x + 4 → 3x + y − 4 = 0
y
x
O
C C C C C
Exercises
A. Find the equation of the line in general form given its slope and y-intercept.
Slope y-intercept Equation
a 2 -3
b 5 0
c 4/3 3
d -4 1
e -2/3 2
f 0 -3
B. Reduce each equation to slope-intercept form and give the slope and y-intercept of each line represented by
each equation.
Equation Slope-Intercept Form Slope y-intercept
a x - 4y = 8
b 9x + 4y = 36
c 8x – 2y = 5
d 3x + 3y + 4 = 0
e 8x = 3y + 4
f 3x + 18 = 6y
C. Supplementary Exercises.
1. Find the equation of the line in general form through point A( 6, 2) and perpendicular to the line defined
by the equation 4 x + 5 y + 10 = 0 . Graph the lines.
2. Show that ax + by = 5 and bx − ay = 2 are equations of perpendicular lines. Assume that a and b
are not both equal to zero.
3. The points A( - 2, 3), B( 6, - 5), and C( 8, 5) are vertices of a triangle. Formulate the equations of the
medians in general form.
33
4. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector in general form of the line joining the points A and B.
Sketch the lines.
Point A Point B Equation
a ( 7, - 2) ( 1, 6)
b ( 6, 4) ( 4, - 2)
c ( 0, - 4) ( 4, 6)
d ( - 1, - 3) ( 3, 5)
e ( - 2, 3) ( 6, - 5)
f ( 4, 1) ( - 2, - 5)
5. Find the equations of two lines in general form through the given point A( x, y), one parallel and the
other perpendicular to the given line. Sketch the lines.
Point A Given Line Parallel Line Perpendicular Line
a ( 1, 4) 3x – 2y + 8 = 0
b ( 3, - 2) x + 8y = - 8
c ( 2, - 1) x – 2y – 4 = 0
d ( 6, 0) 3x = 3y +6
e ( 1, - 1) y=1
G) Distance Between a Line and a Point

1. Special Cases
a. Distance between a point P and a vertical line
b. Distance between a point P and horizontal line
2. General Case
Distance between a point P and a slant line
y B
𝑙1 𝑙2
Q
P1
𝑙 d
P
P2 x
O
Let P1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and P2 (𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑛 ) be two vertically collinear points that lie on 𝑙1 and 𝑙, respectively.
Let 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 (Eq. 1) be 𝑙, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + c1 = 0 (Eq. 2) be 𝑙1, and 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 = 0 (Eq. 3) be 𝑙2 which
is ⊥ to 𝑙1 and 𝑙. The distance between P1 and 𝑙 is to be computed in terms of the coordinates of P and Q.
Theorem: Distance between a point and a straight line
34
The directed distance from a slant line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 to a point P1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is given by
ax + by + c
the formula d=
 a2 + b2
Where the denominator is given the sign of b. The directed distance is positive if the point P is above
the line and negative if P is below the line.
Example 1: Find the directed distance from the line 5x = 4y + 12 to each of the points A(3, -5), B(-4, 1), and
C(9, 0).
Example 2: Find the distance between the parallel lines 14x + 8y + 64 = 0 and 14x + 8y – 56 = 0.
Example 3: Find the equation of the a) bisector pair of acute angles, and b) bisector of the pair of obtuse
angles formed by the lines x – 2y + 1 = 0 and x + 3y – 3 = 0.
Example 4: The vertices of a triangle are at A(2, 4), B(-1, 2), and C(7, 1). Find the altitude of the triangle from
the vertex B and compute the area of the triangle.
Example 5: The equation of a gas line is 2x + y = 2. A factory located at the point P(6, 7) is connected with
the gas line perpendicularly. Find the equation of the connecting line and the length of the
pipe required if the units are miles.
Exercises
1. Find the directed distance from the given line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 to the given point P.
Point P Given Line Directed Distance
a (-2, 1) 5x – 12y + 3 = 0
b (0, 4) 2x + 3y – 4 = 0
c (5, 3) y–6=0
d (-1, -4) x+3=0
e (2, 2) x + 2y = 6
2. Find the distance between the parallel lines 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + c1 = 0.

Line 1 Line 2 Distance
a 3x – 4y – 8 = 0 3x – 4y + 4= 0
b 10x + 25y = 50 2x + 5y + 5 = 0
c 4x + y – 6 = 0 12x + 3y – 12 = 0
d 2x – 5y = 5 4x – 10y = 20
e 3x + 2y = 6 3x + 2y = - 4
3. Find the equation of the bisector in general form of the pair of acute angles and the bisector of the pair of
obtuse angles formed by the lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0.
Line 1 Line 2 Angle Bisector
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 Acute Obtuse
A 4x – 3y – 9 = 0 2x + y – 4 =0
b* 7x – 4y = 8 3x + 4y – 12 = 0
C x+y–2=0 x + 2y – 3 = 0
d* 3x – y = 5 3x + 4y = 12
E 3x + 2y – 6 = 0 2x – y = -4
35
H) Families of Lines
x y
Let y = mx + b be equation 1 and + = 1 be equation 2.
a b
In equation 1, when m and b are defined, then a line is determined. Similarly, in equation 2, when a
and b are defined, then a line can also be determined. These letters are called parameters.
A linear equation with one parameter represents lines all with a particular property. Example, the
equation y = 3x + b represents a line with a slope of 3 and with y – intercept of b. The letter b is the parameter
which can take any real value. Since the slope is the same for all values of b, then the equation represents a
set of parallel lines. The totality of lines determined is called FAMILY of Lines.
2
Example 1: Write the equation of the family of lines with slope and describe the family of lines.
3
2x
y= + k → −2 x + 3 y = k where k is the parameter. Then we have a family of parallel lines.
3
Example 2: Describe the family of lines represented by the equation y − 2 = m( x − 4) .
The equation defines the lines that pass through P(4, 2) with m as their slope, where m is the
parameter. The vertical line passing through the point P is not included.
Example 3: Write an equation of the family of lines perpendicular to the line 3x – 2y = 5
Example 4: Write an equation of the family of lines having the product of the intercepts equal to 4.
Example 5: Write the equation of the family of lines that are parallel to the line 5x + 12y + 7 = 0. Find the
equation of the members of the family that are 3 units from the point P(2, 1).
Example 6: Write the equation of the family of lines passing through the intersection of the given lines
2x – 3y + 5 = 0 and 4x + y – 11 = 0.
Example 7: Write the equation of the family of lines that pass through the intersection of 2x – y – 1 = 0 and
3x +2y – 12 = 0. Find the member of the family of lines that passes through P(-2, 1). Sketch
the graph.
Example 8: Write the equation of the family of lines that pass through the intersection of x – 7y + 3 = 0 and
4x + 2y – 5 = 0. Find the member of the family of lines that has the slope 3.
Exercises
1. Tell what geometric property is possessed by all lines of each family. The letters other than x and y are
parameters.
a. y = mx – 4 d. y – 4 = m(x + 3) g. 3x – ay = 3a
b. y = 3x + b e. ax – 3y = a h. ax – 2y = 4a
c. 2x – 9y = k f. x + ay = 2a i. ax + ay = 3
2. Write the equation of the family of lines possessing the given property. In each case assign three values to
the parameter and graph the corresponding lines.
a. The lines are parallel to 4x – 7y = 3. e. The sum of the intercepts is equal to 5.
b. The lines pass through P(3, -4) f. The product of the intercepts is equal to 8.
c. The lines are perpendicular to 3x – 4y = 5. g. The x – intercept is equal to 3.
d. The product of the intercepts is equal to 28.
3. Find the equation of the line that pass through the intersection of the given pair of lines and satisfies the
other given condition.
36
a. x – 5y – 4 = 0, 2x + 3y + 2 = 0; passes through P(2, 5).
b. 3x + 5y – 2 = 0, x + y + 2 = 0; passes through P(-4, -2).
c. 2x + 5y + 7 = 0, 4x – 2y + 3 = 0; the x – intercept is 4.
d. x – y – 4 = 0, 2x + y – 5 = 0; passes through O(0, 0).
e. 3x + 4y – 2 = 0, 3x – 4y + 1 = 0; the intercepts are equal.
f. 5x – 3y + 2 = 0, x + y – 2 =0; m = 3.
g. 3x + y – 4 = 0, x + 11y = 0; a vertical line.
4. The sides of a triangle are on the lines 3x – 5y + 2 = 0, x + y – 2 = 0, and 4x – 3y – 3 = 0. Find the equations
of the altitudes.
37
Chapter 3 – CONIC SECTIONS
Wilmer G. Marquez
A conic section is formed by passing a plane through the interior of a cone. A circle is formed when the plane
is passed through the cone where the plane is parallel to the base of the cone. A parabola is formed when the cutting
plane is parallel to an element of the cone. An ellipse is formed when the cutting plane is neither parallel to the base
nor parallel to an element of the cone. A hyperbola is formed when the cutting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone.
The general form of the second degree equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0. If B = 0 in

the equation, then the graphical solution would be a conic section.
1. Circle
It is a set of points on the plane that are equidistant from a fixed point called the center of the circle,
and the distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.
The general equation of the circle is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0, where A, C, D, E, and F are

any real numbers. A and C are equal and like signed.
Let the center of the circle be at the fix point C(h, k) and let the radius be equal to r. Then if P(x, y) is
any point on the circle, then the distance from C to P is equal to r, thus 𝑟 2 = (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 → the
center-radius form of the equation of the circle. If 𝑟 > 0, then the graphical solution is a circle. If 𝑟 = 0, then
the graphical solution is a point circle. But if 𝑟 < 0, there is no real locus which means that the circle does
not exist. If the center of the circle is at the point of origin, then the equation is reduced to 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2.
Example 1: Find the equation of the circle of radius 4 units which is centered at C(3, -2).
Example 2: From the general form of the equation of the circle 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0, if
A = C = 1, find the coordinates of the center and the length of the radius in terms of D, E,
and F.
Example 3: Express the equation 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 80 = 0 to the center radius form and
sketch the graph.
Example 4: What is the graph, if any of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 14 = 0 ?
Exercises
A. Write the equation of the circle that satisfies the given conditions.
1. C(5, 3); r = √3
2. C(-1, -6); r = 8
3. C(0, 8); r = 5
4. The line segment joining A(0, 0) and B(6, -8) is a diameter.
5. The line segment joining A(-3, -4) and B(4, 3) is a diameter.
6. C(1, -3) and the circle passes through P(-3, 5).
7. The circle is tangent to the y – axis and the center is at C(5, 3).
8. The circle is tangent to the x – axis and the center is at C(-3, -4)
9. The circle is tangent to the line 3x + 4y = 16 and the center is at C(-3, -4).
10. The circle is tangent to the line 5x – 12y = 24 and the center is at C(5, -5).
38
B. Express each equation to center-radius form and determine the a) coordinates of the center, b) the length
of the radius, and c) sketch the graph.
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 4. 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 12𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 3 = 0
2. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 8𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 11 = 0
2 2
5. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0
3. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 3 = 0 6. 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 0
C. Determine whether each equation represents a circle, or a point circle, or has no graph.
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5 = 0 5. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 10 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 5 = 0 6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 = 0
3. 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 0
2 2
7. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 + 15 = 0
4. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 9 = 0
1.1 Circles Determined by Geometric Conditions
Example 1: Find the equation of the circle that passes thru’ the points P(1, -2), Q(5, 4) & C(10, 5).
Find the coordinates of the center and the length of the radius.
Example 2: A circle is tangent to the line 2x – y + 1 = 0 at the point P(2, 5) and the center is on the
line x + y = 9. Find the a) equation of the circle, b) coordinates of the center, and c) length of
the radius.
Example 3: A triangle has its sides on the lines x + 2y – 5 = 0, 2x – y – 10 = 0 and 2x + y + 2 = 0.
Find the equation of the circle inscribed in the triangle.
Exercises
A. Find the equation of the circle that passes through the given points. Find the coordinates of the
center and the length of the radius.
1. P(0, 3) Q(2, 4) R(1, 0)

2. P(0, 0) Q(0, 5) R(3, 3)
B. Find the a) equation of the circle, b) coordinates of the center, and c) length of the radius based
from the given conditions.
1. The circle is tangent to the line x – y = 2 at P(4, 2) and the center C is on the x – axis.
2. The circle is tangent to the line x + 2y = 3 at P(3, 0) and the center C is on the y – axis.
3. The circle is tangent to the line 4x + 3y = 6 at P(3, -2) and the center C is on the line
x – y = 7.
4. The circle is tangent to the line 5x + y = 3 at P(2, -7) and the center C is on the line
x – 2y = 18.
5. The circle is tangent to both coordinate axes and contains the point P(6, 3).
C. Formulate the equation based from the given information.
1. The circle is circumscribed about the triangle whose vertices are A(3, -2), B(2, 5) and C(-
1, 6).
2. The circle is circumscribed about the triangle whose vertices are A(-1, -3), B(-2, 4) and
C(2, 1).
3. The sides of a triangle are along the lines x – 2y = 0; 5x – 2y = 8; and 3x + 2y = 24. Find
the equation of the circle that circumscribed about the triangle.
4. The sides of a triangle are along the lines 3x + 4y + 8 = 0;3x – 4y – 32 = 0; and x = 8. Find
the equation of the inscribed circle.
39
1.2 Families of Circles
The equation of the family of circles passing through the intersection of two circles is
(𝑥 2+ 𝑦 2 + 𝐷1 𝑥 + 𝐸1 𝑦 + 𝐹1 ) + 𝑘(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷2 𝑥 + 𝐸2 𝑦 + 𝐹2 ) = 0 where k is not equal to zero
and k is a parameter. Note that two circles may intersect in a) two points or b) one point only.
Example 1: Write the equation of the family of circles C all members of which pass through the
intersections of the circles C1 and C2 represented by the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 +
2𝑦 + 5 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 29 = 0, respectively. Find the member of
the family C3 that passes through P(7, 0).
Example 2: Graph the circles 𝐶1 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 − 9𝑦 + 50 = 0 and 𝐶2 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 25 = 0.
Also graph the member C3 of the family of circles for which k = 1.
Note: If 𝑘 = −1, the equation will be reduced to a linear equation

(𝐷1 −𝐷2 )𝑥 + (𝐸1 −𝐸2 )𝑦 + (𝐹1 −𝐹2 ) = 0. The graph of this equation is a straight line
called the radical axis. Radical axis is a line perpendicular to the line joining the centers.
Cases of Radical Axes

1. Circles intersect in two points
𝑙1
2. Circles intersect in one point – tangent circles
𝑙2
3. Circles with no common point

𝑙1
𝑙2 𝑙3
40
Example 3: Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 3 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 −
14𝑦 + 65 = 0, then find the equation of the radical axis.
Exercises
1. Write an equation of the family of circles passing through the intersection of the circles
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 24 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 2 = 0. Find the member of the family for
which 𝑘 = 1. Construct the three circles on the same coordinate system.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 4 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6 = 0. Find the member of the family for
which 𝑘 = 2. Construct the three circles on the same coordinate system.
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 4 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 3. Find the member of the family that passes
through P(1, 2). Construct the three circles on the same coordinate system.
4. Find the equation of the line passing through the points of intersection of the circles
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 = 0.
5. Find the equation of the radical axis represented by the circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 14𝑥 + 38 = 0 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 = 0.
6. Draw the circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 14𝑥 + 40 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4 = 0. Find the equation of the radical axis
and then draw.
7. Write the equation of the family of circles passing through the intersection points of
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 6 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 16𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 24 = 0. Find the member of the family
that passes through the origin. Construct the three circles.
2. Parabola
Definition:
A set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point called the focus (F) and from a fixed
line called the directrix D.
y
P’(x, y)
Q(-a, y)
O x
D(-a, 0) V F(a, 0)
P(x, -y)
41
̅̅̅̅ is the perpendicular bisector of ̅̅̅̅̅
Let the vertex V be at the origin. 𝑉𝐹 𝑃𝑃′, and is called the axis of
the parabola (it passes thru’ the vertex) and the parabola is symmetric with respect to its axis.
Since any point P(x, y) of the parabola is equidistant form the focus F and the directrix D, then
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃′𝐹 ≅ 𝑃′𝑄̅̅̅̅̅
√(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑎
Latus rectum is a chord drawn through the focus and is perpendicular to the axis of the parabola.
The endpoints of the latus rectum can be derived from 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥. Since the latus rectum passes thru’ the
focus, then its endpoints are 𝑃′ (𝑎, 2𝑎)and 𝑃(𝑎, −2𝑎). Its length can be determined from the coordinates
of its endpoints. ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃′𝑃 = 2𝑎 − (−2𝑎) = 4𝑎. If the focus F is at the left of the origin then its coordinates
would be (– 𝑎, 0) or 𝑎 < 0, then the directrix is defined by 𝑥 = 𝑎, then the positive measurement from a
point P(x, y) of the parabola to the directrix is (−𝑎 − 𝑥). Hence √(𝑥 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = −𝑥 − 𝑎.
But if the y – axis becomes the axis of the parabola thru’ the focus and perpendicular to the directrix,
then x and y will be interchanged in the equation 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 to get 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦.
Theorem:
a. The equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus F at (a, 0) is 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥.
The parabola opens to the right if 𝑎 > 0 and opens to the left if 𝑎 < 0.
b. The equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and focus F at (0, a) is 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦.
The parabola opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 and opens downward if 𝑎 < 0.
A. Parabola with vertex at the origin (h, k) = (0, 0)

Case 1: 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
a Vertex (0, 0)
b Axis of Symmetry x – axis
c Focus (±𝑎, 0)
𝑎>0 Opens to the right
d Opening
𝑎<0 Opens to the left
e Directrix 𝑥 = ∓𝑎
Latus Rectum Length Endpoints
f
𝑦 = ±2𝑎 |4𝑎| (𝑎, 2𝑎)&(𝑎, −2𝑎)
Case 2: 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦
a Vertex (0, 0)
b Axis of Symmetry y – axis
c Focus (0, ±𝑎)
𝑎>0 Upward
d Opening
𝑎<0 Downward
e Directrix 𝑦 = ∓𝑎
f
𝑦 = ±2𝑎 |4𝑎| (2𝑎, 𝑎)&(−2𝑎, 𝑎)
42
Example 1: Sketch the graph of 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥.
Case 1: 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥
A Vertex (0, 0)
B Axis of Symmetry x – axis
Focus 3
C (+ , 0)
4𝑎 = 6 2
D Opening 𝑎>0 Opens to the right
3
E Directrix 𝑥=−
2
Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum
F 3 3 3
𝑦 = ±2𝑎 |4 ( )| = 6 ( , 3) & ( , −3)
2 2 2
Example 2: Sketch the graph of 2𝑦 2 + 5𝑥 = 0.

5𝑥
Case 1: 2𝑦 2 + 5𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 2 = − 2
a Vertex (0, 0)
b Axis of Symmetry x – axis
Focus 5
c 5 (− , 0)
4𝑎 = − 2 8
d Opening 𝑎<0 Opens to the left
5
e Directrix 𝑥=
8
Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum
f 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
𝑦 = ±2 (− 8) = ± 4 |4 (− )| = (− , − ) & (− , )
8 2 8 4 8 4
Example 3: Sketch the graph of 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦.
Case 2: 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦
a Vertex (0, 0)
Focus
c (0,1)
4𝑎 = 4
d Opening 𝑎>0 Opens upward
e Directrix = −1
f
𝑦 = ±2(1) = ±2 |4(1)| = 4 (+2,1)&(−2, 1)
43
Example 4: Sketch the graph of 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 = 0.
Case 2: 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 = 0 → 𝑥 2 = −3𝑦
a Vertex (0, 0)
Focus 3
c (0, − )
4𝑎 = −3 4
d Opening 𝑎<0 Opens downward
3
e Directrix 𝑥=
4
f 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑦 = ±2 (− 4) = ± 2 |4 (− )| = 3 (− , − ) & ( , − )
4 2 4 2 4
Example 5: Write the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and the focus at (0, 4) and graph.
Example 6: A parabola has its vertex at the origin, its axis along the x – axis, and passes thru’ the point
P(-3, 6). Find its equation and graph.
Example 7: Write the equation of the parabola whose directrix is defined by the equation y – 4 = 0, and its
vertex is at the origin. Graph the equation.
Example 8: The length of the latus rectum of a parabola is 8, and the parabola opens upward, and its vertex
is at the origin. Write the equation and then graph.
Exercises
1. Find the elements of the parabola defined the given equations and then graph.
a. 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 c. 𝑥 2 = −10𝑦 e. 2𝑦 2 = −3𝑥
b. 𝑦 2 = −16𝑥 d. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 = 0 f. 𝑥 2 − 7𝑦 = 0
2. Write the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and satisfies the given conditions.
a. F(0, -3) d. Directrix: y = 2
b. F(-4, 0) e. Length of the latus rectum is 10 and opens to the right.
c. Directrix: x + 4 = 0 f. Parabola opens to the left and passes thru’ (-3, 4) with vertex at the origin.
B. Parabola with vertex at (h, k) ≠ (0, 0)

Case 3: (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
a Vertex (h, k)
b Axis of Symmetry Horizontal line →(𝑦 = 𝑘)
c Focus (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘)
𝑎>0 Opens to the right
d Opening
𝑎<0 Opens to the left
e Directrix 𝑥 =ℎ∓𝑎
f
𝑦 = 𝑘 ± 2𝑎 |4𝑎| (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘 + 2𝑎)&(ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘 − 2𝑎)
44
Case 4: (𝑥 − ℎ)2 = 4𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)
a Vertex (h, k)
b Axis of Symmetry Vertical line →(𝑥 = ℎ)
c Focus (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎)
𝑎>0 Upward
d Opening
𝑎<0 Downward
e Directrix 𝑦 =𝑘∓𝑎
f
𝑥 = ℎ ± 2𝑎 |4𝑎| (ℎ + 2𝑎, 𝑘 + 𝑎)&(ℎ − 2𝑎, 𝑘 + 𝑎)
Example 1: Draw the graph of the equation 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 25 = 0.

Case 3: 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 25 = 0
𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 25 = 0 a Vertex (-2, 3)
2
𝑦 − 6𝑦 = −8𝑥 − 25 b Axis of Symmetry (𝑦 = 3)
[−2 + (−2),3]
𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = −8𝑥 − 25 + 9 c Focus
(−4, 3)
(𝑦 − 3)2 = −8𝑥 − 16 d Opening 𝑎<0 Opens to the left
(𝑦 − 3)2 = −8(𝑥 + 2) e Directrix 𝑥 = −2 − (−2) = 0
(𝑦 − 3)2 = 4(−2)(𝑥 + 2) f
𝑦 = 3 ± 2(−2) |4(−2)| = 8 (−4, −1)&(−4,7)
Example 2: Construct the graph of the equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 51 = 0.

Case 4: 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 51 = 0
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 51 = 0 a Vertex (3, -5)
2
𝑥 − 6𝑥 = 12𝑦 + 51 b Axis of Symmetry (𝑥 = 3)
[3, −5 + 3]
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 12𝑦 + 51 + 9 c Focus
(3, −2)
2
(𝑥 − 3) = 12𝑦 + 60 d Opening 𝑎>0 Opens upward
(𝑥 − 3)2 = 12(𝑦 + 5) e Directrix 𝑥 = −5 − (3) = −8
(𝑥 − 3)2 = 4(3)(𝑦 + 5) f
𝑦 = 3 ± 2(3) |4(3)| = 12 (9, −2)&(−3, −2)
Example 3: A parabola whose axis is parallel to the y – axis passes thru’ the points A(1, 1), B(2, 2) and
C(-1, 5). Find its equation and then graph.
Solution:
Since the axis of the parabola is parallel to the y – axis, then the equation must be quadratic
in x and linear in y. Start from the general form 𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 and compute for D, E,
and F using the points where the parabola passes through.
𝐴(1,1) → 1+𝐷+𝐸+𝐹 =0 ← 𝐸𝑞. 1

𝐵(2,2) → 4 + 2𝐷 + 2𝐸 + 𝐹 = 0 ← 𝐸𝑞. 2
𝐶(−1,5) → 1 − 𝐷 + 5𝐸 + 𝐹 = 0 ← 𝐸𝑞. 3
We get D = -2; E = -1; and F = 2, Hence the equation is 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0.

45
Case 4: 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0 a Vertex (1, 1)
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑦 − 2 b Axis of Symmetry (𝑥 = 1)
1 5
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑦 − 2 + 1 c Focus [1, 1 + ] = (1, )
4 4
(𝑥 − 1)2 = 𝑦 − 1 d Opening 𝑎>0 Opens upward
1 3
e Directrix 𝑦=1− =
4 4
1 Length Endpoints
(𝑥 − 1)2 = 4 ( ) (𝑦 − 1) Latus Rectum
4 f 1 1 3 5 1 5
𝑥 = 1 ± 2( ) |4 ( )| = 1 ( , )&( , )
4 4 2 4 2 4
Exercises
A. Write the equation in standard form of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions.
1. V(3, 2) ; F(3, 4)
2. V(-6, -4) ; F(0, -4)
3. V(4, 1) ; y = -3 as the directrix.
4. F(2, -3) ; x = 6 as the directrix.
1 1
5. V(3, -2) ; 𝑃 (−2, 2) &𝑄 (8, 2) as endpoints of the latus rectum.
6. V(3, -4) ; axis is a horizontal line; and passes through (2, -5).
7. V(-1, -2) ; axis is a vertical line ; and passes through (3, 6).
8. Axis is a vertical line and passes through A(0, 0), B(3, 0), and C(-1, 4).
9. Axis is horizontal line and passes through A(1, 1), B(1, -3), and C(-2, 0).
10. F(-2, -2) ; y = 4 as the directrix.
11. V(2, 1) ; P(-1, -5) & Q(-1, 7) as endpoints of the latus rectum.
12. V(1, 2) ; length of the latus rectum is 8; opens upward.
13. V(4, -2) ; length of the latus rectum is 8; opens to the right.
14. V(4, 1) ; x = 2 as the directrix.
15. F(-2, 7) ; y = 4 as the directrix.
B. Express each equation in standard form. Get the a) coordinates of i) vertex, ii) forcus, iii) endpoints of the
latus rectum, b) length of the latus rectum, and c) equation of i) axis of symmetry, ii) directrix. Sketch the
graph.
1. 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 + 8 = 0 3. 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 6𝑥 + 16 = 0 5. 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 20𝑦 + 25 = 0
2. 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 16𝑦 + 4 = 0
2
4. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 8 = 0 6. 𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 10𝑥 − 1 = 0
46
3. Ellipse
Definition:
It is a set of points on the plane such that the sum of the distance of a point P(x, y) from two fixed
points called foci is constant.
Let the sum of the distances 𝑃𝐹 ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝐹′ be 2𝑎, and ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐹𝐹′ = 2𝑐.
y
B(0, b)
P(x, -y)
x
V’(-a, o) F’(-c, 0) F(c, 0) V(a, 0)
B’(0, -b)
̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅̅
Thus, 𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐹′ = 2𝑎 and using the distance formula, we get the standard form of the equation of
the ellipse as,
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
3.1 Ellipse with center at the Origin (h, k) = (0, 0)

a) The figure above is symmetric to both axes. When y = 0, then 𝑥 = ±𝑎, and when x = 0, then
𝑦 = ±𝑏. Hence, the ellipse cuts the x – axis at V’ (-a, 0) and V(a, 0), and cuts the y – axis at
B(0, b) and B’(0, -b).
b) The segment 𝑉𝑉 ′ = 2𝑎 is called the major axis of the ellipse.
c) The segment 𝐵𝐵 ′ = 2𝑏 is called the minor axis.
d) The endpoints of the major axis are called the vertices.
e) The intersection of the axes is called the center of the ellipse.
f) The chord thru’ the focus and perpendicular to the major axis is called the latus rectum.
𝑐 𝑐
g) Eccentricity 𝑒 is the ratio 𝑎 and it defines the shape of the ellipse. If 𝑒 = 0, then 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 0,
where 𝑐 = 0 but not 𝑎 = 0. Therefore 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 becomes 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 ⟺ 𝑏 = 𝑎. The two
foci coincide at the center and the ellipse becomes a circle. As 𝑒 increases, the foci separate,
each receding from the center, and 𝑏 decreases. As 𝑒 approaches 1, 𝑐 approaches𝑎, and 𝑏
approaches 0. Hence the ellipse starting as a circle becomes narrower. If 𝑒 = 1, or 𝑐 = 𝑎, then
𝑏 = 0, then the formula would not be applied because 𝑏 = 0, 𝑒 = 1means the graph is just a
line connecting the foci.
47
A. Ellipse with center at the origin (h, k) = (0, 0)
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 1: 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1
Major axis is the x – axis
a Center (0, 0)
b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(𝑎, 0)&𝑉 ′ (−𝑎, 0)
c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(0, 𝑏)&𝐵 ′ (0, −𝑏)
Foci
d (±𝑐, 0)
𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2
Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum 𝑏2 𝑏2
(𝑐, ) & (𝑐, − )
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑦=± | | 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏2
(−𝑐, ) & (−𝑐, − )
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
f Eccentricity 𝑒=
𝑎
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 2: 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 = 1
Major axis is the y – axis
a Center (0, 0)
b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(0, 𝑎)&𝑉 ′ (0, −𝑎)
c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(𝑏, 0)&𝐵 ′ ( −𝑏, 0)
Foci
d (0, ±𝑐)
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum 𝑏2 𝑏2
( , 𝑐) & (− , 𝑐 )
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑥=± | | 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏2
( , −𝑐) & ( − , −𝑐)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
𝑎
Example 1: Find the equation of an ellipse with foci at 𝐹(0,4)&𝐹 ′ (0, −4) and vertex at 𝑉(0,6).
Solution: Case 2
Given: a = 6
c=4
C(0, 0)
48
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 2: + =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
a Center (0, 0)
b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(0, 6)&𝑉 ′ (0, −6)
Compute for b c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(2√5, 0)&𝐵 ′ ( −2√5, 0)
Foci
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 d (0, ±4)
𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 Latus Rectum Length Endpoints

𝑏2
𝑥=± 2𝑏 2
𝑏 = ±√62 − 42 𝑎 | |
2 𝑎 10 10
𝑏 = ±√36 − 16 (√20) 2
, 4) (
& (− , 4)
e 𝑥=± 2(√20) 3 3
𝑏 = ±√20 6 | | (10 , −4) & (− 10 , −4)
𝑏 = ±2√5 10 6 3 3
𝑥=±
3 20
3
4 2
f Eccentricity 𝑒= =
6 3
𝑥2 𝑦2
Therefore, the equation of the ellipse is 20 + 36 = 1.
Example 2: Sketch the ellipse represented by the equation 9𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 225.
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 1: + 𝑏2 = 1
𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1 a Center (0, 0)
25 9
𝑎=5 b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(5,0)&𝑉 ′ (−5,0)
𝑏=3 c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(0,3)&𝐵′ ( 0, −3)
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 d Foci (±4,0)
𝑐 = √52 − 32 Latus Rectum Length Endpoints
32
𝑦=± 9 9
5 2(3)2 (4, ) & (4, − )
𝑐 = ±4 e 9 | | 5 5
𝑦=± 5 9 9
5 18 (−4, ) & (−4, − )
5 5
5
4
5
49
Exercises
1. Write the equation of the ellipse whose center is at the origin, one vertex is at V(0, -6), and an endpoint of
the minor axis at B(4, 0).
2. Find the coordinates of the a) foci, b) endpoints of the major and minor axes, c) endpoints of the latus
rectum, then sketch the graph.
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
a. 169 + 144 = 1 c. + =1 e.49 + 25 = 1 g. 16 + 25 = 1
4 9
b. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 4 d.16𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 f. 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 = 18 h.3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 12
3. Write the equation of the ellipse whose center is at the origin, vertices at V(-5, 0) and V’(5, 0) and the length
8
of the latus rectum is 5.
B. Ellipse with center at the origin (h, k) ≠ (0, 0)

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Case 3: 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1
Major axis is parallel to the x – axis
a Center (h, k)
b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘)&𝑉 ′ (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏)&𝐵 ′ ( ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
Foci
d (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘)
𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2

𝑏2 𝑏2
𝑏2 2𝑏 2 (ℎ + 𝑐, 𝑘 + ) & (ℎ + 𝑐, 𝑘 − )
e 𝑦=𝑘± | | 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
𝑎 𝑏2 𝑏2
(ℎ − 𝑐, 𝑘 + ) & (ℎ − 𝑐, 𝑘 − )
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
𝑎
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Case 4: 𝑏2 + 𝑎2 = 1
Major axis is parallel to the y – axis
a Center (h, k)
b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑎)&𝑉 ′ (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑎)
c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(ℎ + 𝑏, 𝑘)&𝐵 ′ ( ℎ − 𝑏, 𝑘)
Foci
d (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑐)
𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2

2
𝑏2 2
𝑏 𝑏2
𝑥 =ℎ± 2𝑏 (ℎ + , 𝑘 + 𝑐) & (ℎ − , 𝑘 + 𝑐)
e 𝑎 | | 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 2
𝑏2
(ℎ + , 𝑘 − 𝑐) & (ℎ − , 𝑘 − 𝑐)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
𝑎
50
Example 1. Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at F(4, -2) and F’(10, -2), and a vertex at V(12, -2).
Solution: Given: a = 5; c = 3
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Case 3: + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
a Center (7, -2)

b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(12, −2)&𝑉 ′ (2, −2)
Compute for b c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(7,2)&𝐵′ ( 7, −6)
Foci
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 d (10, −2)&(4, −2)
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
𝑏 = √52 − 32 (4)2
𝑦 = −2 ±
6
5 2(4)2
𝑦=5 | | 6 −26
e 5 (10, ) & (10, )
𝑏 = ±4 32 5 5
−26 6 −26
𝑦= 5 (4, ) & (4, )
5 5 5
3
5
Example 2: Reduce to standard form the equation 9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 72𝑥 − 24𝑦 + 144 = 0, and sketch the
graph.
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Case 4: + =1
𝑏2 𝑎2
9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 72𝑥 − 24𝑦 + 144 = 0 a Center (4, 3)
9(𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16) + 4(𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9) = 36 b Endpoints of the Major axis 𝑉(4,6)&𝑉 ′ (4,0)
9(𝑥 − 4)2 + 4(𝑦 − 3)2 = 36 c Endpoints of the Minor axis 𝐵(6,3)&𝐵′ ( 2,3)
(𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑦 − 3)2 Foci (4,3 + √5)
+ =1 d
4 9 𝑐 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2
(4,3 − √5)
𝑎 =3&𝑏 =2 Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum
22 16 8
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑥 = 4± 2(2)2 ( , 3 + √5) , ( , 3 + √5)
e
3 | | 3 3
16 3 16 8
𝑐 = √32 − 22 𝑥= 3
8
8 ( , 3 − √5) , ( , 3 − √5)
𝑐 = √5 𝑥=3 3 3
3
√5
3
51
Exercises
1. Find the coordinates of the a) foci, b) endpoints of the major axis, c) endpoints of the minor axis, d) endpoints
of the latus rectum, and e) find the length of the latus rectum. Sketch the graph.
(𝑥−3)2 (𝑦−2)2 (𝑥−3)2 (𝑦−2)2

a. + =1 c. + =1
16 9 36 9
(𝑥−5)2 (𝑦+5)2 (𝑥−6)2 (𝑦+3)2

b. + =1 d. + =1
169 49 16 36
2. Reduce each equation in standard form, then find the coordinates of the a) center, b) foci, c) endpoints of the
major axis, d) endpoints of the minor axis, endpoints of the latus rectum, e) find the length of the latus
rectum. Sketch the graph.
a. 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 8 = 0 d. 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 24𝑦 − 13 = 0
b. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 16𝑦 + 21 = 0 e. 25(𝑥 + 1)2 + 169(𝑦 − 2)2 = 4,225
c. 16𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 + 160𝑥 + 200𝑦 + 400 = 0 f. 169(𝑥 − 1)2 + 144(𝑦 − 3)2 = 24,336
3. Write the equation of the ellipse that satisfies the given conditions and sketch the graph.
a. V(6, 3), and foci at F(-4, 3) and F’(4, 3).
b. C(3, 2), a focus at F(3, 7) and a vertex at V(3, -5).
c. C(5, 1), V(5, 4), endpoint of the minor axis at (3, 1).
d. Foci at F(0, -8) and F’(0, 8), length of the major axis is 34.
e. Vertices at V(-1, 3) and V’(5, 3), length of the minor axis is 4.
f. Endpoints of the minor axis t B(-1, 2) and B’(-1, -4), and focus at F(1, -1).
52
4. Hyperbola
Definition:
It is the set of points in a plane such that the difference of each point of the set from two fixed points
(foci) in the plane is a constant.
Let O(0, 0) be the midway between the foci and the coordinate axis on the line through the foci, and
denote the foci as F(c, 0) and F’(-c, 0), and the difference of the distance between a point of the hyperbola an
the foci by 2a.
y
𝑙1
P(-x, y) P(x, y)
B(0, b)
F’(-c, 0) V’(-a, o) V(a, 0) F(c, 0)
B’(0, -b)
𝑙2
̅̅̅̅̅| − |𝑃𝐹
Let |𝑃𝐹′ ̅̅̅̅̅| − |𝑃𝐹
̅̅̅̅ | = 2𝑎 or |𝑃′𝐹′ ̅̅̅̅ | = −2𝑎, this depends on whether the P(x, y) of the
̅̅̅̅̅| − |𝑃𝐹
hyperbola is at the right or at the left of the y – axis. Thus |𝑃𝐹′ ̅̅̅̅ | = ±2𝑎.
In the triangle 𝐹′𝑃𝐹, one side 𝐹 ′ 𝐹 = 2𝑐 and |𝑃𝐹′ ̅̅̅̅̅| − |𝑃𝐹
̅̅̅̅ | = 2𝑎, hence, 𝑐 > 𝑎 or 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 > 0.
1.3 Hyperbola with center at the Origin (h, k) = (0, 0)

a) The hyperbola has two parts called branches.
b) Points V’(-a, 0) and V(a, 0) are the vertices.
c) The segment 𝑉𝑉 ′ = 2𝑎 is called the transverse axis, thus V and V’ are its endpoints.
d) The segment 𝐵𝐵 ′ = 2𝑏 is called the conjugate axis and has no common point with the hyperbola.
e) The intersection of the axes is called the center of the hyperbola.
f) The chord thru’ a focus and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the latus rectum. If x = c,
and using the relation 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 , we find the endpoints of the latus rectum to be
𝑏2 2𝑏 2
𝑃 (±𝑐, ± 𝑎 ). Thus the length of the latus rectum is | |.
𝑎
g) If the foci F(c, 0) and F’(-c, 0) of the hyperbola are on the x – axis, then the hyperbola is defined by
𝑥2 𝑦2
− 𝑏2 = 1. If the foci F(0, c) and F’(0, -c) are on the y – axis, then the hyperbola is defined by
𝑎2
𝑦2 𝑥2
− 𝑏2 = 1.
𝑎2
53
h) The extended diagonals of the rectangle are the asymptotes of the hyperbola. If the hyperbola is
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑏𝑥
represented by 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1, the asymptotes are defined by 𝑦 = ± , but if the hyperbola is
𝑎
𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑎𝑥
represented by 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1, then the asymptotes are defined by 𝑦 = ± .
𝑏
i) If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then the rectangle associated is a square, and the asymptote are perpendicular to each
other. For this case, the hyperbola is said to be equilateral because its axes are congruent.
𝑐
j) The ratio 𝑎 is the eccentricity 𝑒 of the hyperbola, which is the angle of intersection of asymptotes,
and therefore it defines the shape of the hyperbola. Since 𝑐 > 𝑎, the value of 𝑒 > 1. If c is just
slightly greater than, a so that e is near 1, the relation 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 shows that b is compared
with a. If e increases, the branches are enclosed by larger angles, and the angles can be made
near 180° by taking large values for e.
−𝑏𝑥 y
𝑙1 : 𝑦 =
𝑎
𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝑷 (−𝒄, ) 𝑷 (𝒄, )
𝒂 𝒂
B(0, b)
x
F’(-c, 0) F(c, 0)
−𝒃𝟐
𝑷 (−𝒄, ) −𝒃𝟐
𝒂 B’(0, -b) 𝑷 (𝒄, )
𝒂
𝑏𝑥
𝑙2 : 𝑦 =
𝑎
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 1: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1
Transverse axis is the x – axis
a Center (0, 0)
b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(𝑎, 0)&𝑉 ′ (−𝑎, 0)
c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(0, 𝑏)&𝐵 ′ (0, −𝑏)
d Foci 𝐹(𝑐, 0)&𝐹 ′ (−𝑐, 0)
2 2
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏2
𝑦=± | | (𝑐, ) & (𝑐, − ) & (−𝑐, ) & (−𝑐, − )
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
54
𝑐
𝑎
𝑏𝑥
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦=±
𝑎
𝑦2 𝑥2
Case 2: 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 = 1
Transverse axis is the y – axis
a Center (0, 0)
b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(0, 𝑎)&𝑉 ′ (0, −𝑎)
c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(𝑏, 0)&𝐵′ (−𝑏, 0)
d Foci 𝐹(0, 𝑐)&𝐹 ′ (0, −𝑐)
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑏2
𝑥=± | | ( , 𝑐) & (− , 𝑐 ) & ( , −𝑐) & (− , −𝑐)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
F Eccentricity 𝑒=
𝑎
𝑎𝑥
G Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦=±
𝑏
Example 1: Sketch the graph of 36𝑥 2 − 64𝑦 2 = 2,304.
𝑥2 𝑦2
Case 1: − 𝑏2 = 1
𝑎2
36𝑥 2 − 64𝑦 2 = 2,304 a Center (0, 0)

𝑥2 𝑦2 b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(8, 0)&𝑉 ′ (−8,0)
− =1 c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(0,6)&𝐵′ (0, −6)
64 36
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 d Foci 𝐹(10,0)&𝐹 ′ (−10,0)
𝑐 2 = 82 + 62 Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum 9 9
2(6)2 (10, ) & (10, − )
e 𝑏2 | | 2 2
𝑐 = ±10 𝑦=± 8 9 9
𝑎 (−10, ) & (−10 − )
9
2 2
10 5
f Eccentricity 𝑒= =
8 4
6𝑥 3𝑥
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦=± =±
8 4
1.4 Hyperbola with center at the (h, k) ≠ (0, 0)
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Case 3: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1
Transverse axis is a horizontal line
55
a Center (h, k)
b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘)&𝑉 ′ (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏)&𝐵′ (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
d Foci 𝐹(ℎ + 𝑐, 𝑘)&𝐹 ′ (ℎ − 𝑐, 𝑘)
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2
𝑏2
𝑦=𝑘± | | (ℎ ± 𝑐, 𝑘 ± )
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
𝑎
𝑏(𝑥 − ℎ)
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦−𝑘 =±
𝑎
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
Case 4: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1
Transverse axis is a vertical line
a Center (h, k)
b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑎)&𝑉 ′ (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑎)
c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(ℎ + 𝑏, 𝑘)&𝐵′ (ℎ − 𝑏, 𝑘)
d Foci 𝐹(ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑐)&𝐹 ′ (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑐)
e 𝑏2 2𝑏 2
𝑏2
𝑥 =ℎ± | | (ℎ ± , 𝑘 ± 𝑐)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
𝑎
𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦−𝑘 =±
𝑏
Example 2: Draw the graph of 12𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2 + 72𝑦 + 16𝑥 + 44 = 0.
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
Case 4: 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1
12(𝑦 + 6𝑦 + 9) − 4(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) = −44 + 108 − 16
2
(𝑦 + 3)2 (𝑥 − 2)2 a Center (2, -3)

− = 1 b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(2, −1)&𝑉 ′ (2, −5)
4 12
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(2 + 2√3, −3)&𝐵 ′ (2 − 2√3, −3)
𝑐 2 = 4 + 12 d Foci 𝐹(2,1)&𝐹 ′ (2, −7)
𝑐 = ±4 Latus Rectum Length Endpoints
12 2(12) (8,1); (−4,1)
e 𝑥 =2± | |
2 2 (8, −7); (−4, −7)
𝑥 = 8 & 𝑥 = −4 12
4
f Eccentricity 𝑒= =2
2
56
2(𝑥 − 2)
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦+3=±
2√3
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦−3)2
Example 3: Sketch the graph of − = 1.
16 9
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥+2)2 (𝑦−3)2

Case 3: − =1→ − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 16 9
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 a Center (-2, 3)
𝑐 2 = 42 + 32 b Endpoints of the Transverse axis 𝑉(2, 3)&𝑉 ′ (−6,3)
𝑐 2 = 16 + 9 c Endpoints of the Conjugate axis 𝐵(−2,6)&𝐵′ (−2, 0)
𝑐 = ±5 d Foci 𝐹(3,3)&𝐹 ′ (−7,3)
Length Endpoints
Latus Rectum
21 3
32 2(3)2 (3, ) & (3, )
e 𝑦 =3± | | 4 4
4 4 21 3
21 3 9 (−7, ) &(−7, )
𝑦= &𝑦 = 4 4
4 4 2
5
4
3(𝑥 + 2)
g Equations of the Asymptotes 𝑦−3=±
4
Exercises
1. Find a – g and sketch the hyperbola of each of the following equations.
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2 (𝑥−4)2 (𝑦−5)2
a. 16 − =1 e. 16 − =1 i. − =1
4 4 25 25
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2 (𝑦−3)2 (𝑥+2)2
b. 36 − 64 = 1 f. 36 − =1 j. − =1
9 16 9
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2 (𝑦−5)2 (𝑥+5)2
c. 25 − =1 g. 25 − =1 k. − =1
9 9 36 36
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
d. 49 − 49 = 1 h. 64 − 64 = 1
2. Find the equation of the hyperbola that satisfies the given conditions.
a. Center at C(2, 2), a focus at F(10, 2) and a vertex at V(5, 2).
b. Center at C(-2, 2), a focus at F(6, 2) and a vertex at V(4, 2).
c. Center at C(2, -2), transverse axis parallel to the x – axis and its length is 6, length of the conjugate
axis is 10.
d. Center at C(0, 0), transverse axis along the x – axis, passing thru’ the points P(3, 5) and P(2, -3).
e. Vertex at V(6, 5), conjugate axis along the x – axis, asymptote 5𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 30 = 0 and
5𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 30 = 0.
3. Reduce each equation to standard form then find a – g, then sketch.
a. 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 26 = 0 d. 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 + 90𝑥 + 189 = 0
b. 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 + 36𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 16 = 0 e. 49𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 98𝑦 − 291 = 0
c. 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5 = 0
2 2
f. 4𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 2 − 54𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 81 = 0
57
Types of Conics
1. Non-Degenerate Conics
If the cutting plane is parallel to an element of the cone or parallel to one generator, a parabola is
formed; if the cutting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, a hyperbola is formed; if the cutting plane is
neither parallel to an element nor the base of the cone, an ellipse is formed. The circle is a special kind of
ellipse which is formed when the cutting plane which intersects each element or generator is perpendicular to
the axis of the cone. The hyperbola, parabola, ellipse, and the circle are known as the non-degenerate conics.
2. Degenerate Conics
The degenerate conics occur in the following manner: An ellipse degenerates into a point if the cutting
plane contains the vertex of the cone but does not contain an element or generator. A parabola degenerates
into a line if the cutting plane contains the vertex and only one element or generator. A hyperbola degenerates
into two intersecting lines if the cutting plane contains the vertex and two elements of two generators.
Any equation of the form 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 with real coefficients A, B, C, D, E and
F, of which A, B, and C are not all zero, represents a conic.
Let ∆= 𝐹(4𝐴𝐶 − 𝐵 2 ) + 𝐵𝐷𝐸 − 𝐴𝐸 2 − 𝐶𝐷2 be the discriminant of the second – degree equation. A
conic is non – degenerate if ∆≠ 0. However, it is degenerate if ∆= 0.
Furthermore, we can determine the type of conic formed by investigating the value of 𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶. The table
below shows the type of conic formed according to the value of 𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶.
Value of Non-Degenerate Conic Degenerate Conic

𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 ∆≠ 0 ∆= 0
𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 < 0 Ellipse Point
𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 0 Parabola Line
𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 > 0 Hyperbola Two intersecting lines
Example: Determine whether each of the following equations represents degenerate or non – degenerate
conics and describe the conic.
a) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 3 = 0 b) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 + 36𝑥 + 28𝑦 + 24 = 0
∆= 𝐹(4𝐴𝐶 − 𝐵 2 ) + 𝐵𝐷𝐸 − 𝐴𝐸 2 − 𝐶𝐷2 ∆= 𝐹(4𝐴𝐶 − 𝐵 2 ) + 𝐵𝐷𝐸 − 𝐴𝐸 2 − 𝐶𝐷2
 2

 = 3 4(1)(− 8) − (− 2) + (− 2)(4)(2) − 1(2) − (− 8)(4)
2 2
 2

 = 24 4(1)(4) − (− 4) + (− 4)(36)(28) − 1(28) − 4(36)
2 2
∆= 0 ∆= −10,000
The conic in (a) is degenerate. Since 𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 > 0, which is 36 > 0, the conic degenerates into two
intersecting lines while, the conic in (b) is non-degenerate. And since 𝐵 2 − 4𝐴 = 0, then the conic is a parabola.
Exercises
Determine whether the conic defined by each equation is degenerate or non-degenerate and describe the kind of conic.
1. 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 − 16𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 19 = 0 4. 4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 5𝑦 2 − 30𝑦 − 15 = 0

2. 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑥 + 5𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 10 = 0 5. 10𝑥 2 + 40𝑥 − 4𝑦 2 − 36𝑦 + 12 = 0
3. 7𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑦 + 36𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 28𝑦 + 9 = 0
58
Chapter 4 – TRANSFORMATION OF AXES
Wilmer G. Marquez
A curve which has a certain equation to a given pair of axes will, in general, have different equation when
referred to another pair of axes. The process of changing a pair of axes is known as transformation of coordinates, and
the new equation resulting from this transformation is called a transformed equation. The purpose of transformation s
basically to simplify the equation of the curve.
The equation of the circle of radius r has the simple form 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 if the center of the circle is at the
point of origin. If the origin is not at the center, the corresponding equation may be expressed in either of the less simple
forms (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0. This is an illustration of the fact that the
simplicity of the equation of a curve depends on the relative positions of the curve and the axes.
Translation of Axes
Translation of axes is a change of axes in which the new axes are respectively parallel to the original axes and
similarly directed.
Let the original coordinate system be called 𝑥𝑂𝑦 system and the new system be called 𝑥′𝑂′𝑦′ system, such
that the 𝑥 ′ − and 𝑦 ′ − axes are parallel to the 𝑥 − and 𝑦 − axes, respectively of the 𝑥𝑂𝑦 system. Let 𝑂′ be the
origin of the 𝑥′𝑂′𝑦′ system with coordinates (ℎ, 𝑘). Hence the new axes can be obtained by shifting the old axes ℎ
units horizontally and 𝑘 units vertically while keeping their directions unchanged.
Example 1: Find the new coordinates of 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)if the axes are translated to the new origin 𝑂′ (ℎ, 𝑘).
Let (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ) be the coordinates of the given point with respect to the 𝑥′𝑂′𝑦′ system which
are the new coordinates of the given point.
Example 2: Find the new coordinates of the

a) P(4, -6) if the axes are translated to the new origin 𝑂′ (−5,2).
b) P(4, -2) if the origin is moved to 𝑂′ (−2,3) by translation.
Example 3: Find the new equation of the line if the origin is moved to the given point 𝑂′ by a translation of
axes.
a) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4 = 0; 𝑂′ (3, −2) b) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0; 𝑂′ (3,3)
Example 4: Find the new equation of the circle

a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0 if the axes are translated to the new origin 𝑂′ (4,3).
b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3 = 0 after a translation that moves the origin to the point
(3, -2).
Example 5: Translate the axes so that no first – degree terms will appear in the transformed equation of the
circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 12 = 0.
Exercises
1. Determine the new coordinates of the points if the axes are translated so that the new origin is at the given
point 𝑂′.
a) 𝐴(3,2); 𝑂′ (4,1) c) 𝐴(6,3); 𝑂′ (2, −3) e) 𝐴(3,1); 𝑂′ (−2, −3)
b) 𝐴(3, −2); 𝑂′ (5, −3) d) 𝐴(4, −3); 𝑂′ (5, −1) f) 𝐴(−4, −2); 𝑂′ (−2,2)
59
2. Find the new equation of the origin is moved to the given point 𝑂′ by translation of axes.
a) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6 = 0; 𝑂′ (−2,2) h) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 5 = 0; 𝑂′ (1, −4)
b) 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5 = 0; 𝑂′ (−1,2) i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 8 = 0; 𝑂′ (−6,3)
c) 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2 = 0; 𝑂′ (−3, −2) j) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 4 = 0; 𝑂′ (−2,1)
d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 = 0; 𝑂′ (0,1) k) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 7 = 0; 𝑂′ (3,8)
e) 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 8 = 0; 𝑂′ (2,0) l) 3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 14 = 0; 𝑂′ (−3, −1)
f) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 12 = 0; 𝑂′ (2,1) m) 16𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 64𝑥 + 54𝑦 + 1 = 0; 𝑂′ (2, −3)
g) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0; 𝑂′ (2,2) n) 25x 2 + 16 y 2 − 150x + 128y + 81 = 0; O' (3,−4)
3. Find the point to which the origin must be translated in order that the transformed equation will have no first-
degree term. Give the transformed equation.
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 8 = 0 d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0
b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 3 = 0 e) 4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 16𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 3 = 0
c) 𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 8𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 5 = 0
2 2
f) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 − 14𝑦 − 7 = 0
Simplifying Equations by Translation

It can be shown that by translating the axes, we can transform a second-degree equation of the form
a) 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 into 𝐴𝑥′2 + 𝐸𝑦 ′ = 0
b) 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 into 𝐶𝑦′2 + 𝐸𝑥 ′ = 0
c) 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 into 𝐴𝑥′2 + 𝐶𝑦′2 + 𝐹 = 0
First Method
Steps Example
𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 2 = 0
1 Write the equation in the standard form after completing the square. (𝑦 − 4)𝟐 = 6(𝑥 + 3)
2 Substitute 𝑥′ by 𝑥 − ℎ and 𝑦′ by 𝑦 − 𝑘 to find the transformed equation. 𝑦′𝟐 = 6𝑥′
3 Write the coordinates of the new origin 𝑂′ in the form (ℎ, 𝑘). 𝑂′ (−3,4)
Second Method
Steps Example
𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 2 = 0
Substitute the equations of translation 𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + ℎ and
1 (𝑦 ′ + 𝑘)𝟐 − 6(𝑥 ′ + ℎ) − 8(𝑦 ′ + 𝑘) − 2 = 0
𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ + 𝑘 into the given equation.
Multiply out and arrange the terms according to terms of
2 𝑦′𝟐 − 6𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 ′ (2𝑘 − 8) + (𝑘 2 − 6ℎ − 8𝑘 − 2) = 0
descending degree un 𝑥′ and 𝑦′.
Determine the values of ℎ and 𝑘 so that the transformed
3 equation will contain no linear term in either 𝑥′ or 𝑦′ and 2𝑘 − 8 = 0 and (𝑘 2 − 6ℎ − 8𝑘 − 2) = 0
no constant term.
Substitute ℎ and 𝑘 in the equation to get the desired
4 𝑦′2 = 6𝑥′ or 𝑦′2 − 6𝑥 ′ = 0
equation (transformed).
5 Write coordinates of the new origin 𝑂′ in the form (ℎ, 𝑘). 𝑂′ (−3,4)
60
Exercises
Simplify each of the following equations
1. 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 8 = 0 6. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 16𝑦 = 0
2. 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 19 = 0 7. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 16𝑦 + 1 = 0
3. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 16 = 0 8. −𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 18𝑦 + 5 = 0
4. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 13 = 0 9. 16𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 64𝑥 + 54𝑦 + 1 = 0
5. 25𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 150𝑥 − 90𝑦 + 225 = 0 10. 9𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 − 54𝑥 − 16𝑦 + 29 = 0
61

Materials in Analytic Geometry

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Materials in Analytic Geometry

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\Philippine Normal University

National Center of Teacher Education

Interval Notation and Graphs

6. 1 > x > -1 (-1, 1) B

First-Degree Inequalities in One Variable

Linear Inequality in Two Variables

TRY THESE: Graph the Inequalities

2. Compound inequality with or

Inequalities Involving Absolute Values

What do numbers – 5 and +5 have in common?

Properties of Absolute Value

2. a  k if and only if – k < a < k, that is (a < k) and (a > - k).

3. a  k if and only if a < - k or a > k, that is (a < - k)  (a > k).

A. The Rectangular Coordinate System, Directed and Undirected Line Segment

2. Directed and Undirected Line Segment

d) Undirected distance is the length of the segment, which we take as positive.

4.2 Slant Line

Since PQ is a slant line, we use Eq. 3, thus PQ = ( y1 − y2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2

B) Midpoint, Division of Line Segment

through points A (x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) . If the ratio

For the coordinates of P1

For the coordinates of P1

For the coordinates of P2

For the coordinates of P1

For the coordinates of P2

Point A Point B Ratio ( r)

C) Slopes of Straight Lines / Inclination of Straight Line

Theorem about slope:

D) Angle between Two Lines

Solution: i) Plot the points and draw the triangle.

iii) Compute for the measures of the angles of the triangle

tan A = 4 tan B = 12 tan C = 3

B. Solve each problem accurately.

Example 2: Write the equation 4 x − 9 y = −36 in the intercept form.

G) Distance Between a Line and a Point

Theorem: Distance between a point and a straight line

2. Find the distance between the parallel lines 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + c1 = 0.

The general form of the second degree equation is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0. If B = 0 in

The general equation of the circle is 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0, where A, C, D, E, and F are

1.1 Circles Determined by Geometric Conditions

1. P(0, 3) Q(2, 4) R(1, 0)

C. Formulate the equation based from the given information.

Note: If 𝑘 = −1, the equation will be reduced to a linear equation

Cases of Radical Axes

2. Circles intersect in one point – tangent circles

3. Circles with no common point

A. Parabola with vertex at the origin (h, k) = (0, 0)

Example 2: Sketch the graph of 2𝑦 2 + 5𝑥 = 0.

Example 3: Sketch the graph of 𝑥 2 = 4𝑦.

B. Parabola with vertex at (h, k) ≠ (0, 0)

Example 1: Draw the graph of the equation 𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 25 = 0.

Example 2: Construct the graph of the equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12𝑦 − 51 = 0.

𝐴(1,1) → 1+𝐷+𝐸+𝐹 =0 ← 𝐸𝑞. 1

We get D = -2; E = -1; and F = 2, Hence the equation is 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0.

3.1 Ellipse with center at the Origin (h, k) = (0, 0)

𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 Latus Rectum Length Endpoints

Example 2: Sketch the ellipse represented by the equation 9𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 225.

B. Ellipse with center at the origin (h, k) ≠ (0, 0)

Latus Rectum Length Endpoints

Latus Rectum Length Endpoints

a Center (7, -2)

(𝑥−3)2 (𝑦−2)2 (𝑥−3)2 (𝑦−2)2