TOPIC - 4 - EDEXCEL (IAS)

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION, BIODIVERSITY AND

CONSERVATION
4A- PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

THE CELL WALL

Plants and animals are eukaryotes. Typical animal cell and a typical plant cell share
some common features such as nucleus, cell surface membrane, mitochondria,
Golgi body, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum but also have fundamental
differences such as cell wall, chloroplasts.
THE PLANT CELL WALL
Plant cells are more regular in shape due to the cell wall which gives the shape and
strength, mostly made of insoluble cellulose. It is fully permeable which allows
passing through everything that is dissolved in water, not acts as a barrier.
If lignin or suberin is added to the cell wall, it reduces the permeability of the cell
wall and water, and dissolved substances cannot pass through it.
Plant cell wall consists of several layers. The middle lamella which is mostly made
of pectin (a polysaccharide) is the first layer. It is made when a plant cell divides
into two new cells.
Middle lamella acts like glue and holds the cell walls of the adjacent plant cells
together. Negatively charged carboxyl groups of pectin combine with the positively
charged calcium ions to make calcium pectate which binds to the cellulose on
either side to make the primary cell wall, which is a thin, flexible layer.
As the plant ages, secondary thickening may occur. The cellulose microfibrils laid
densely at different angles to each other to make it more rigid structure. To harden
this structure, hemicelluloses and lignin are added to the cell wall to produce wood
which is even more rigid.
Some plants contain many long cells with cellulose cell walls that are heavily
lignified, which are called plant fibres. They are used for clothing, building material,
ropes and paper.
THE CHEMISTRY OF CELLULOSE
Cellulose is the main component of the cell wall and it’s a complex carbohydrate.
It consists of long chains of beta glucose joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds where one
beta glucose molecule must be inverted. This arrangement makes it easier to from
the bond.
In between the neighbouring chains, hydrogen bonds form cross-links to hold them
firmly.
(Fig C)
Due to the hydrogen bonds, cellulose becomes a material with considerable
strength.
Cellulose molecules do not coil or spiral, but stay as long, straight chains.
Most animals do not have the enzymes needed to break the 1-4 glycosidic bonds
in cellulose. Therefore, they cannot digest cellulose. Ruminant animals use the
cellulose -digesting enzymes from bacteria living bin their gut. Termites use the
enzymes from protozoa. In the human diet, cellulose in plant food act as roughage
or fibre.
In the cell wall around 10000-100000cellulose molecules form microfibrils that
can be seen under electron microscope. These microfibrils are deposited in layers
which are held together by a matrix of hemicelluloses and shot-chain
carbohydrates. The combination of cellulose microfibrils in the flexible matrix
makes a composite material in the plant cell wall.
The turgid (swollen) cells provide the support to the plant and when the water is
in short supply, the plant gets wilt as the cells become flaccid (floppy, soft)
PLASMODESMATA
Although the plant cells enclose in cellulose cell walls, they communicate closely
with each other.
Primary cell walls do not have lignin, only cellulose. Materials are exchanged
through special cytoplasmic bridges called plasmodesmata. Plasmodesmata are
threads of cytoplasm that connect cytoplasm of neighboring cells and the signaling
substances can pass from one cell to another. Therefore, they are important in cell
communication.
(Fig E)
In plant grafting, plasmodesmata bridges establish between the host tissue and
the graft tissue.
In the regions of plasmodesmata, the cell walls are thinner. The interconnected
cytoplasm of the cells is called the symplast.
When secondary thickening happens, hemicelluloses and lignin are deposited,
and the cell walls become thicker.
In the areas around plasmodesmata, this process does not happen, leaving thin
areas of the cell wall called pits.
PLANT ORGANELLES
Plant cells may contain some other organelles that are not found in animal cells.
They are permanent vacuoles and chloroplasts.
PERMANENT VACUOLE
Vacuole is a fluid-filled space inside the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane,
the tonoplast.
Vacuoles present in animal cells are small and are not permanent.
The vacuole in plant cells can occupy 80% of the volume of the plant cell. It is filled
with cell sap, a solution of various substances in water. This solution causes water
to move into the cell by osmosis. When water moves in, the cytoplasm presses
against the cell wall. This keeps the cells turgid, and it maintains the shape of the
plant cell.
Vacuoles are important to store different substances, such as pigments (eg;
betacyanin pigment in beetroot), proteins (proteins in the cells of seeds and
fruits).
In some plants, vacuoles contain lytic enzymes and have a similar function to
lysosomes in animal cells.
Vacuoles often store waste products. Eg digitalis, a chemical found in foxgloves
that can act as heart drug and a deadly poison is stored in vacuoles.
CHLOROPLASTS
Chloroplasts are the sites for photosynthesis and are present only in the cells of
green parts of the plant.
Cells in flowers, seeds and roots, the internal cells of stems and the transport
tissues contain no chloroplasts.
Detailed structure of a chloroplast is shown below.
(Fig B)

The similarities between chloroplasts and mitochondria are listed below.

1. Both are large organelles, have a biconvex shape
2. Contain their own DNA
3. Are surrounded by an outer membrane
4. Have an enormously folded inner membrane which provides a large surface
area for enzyme-controlled reactions
5. Are thought to have been free-living prokaryotic organisms that were
engulfed by and became part of other cells more than 2000million years ago
The differences are,
1. Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis.
2. Contain the green pigment, chlorophyll which trap energy from light, making
it available for the plant to use.
AMYLOPLASTS
Another specialized plant organelle which is colourless and store starch. Whenever
necessary, starch can be converted to glucose to provide energy.
Potato tubers contain lots of amyloplasts that store starch.
PLANT STEMS
Plant cells are organized into tissues and organs that carry out specific functions in
the plants.
Stem is an organ which provide support and transport.
Stem also hold the leaves in the best position to receive sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Stems even support for the flowers in a way to maximise the possibility of
pollination.
Since plants are frequently blown by wind and battered by rain, the stem must
provide a flexible support.
The movement of materials around the plant also a major function done by the
stem. The products of photosynthesis are carried from the leaves to other parts
where they are needed. Water moves through the stem from the roots up to the
leaves and carries mineral ions which are needed for the synthesis of complex
chemicals.
Most stems are green because they contain chlorophyll and carry out small amount
of photosynthesis. But this is not a major function of the stem.
Some plants do not have stems. Eg; liverworts, mosses
But majority of more complex plants have stems.
THE TISSUES THAT MAKE UP THE STEMS
The distribution of the different tissues in the stem of a plant is shown below.
(Fig A)
The outer layer, epidermis protects the cells beneath it.
The parenchyma cells which are live, unspecialized cells, either act as a packing
tissue or involves in photosynthesis. The parenchyma cells in outer layers may
contain some chloroplasts. Some parenchyma in the stem is modified into
collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Collenchyma cells are live and have thick cellulose primary cell walls that are even
thicker at their corners, to provide the strength to the tissue. These cells are found
outside of the stem, just inside of the epidermis. These cells can stretch as the plant
grows and provide flexibility.
(Fig B) Collenchyma cells
SCLERENCHYMA
This is a modified parenchyma tissue found in plant stems.
When the plant grows, the weight of the upper part of the plant increases and
to support that sclerenchyma tissue is developed.
This tissue is found around the vascular bundles in older stems and in leaves.
All sclerenchyma cells have strong secondary walls made of cellulose microfibrils.
Some sclerenchyma makes fibres, very long cells often found in bundles or
cylinders around the outside of a stem or root.
Lignin is deposited on the walls of the fibres in a spiral or ring pattern making the
tissue stronger and more flexible. When the fibre is lignified, water cannot pass
through lignin and the cell contents die. So, the fibres become hollow tubes.
(Fig C)

When sclerenchyma cells completely lignified, it forms sclereids which are very
tough cells. Eg: the gritty texture of pears
TRANSPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS
Plants, the multicellular organisms need transport systems to fulfil their
requirements. Xylem and phloem are the main transport tissues in plants, and they
are associated together in vascular bundles in the stem, roots and leaves.
Xylem- carries water and dissolved mineral ions from the roots to the
photosynthetic parts of the plants. Xylem consists of different types of cells and
most cells are dead. The movement in the xylem is always upward. The main
functional unit of the xylem is the xylem vessels, the long tubular structures.
Phloem- This is a living tissues made of living cells which transport sucrose from
the leaves (sources) to the parts they are needed for growth or storage as starch.
The movement through the phloem can be both up and down the plant.
Cambium is a layer of unspecialized cells which divide to form specialized cells for
xylem and phloem.
The figure below shows the arrangement of tissues in a vascular bundle combine
strength and transport functions.
(Fig D)

XYLEM
Xylem starts as a living tissue and the first xylem that a plant makes is called the
protoxylem. In the protoxylem, the walls are not fully lignified, therefore it can
stretch and grow.
In the stem, the cellulose microfibrils in the walls of the xylem vessels arranged
vertically. This increases the strength of the tube and allows to resist the
compression forces.
When the stem ages and the cells stop growing, it increases the amount of lignin
added to the cell walls. This lignified tissue is now called metaxylem. Therefore,
the cells become impermeable to water and other substances. Then the contents
of the cell die, and the tissue becomes stronger and more supportive. The end walls
between the cells are broken down and xylem forms hollow tubes that runs from
the roots to the tip of the stems and leaves.
The formation of xylem vessels is shown in the diagram below.
(Fig E)

PHLOEM
Mature phloem transport organic solutes around the plant.
The movement of materials in the phloem is an active process called translocation.
The phloem cells joined to make very long tubes that run from shoots to the end
of roots. The phloem cells do not become lignified; therefore, the contents remain
live.
The walls between the cells become perforated forming specialized sieve plates.
Phloem sap flows through the holes in the sieve plate. When the gaps (pores) of
the sieve plate are formed, the nucleus, the tonoplast and some of the other
organelles break down. Therefore, the phloem sieve tube becomes a tube filled
with phloem sap. Mature phloem cells have no nucleus.
Phloem sieve tube cells can survive as they are closely associated with cells called
companion cells. These companion cells are very active, and they have all the
normal organelles. They are linked to the sieve tube cells by many plasmodesmata.
The cell membranes of the companion cells have many infoldings to increase the
surface area to transport sucrose into the cell cytoplasm. They also have many
mitochondria to supply ATP for active transport.
All these features suggest that companion cells support the sieve tube cells.
(Fig F)

SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT THROUGHOUT THE PLANT

Water, mineral ions and sugars should be transported all over the plant.
The support and strength provided by sclerenchyma and the xylem are important
in the stem, roots and the leaves.
The roots need to be able to cope with the bending and straining forces as the
plant moves in the wind.
The leaves need to be kept flat to receive maximum amount of sunlight. The main
vein through the leaf has large xylem vessels and sclerenchyma to give the
maximum support.
Xylem, phloem and sclerenchyma are often found in vascular bundles. In the stem
and root, xylem is on the inside, the phloem on the outside and often a layer of
sclerenchyma around that.
The arrangement of XY, PH and sclerenchyma tissue in the main vein of a leaf is
shown below.
(Fig G)

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER AND MINERALS IN PLANTS

Sugars transported in phloem are needed for respiration and for building for new
materials.
Water is a vital element for all the living organisms as most biological reactions
happen in the presence of water. Since about 95% of plants are water, its essential
for their survival.
The importance of water for plants can be summarized as follows.
1. In the process of photosynthesis, water combines with carbon dioxide to
make glucose and oxygen, using energy from light.
2. For support. When water enters the vacuoles by osmosis, pressure is
created by the cytoplasm against the cell wall which makes the cells rigid.
Non-woody plants rely on that pressure. If non-woody plants lack of water,
they wilt and cannot keep upright.
3. For transport, plants need water. Mineral ions are carried in the xylem in a
mass transport system which is aided by transpiration. Sugars are carried in
the phloem, dissolved in the water and moved by active transport.
4. Cooling effect. The evaporation of water from the leaves helps cool the
plant.
WHY ARE MINERALS NEEDED BY PLANTS?
Certain minerals are needed to synthesize proteins and fats. Also, to make
substances required for healthy growth. Minerals are absorbed from the soil.
NITRATES
To make amino acids and therefore proteins (enzymes). To make DNA and many
hormones, plants need nitrates. When plants lack of nitrates, the older leaves turn
yellow and die. Stunted growth is resulted and finally the plant dies.
CALCIUM
Calcium ions in the middle lamella of plant cell walls, combines with pectin to
make calcium pectate which holds plant cells together.
Calcium ions are important in the permeability of membranes.
In the lack of calcium, young leaves become yellow and crinkly, and the growing
points die.
MAGNESIUM
These ions are needed to produce chlorophyll which traps the light in
photosynthesis. For the activation of some plant enzymes and for the synthesis of
nucleic acids also they are needed. Deficiency causes the yellow areas on older
leaves and slowing down the growth.
USING PLANT STARCH AND FIBRES
Plants provide materials for building, clothing, medicine, food and drinks, for dyes
and for fuel.
In the human diet, plants provide macronutrients of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
and many micronutrients in the form of vitamins and minerals. Fibre in plant
materials help in the working of the gut.
Some plants are grown as staple foods which provide basic energy. Many of the
cells filled with amyloplasts which are starch stores.
Storage tubers of yam are the starch-storage organelles that are used as a food
and may be used to reproduce the species.
Wheat and rice are very rich source of starch that provide plenty of carbohydrates,
some proteins, oils and small amounts of micronutrients. Therefore, a good food
for people.
Olives, sunflowers, linseed and many nuts are used for the oil they contain.
The protein requirements for people who eat little, or no meat are provided by the
pulses such as beans, peas, lentils, soya beans and chickpeas.
Dates and bananas are very good sources of sugars and vitamins.
For animals, grass is a good source of food.
FROM CONSTRUCTION TO CLOTHING
The structure of cellulose fibre gives it to a great strength.
These fibres may be further toughened and strengthened by lignin, turning them
into wood.
PLANT FIBRES
Plant fibres such as hemp, jute, manila, flax and sisal have used to make ropes,
paper and cloth.
First the fibres need to be extracted from the plant. Fibres are very long
sclerenchyma cells and xylem tissue and are very tough and strong. Cellulose and
lignified cellulose are not easily broken down either by chemicals or by enzymes.
The matrix of pectates and other compounds around the fibres can be dissolved or
removed.
Plant fibres have a great tensile strength, they cannot easily be broken by pulling.
This feature along with their flexibility makes them very useful to us.
Usually, these fibres exist in bundles. Therefore, much stronger than the individual
cells.
HOW FIBRES ARE PROCESSED TO MAKE PRODUCTS
The traditional methods of producing fibres rely on the actions of natural
decomposers. This is called retting.
But now, the natural retting has been replaced by manufacturing processes using
chemicals enzymes that do the same thing quickly.
Cotton is the most widely used of the natural fibres. It is produced in the form of
pure fibres, packed around the seeds, therefore no need for retting or other
treatment.
The single cotton cells are long, but not long enough to use for our purpose. In the
process of spinning, those short single fibres are pulled out and twisted together
to form a long continuous thread and woven together to make a fabric. Similar
processes are used with other plant fibres , jute, sisal and hemp.
The synthetic/ artificial fibres such nylon, polyester is widely used now. They are
quite cheap, easy to use and do not crease. But these fibres do not absorb sweat.
They are made from crude oil, a non-sustainable resource which gets expensive
and is rapidly declining.
Sustainability (using materials which can be replaced) is a very important fact.
In developing sustainable resources, plants are vital. Plants absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere and lock it into their cells in the process of photosynthesis.
Therefore, natural plant fibres are a much more sustainable resource for a range of
uses from clothing fabrics to ropes and insulating materials. They are more
absorbent and more comfortable to wear.
WOOD
Wood is made lignified cellulose fibres embedded in hemicelluloses and lignin.
The cellulose fibres in wood are very resistant to compression (squeezing by
weight), so can bear weight in buildings.
The matrix of the wood is flexible. Because of the intermeshing cellulose fibres, it
does not crack, when hammering a nail or cut into small pieces to make joints
without damaging the strength of the wood.
Paper is made from fibres from wood. It is not easy to extract wood fibres because,
the matrix around the wood fibres contains lignin. In this process, wood is soaked
in very strong alkalis such as caustic soda to produce a pulp. Then, thin layers of
pulp are pressed onto frames where they dry to make paper.
Wood has many uses, eg; making baskets, fencing hurdles, boats, cricket bats,
furniture and building homes.
Wood is a good insulator, therefore needs less heating during winter and cooling
in the summer than a brick house.
Wood locks up CO2 and is a sustainable resource if its managed carefully by
replanting programmes.
Wood can be carbon neutral (a process where no net carbon is released into the
atmosphere) -taking in carbon as it grows and releasing it as it is burnt. Wood is
a renewable energy source.
BIOPLASTICS
The use of natural materials has declined with the development of new synthetic
materials produced from oil-based chemicals, particularly plastics.
Plastics are synthetic polymers. They are long chains, made of repeating units of
small monomer molecules such as ethene and propene.
Plastics have different forms, as soft flexible solids with low melting point and as a
hard brittle materials with very high melting point.
They are used to make a wide range of products, from packaging to artificial joints
and from cutlery to parts of cars.
Plastics caused environmental problems; therefore, modern products are made
from natural products.
Most plastics such as polythene and PVC are polymers. They are made from
petrochemicals originating from oil which is a non-renewable resource.
Plastics cannot be decomposed by decomposers therefore, non-biodegradable
which leads to plastic pollution. Some plastics can be melted down and recycled
but many cannot.
BIOLOGICAL POLYMERS
Bioplastics, produced by using biological polymers have below potential benefits.
1. They are a sustainable resource. Starch or cellulose comes from the plants
such as maize, wheat, potatoes and sugar beet. These plants can be grown
easily to supply the demands of the bioplastic industry.
2. They are biodegradable. Bacteria and fungi can easily decompose bioplastics
as they are based on biological molecules, although the process is slow.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BIOPLASTICS
Cellulose-based plastics are made from wood pulp and are mainly used to make
plastic wrapping for food.
Cellophane is a commonly used bioplastic.
Most widely used bioplastic is the thermoplastic starch, which is made from starch
extracted from potatoes and maize. The extracted starch then mixed with other
compounds such as gelatin, that change the properties of starch. This plastic is used
to make capsules for drugs in the pharmaceutical industry. Thermoplastic starch is
smooth, shiny and easy to swallow and absorbs water and readily digested.
Another bioplastic, polylactic acid (PLA), very similar to polythene, but is
biodegradable, is produced from maize or sugar cane. This is used to make
computer casings, mobile phones and drinking cups.
Poly-3-hydroxybutrate (PHB) is a stiff biopolymer which is used to make ropes,
bank notes, car parts.
When bioplastics are broken down by decomposes, they can produce methane, a
greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 released when they are burned. So can be
damaging to the environment. The energy released during burning can be used to
generate electricity and make more plastics.
The plastics made from petrochemicals (oil-based plastics) becoming increasingly
available.
Bioplastics are more expensive than oil-based plastics.
To make bioplastics, crops such as maize, wheat, sugar cane and sugar beet are
used. These crops are used for food as well. Currently, people around the world do
not get enough food. Therefore, we must decide whether these limited crops are
used for food or for bioplastics or biofuels.

PLANT-BASED MEDICINES
Plants produce a vast range of chemicals. Some chemicals deter animals who try
to eat the plant. Some chemicals destroy microorganisms that cause diseases.
It’s been found that these chemicals are beneficial to humans as well.
Bacteria cause human diseases such as tuberculosis and diphtheria.
Crops are lost each year due to bacterial and fungal diseases.
Animals have defense systems against invading pathogens. Plants also have
different ways of protecting themselves against microbial attack.
BACTERIAL GROWTH
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. In ideal conditions (plenty of food, oxygen, a
warm temperature and water) they divide every 20 minutes.
For scientific experiments, they should be cultured. When culturing, the correct
levels of nutrients, oxygen, ideal pH and temperature should be provided to the
culture medium on agar plates.
When culturing microorganisms, a great care should be taken due to the following
reasons.
 1. Although the required microorganism is completely harmless, a pathogenic
mutant strain could arise.
2. The culture medium can be contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms
from the environment.
3. When growing a pure strain of a microorganism, another microorganism
from the air or from our skin can contaminate the culture.
Therefore, when handling, culturing or disposing of microorganisms, safety
precautions must be taken.
Aseptic techniques should be maintained to keep everything sterile. Before the
culture is started, all the equipment must be sterile.
The instrument used for inoculating the agar plate (adding the bacteria to the
plate) must be sterilized in a Bunsen burner flame. It is very important to leave a
Bunsen burner on a yellow flame on the lab bench to create convection currents to
carry airborne bacteria away from the plates.
When disposing the cultures, it should be done safely by sealing them in plastic
bags and sterilizing them at 1210C for 15mins under high pressure.
The danger of accidentally infecting people, animals or plants with pathogens
should be considered.
PLANT DEFENCES AGAINST MICROORGANISMS
Plants can provide ideal environments for bacteria and fungi to grow.
Microorganisms damage or destroy the plants. Many plants have evolved chemical
defenses to kill any microbes that will invade and cause diseases. These chemical
defenses include antiseptic compounds and antibiotics.
Eg: cotton plants produce a phenol called gossypol which is an antiseptic that kills
bacteria who attack the seed.
ANTIMICROBIAL PLANT EXTRACTS
Some plants and fungi show antimicrobial properties and contain chemicals that
kill bacteria and fungi.
In laboratories, the antimicrobial properties of different plant extracts can be
investigated.
Agar culture plates are used to grow bacterial cultures with discs of filter paper
soaked in plant extract placed on the agar. If the plant extract kills the bacteria, or
stop them growing, a clear area around the disc would be seen.
EXTRACTING GRUGS FROM PLANTS
Apart from antimicrobial chemicals, plants produce some other chemicals that
are effective in pain relief and destroying cancer cells.
Eg: salicylic acid, which is a pain relief, derived from a species of willow. Beavers
eat willow bark, and the pain-relieving compound gets concentrated in the anal
glands.
Scientists have extracted this active compound, salicylic acid from willow bark,
purified and developed. The small white tablet we take, aspirin contains a closely
related safer compound named acetylsalicylic acid.
Major advantages of extracting and purifying the beneficial drugs from plants:
• Can give known, repeatable doses of the active ingredient.
The levels of chemicals in a plant will vary with the age of the plant, the season of
the year and time of the day.
Enormous amount of plant materials is needed for these productions. In this
process, healing chemicals from plants should be isolated, then their chemical
structures should be analyzed, and the relevant drug is synthesized on an industrial
scale. More often, the original plant product is modified to make it more effective.
Malaria is a life-threatening disease, spread by mosquitoes and common in tropical
regions. Quinine, taken from the cinchona tree is used to treat malaria. Therefore,
the rich flora of the rainforests may be destroyed.
DEVELOPING NEW DRUGS
Various plants have been used to treat diseases. Modern pharmaceutical
companies have recognized the value of plant-based drugs.
WILLIAM WITHERING AND DIGITALIS SOUP
William Withering is a British doctor and a botanist who published a book on plants.
He developed an effective medicine from plants for heart failure.
Foxgloves are wild woodland flowering plants found in UK and Europe. Digitalis is
a chemical found in foxgloves that has been used as a poison for centuries.
Foxgloves are used to cure dropsy/swellings due to fluid retention (oedema)
which results when circulation is failing. Oedema causes a slow death as organs,
such as kidneys fail, legs swell, and the lungs fill with fluid.
William Withering could realize the medical potential of foxgloves.
Digitalis soup given as a treatment for serious heart condition which contains about
20 different herbs. Foxglove contained the active ingredient. Many patients got
better, some died due to digitalis poisoning. Some showed side-effects such as
nausea and vomiting.
The soup made from the dried and powdered leaves of the foxglove. The active
ingredient of the soup is digitalis that affects the beating of the heart. Therefore,
this soup was named “digitalis soup”. The patients were successfully treated with
this soup.
Drugs based on the chemicals in foxgloves, called digoxin are used by doctors
today.
TESTING PROMISING NEW MEDICINES
Every drug that come onto the market is the result of years of research and
development. The following facts are considered.
1. Effective- it cures, prevents or relieves the symptoms of the disease for
which it is designed
2. Safe- non-toxic and without unacceptable side-effects
3. Stable- can be stored for some time and used under normal conditions
 4. Easily taken into and removed from your body- able to get into target in your
body, and to be excreted once its job is done
5. Can be made on a large scale- in a very pure form, in large quantities and
quite cheaply
When a finding a new medicine, the chemicals that bind to our protein receptors
or to the active site of our enzymes are considered.
Researchers often use computer models to fit new structures into the active site
of enzymes or receptors that are important in disease processes.
When the researchers think they have a compound that might make a useful
medicine, they will patent it. A patent gives the inventor the right to be the only
one to make and sell their invention for the next 20 years. During this period more
testing is done.
The new compound is first tested on cell cultures, tissue cultures and whole organs
in the lab. Sometimes, the compound may fail at this stage. If it is passed, it will be
developed further.
DRUG DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMAL TESTING
Before trying a drug on people, the way of delivering the drug should be found, as
a tablet, a liquid medicine, injections or a nasal spray.
The potential drug should be stable, no risk of breaking down to form toxins or
inactive before it works.
At this stage, the drug is tested on animals to find out how it works, the way it is
taken into the cells or whether it is excreted safely.
Since mammals are similar to humans, initial tests are done using rats and mice.
They are small and quite easy to keep in humane conditions. Animal testing is very
expensive and time-consuming and having ethical issues. Some people have
ethical objections on using animals. Therefore, minimum number of animals are
used, avoiding the distress caused to them.
More often tissues cultures and computer models are used.
CLINICAL TRIALS
If the animal testing has been successful, human trials will be proceeded.
A regulatory authority (who takes decisions about testing and licensing of new
drugs) only allow to trial a drug on people, only if they are happy with all the tests
so far done.
In drug trials, some people are given a placebo, which is an inactive substance,
looks like the drug being trialed and is used as an experimental control.
In phase 1 trials, the new drug is given to a small number of healthy volunteers to
check,
1. Whether the drug works as expected in the human body
2. Whether it causes any unexpected side-effects
At the same time, scientists continue their experiments with animal trials to see
long-term effects of the drug.
If the drug is successful in phase 1 human trials, it goes into phase 2 trials.
In phase 2 trials, the drug is given to the patients affected by the target disease.
Between 100-500 patient volunteers are given the new drug and similar number is
given the best current treatment or a placebo. This trial is the first chance given
for the scientists and the doctors to see how the new drug affects a real patient.
The volunteer patients are closely monitored to find out the most effective dose
of the drug and any side-effects. According to the success of this phase, it is decided
whether the new drug is going to be a useful medicine.
Next is the phase 3 trial. In this phase over 5000 volunteer patients with the target
disease are given the new drug before getting the full approval.
Phase 3 trials are used to confirm the effectiveness and safety of the new drug.
Since large number of patients involve, there is a better chance of showing up any
unexpected adverse side-effects.
Data on effectiveness, side-effects and other information are collected and
assessed to see whether there are any statistically significant differences between
the new drug and the placebo or the currently available drug.
DOUBLE-BLIND TRIALS
Phase 2 and phase 3 trials are carried out as double-blind trials. Because both the
doctor and the scientists do not know whether the patient is receiving the new
drug, a control medicine or a placebo.
Patients often appear to respond to a drug because they think it is doing them
good. This response is called the placebo effect.
In clinical trials, it is very difficult to get a complete set of results, because some
patients stop taking the drug for various reasons or they do not take the drug
regularly.
If a new drug is found to be safe and effective in phase 3 trials, the pharmaceutical
company will get the approval for the drug to be sold.
When granting a license for the drug, the beneficial effects and possible harmful
effects are evaluated and take the final decision.
Even once a new drug is being used to treat patients, trials continue. The drug will
be monitored for safety and effectiveness for as long as it is used.
If any adverse reactions suffered by patients are reported, the greater benefits of
the drug over the risks are considered to get a balanced view.

4- B CLASSIFICATION
Biodiversity is the measure of variety of living organisms and their genetic
differences.
Biodiversity on earth is reducing rapidly day by day.
WHY CLASSIFY?
Different living organisms can be classified according to the differences and
similarities. Classification is important to understand how different types of living
organisms are related to each other and classification system makes these
ancestral relationships clear.
THE HISTRY OF TAXONOMY
Describing, classifying and naming of living organisms is the taxonomy.
When grouping organisms, their physical appearance or morphology. Therefore,
a close, clear observation is very important to understand the homologous
structures (structures that show common ancestry).
The first scientific classification system was introduced by the Swedish botanist,
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-78).
THE MAIN TAXONOMIC GROUPS
According to the modern classification, organisms are grouped into 3 main
domains: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota.
The main taxonomic groups are from largest to the smallest: domain, kingdom,
phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
The Archaea domain contains one kingdom, Archaebacteria. They are found in
extreme environments and in soil.
The Bacteria domain also contains one kingdom, Eubacteria. They are the true
bacteria and are important in diseases. They are present in the digestive systems
of many organisms and in recycling of nutrients in the environment.
Eukaryota domain has 4 kingdoms.
1. Protista- microscopic organisms and some are heterotrophs (eat other
organisms) and some are autotrophs (make their own food by
photosynthesis). Some are animal-like, some are plant-like and some are
more like fungi. Eg; Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, green and brown algae
2. Fungi- all heterotrophs, most are saprophytic, and some are parasitic. They
have chitin in their cell walls.
3. Plantae- all autotrophs (do photosynthesis- capture light by chlorophyll). Eg;
mosses, liverworts, ferns, flowering plants
4. Animals- all heterotrophs, feed on other organisms. Eg; invertebrates
(insects, molluscs, worms), vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
mammals)
THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM
It’s a naming system devised by Linnaeus, which is used universally.
In this naming system, every organism is given two names, the genus name and
second is the species or specific name.
When writing binomial names, following rules are considered.
1. Use italics
2. Genus name has an upper-case letter and the species name a lower-case
letter. Eg; Homo sapiens (human beings)
3. After the first use, binomial names are abbreviated to the initial of the genus
and then the species name. eg; H. sapiens
A genus is a group of species that all share common characteristics.
Species is a group of closely related organisms that are capable of interbreeding to
produce fertile offspring.
The level of classification of a domestic horse is as follows.
Domain-Eukaryota
Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Class-Mammalia
Order- Perissodactyla
Family- Equidae
Genus- Equus
Species- Equus caballus (domestic horse)
THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES
1. THE MORPHOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
This concept based on the appearance of organisms. The appearance of an
organism can be affected by different things. Within a group of closely related
organisms, there could be a huge variation.
Sometimes, huge differences can be seen between the male and female. Eg;
peacock and peahen. This is called sexual dimorphism.
Therefore, according to this concept, different sexes could be confused as different
species.
2. REPRODUCTIVE OR BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
This concept based on the reproductive behaviour of the organisms.
All the organisms in a species cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring
because they do not live in the same area.
According to the species model, if two individuals from different populations mate,
the genes cannot flow to the next generation. Therefore, they are not the same
species.
Eg; Horses and donkeys look similar, the offspring produced by them is a mule,
which is sterile. Therefore, they belong to two different species.
This concept is a good working concept for most animals, but less helpful in
classifying plants as they frequently interbreed with similar species to produce
fertile offspring.
OTHER DEFINITIONS OF SPECIES
The fundamental chemicals of life such as DNA, RNA and proteins are universal
among organisms and the differences among them are considered in building up of
models of species and their relationships.
Ecological species model- based on the ecological niche occupied by an organism.
Some organisms may occupy more than one niche.
Mate-recognition species model- based on the mating behaviours. But, many
species, mate with or cross-pollinate other species and may even produce fertile
offspring but belong to different species.
Genetic species model- based on DNA evidence. Earlier, collecting DNA was
difficult, time consuming and a costly process. But now, DNA analysis becomes
more faster and cheaper process, and this is the main way of classifying organisms.
LIMITATIONS OF SPECIES MODELS
When defining species, all models have certain limitations.
1. Finding the evidence- Observing the mating behaviours of organisms is
difficult. Setting up of breeding programme is time-consuming, expensive.
2. Plants of different but closely related species frequently interbreed and
produce fertile hybrids.
3. Many organisms do not reproduce sexually. Bacteria, many protists, fungi
mainly reproduce asexually.
4. Fossil organisms also need to be classified, although they cannot reproduce
or do not have any accessible DNA.
THE IMPORTANCE OF DNA IN CLASSIFICATION
Scientists have developed different techniques to analyse the DNA and proteins of
different organisms.
In DNA sequencing, the base sequences of the genome (all the genes of all the
chromosomes) of an organism are revealed. DNA sequencing leads to DNA
profiling which looks at the non-coding areas of DNA to identify patterns. These
patterns are unique to individuals.
The new science called bioinformatics which involves the development of the
software and computing tools that can be used to organize enormous quantities of
raw biological data.
Identifying species from their phenotype could be difficult, because the external
factors can change the appearance of individuals.
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
In species identification, patterns of DNA or RNA fragments of different
individuals can be used.
Gel electrophoresis is a type of chromatography, that can be used to separate DNA
and RNA fragments, proteins or amino acids according to their size and charge.
BIOCHEMICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Blood pigments are important in finding out the relationships between the
different groups. Any group contains only one type of blood pigment.
Eg; all vertebrates and many of the invertebrates have haemoglobin, all polychaete
worms have chlorocruorin and all molluscs and crustaceans have heamocyanin.
Analysis of the sequence of amino acids in some proteins also show relationships
within groups. Eg; in mammals’ analysis of fibrinogen reveals how closely the
different mammalian groups are related.
Therefore, a combination of DNA analysis, protein analysis and anatomical
observations may show the true relationships between organisms.
PHYLOGENETIC TREES
Phylogenetic trees are the models of how different organisms are related.
They are built up based on DNA and amino acid evidence to understand the
relationships between groups of organisms.
Below phylogenic tree shows the relationships between a range of different
animals.
(FIG C)
Earlier, the organisms divided into two large groups or domains, eukaryotes and
prokaryotes and eukaryotes developed from prokaryotes.
Endosymbionts – organisms that live inside the cells or the body of another
organism. Some scientists think that chloroplasts are the first endosymbiont, and
some think it is the mitochondria.
(Fig D) Model shows how eukaryotic cells may have developed by engulfing
prokaryotes.

According to the new theory, there are 3 domains, Bacteria, Archaea and
Eukaryota.

Below table which shows the differences between them should be written in the
book. (Table- A)
Archaea replicate by binary fission but is different from replication in bacteria.
The membrane structure and membrane proteins of Archaea are unique and
different from bacteria and Eukaryotes. The lipids in the cell membranes of Archaea
are branched and they provide extra strength in extreme conditions.
Fig E- shows possible relationships between the 3 domains of the living world.

• Three-domain classification
1. Domain: Bacteria
2. Domain: Archaea
3. Domain: Eukaryota

• Five-kingdom classification
1. Kingdom: Monera (Prokaryotes)
2. Kingdom: Protista
3. Kingdom: Fungi
4. Kingdom: Plantae
5. Kingdom: Animalia
According to the modern classification, there are 6 kingdoms.
1. Archaebacteria (Archaea): prokaryotic cells
Ancient bacteria that have a wide variety of lifestyles and bacteria that can survive
extreme conditions (extremophiles) such as heat, cold, pH, salinity and pressure.
They reproduce asexually.
2. Eubacteria (Bacteria): prokaryotic cells
True bacteria and cyanobacteria. They reproduce asexually.
3. Protista: Eukaryotic cells
All the single -celled eukaryotic organisms, the green algae, brown algae, slime
moulds. They reproduce asexually.
4. Fungi: Eukaryotic cells
Unicellular organisms (yeasts) and multicellular organisms (toadstools and
moulds). All are heterotrophs and reproduce asexually and sexually.
5. Plantae: Eukaryotic cells
All are multicellular autotrophs, produce their own food by photosynthesis. Eg;
mosses, liverworts, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants).
6. Animalia: Eukaryotic cells
All are multicellular and all are heterotrophs. Eg; invertebrates, vertebrates
Sexual reproduction is common, but some reproduce asexually.
4- C BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

Biodiversity is a measure of the variety of living organisms and their genetic

differences. Biodiversity is reducing rapidly day by day as a result of human
activities.
Biodiversity can be assessed on different levels, from species level in a habitat to
the genetic level within a population.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
Ecosystem is a biological community where organisms interact with each other
and with their physical environment.
All the organisms in an ecosystem are interdependent. Rich biodiversity means
presence of large number of species and higher genetic diversity among them.
Ecosystems with higher biodiversity are more stable and function smoothly than
the ecosystems with less biodiversity. If biodiversity is reduced in an area, the
natural balance may be destroyed.
In an ecosystem, decomposers, bacteria, fungi decompose waste into vital
nutrients which are taken up and used by plants. Plants absorb CO 2 and use in
photosynthesis. Water is needed in photosynthesis which then evaporates into the
atmosphere through transpiration.
Plant pollination, seed dispersal, soil fertility, and nutrient cycling (carbon and
nitrogen cycle) are vital for natural ecosystems.
Biodiversity provides the genetic variation which is important for the survival of
organisms in climate changes and diseases.
ASSESSING BIODIVERSITY AT THE SPECIES LEVEL
When measuring biodiversity at the species level, two main factors are considered.
1. Species richness- number of different species in an area
2. Relative species abundance- evenness of the distribution of the different
species
SPECIES RICHNESS (the number of different species in an area)
Tropical regions are generally rich in biodiversity. EG; Amazon Forest, tropical rain
forests, coral reefs
When moving from the wet tropics to temperate rain forests, species richness
decreases.
ENDEMISM
Endemism is another way of measuring biodiversity which considers the number of
endemic species in an area.
Endemic- a species that is found in only one place. Eg; kangaroos and koala bears
are endemic to Australia, Red slender loris of Sri Lanka.
A very stable ecosystem allows many complex relationships to develop between
species.
High levels of productivity in an ecosystem can support more organisms.
When organisms grow and reproduce rapidly, more mutations may occur leading
to more variations.
ENDEMIC SPECIES OF MADAGASCAR
Madagascar is a large island in East Africa. All most all the species found there, are
endemic to the island.
The species that are not endemic have been brought to Madagascar by the people
and these introduced species can cause many problems to the endemic species.
DESERT PUPFISH
The Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge is in the Nevada Desert, in USA.
The climate has changed, and the area became dry and arid. Most of the water
dried up leaving small ponds and springs. The fish trapped in the ponds could not
interbreed with those from other areas and they evolved independently and now
there are 4 separate species of desert pupfish each having different colours and
each is endemic to one place. Their survival levels are different.
Desert pupfish

SPECIES ABUNDANCE
This is a measure of the relative numbers of the different types of organisms.
The abundance of 5 species of plants in two plots are shown below.
Table -A

Lady's
Grass Daisies Dandelion Buttercups Bedstraw

Plot A 95% 2% 1% 1% 1%

Plot B 30% 20% 15% 15% 20%

In this case, plot B is more diverse than plot A.

Biodiversity hotspot- an area with a high level of biodiversity. If they are damaged,
many species will be lost.
When a species become extinct, the biodiversity of the world decreases. When a
new species evolves, biodiversity increases.
MEASURING BIODIVERSITY
Scientists have developed many ways of measuring the biodiversity of an
ecosystem each having different limitations.
Diversity Index at the species level within a habitat can be calculated by the
following formula.
D=N(N-1)/∑n(n-1)
Where,
D = diversity index
N = the total number of organisms of all species
N = the total number of organisms of each individual species
∑= the sum of all the values that follow
WORKED EXAMPLE- based on some samples of animals collected from a pond.

NUMBER OF ORGANISMS COLLECTED

SPECIES (n-1) n(n-1)
(n)
dragon fly larvae
4
mosquito larvae
12
water boatman
3
tadpole shrimp
4
copepods
17
Total number of
organisms (N)

*Calculate the diversity index.

Qn: A group of students counted the number of species present in a measured area
and the number individuals of the different species.
 NO OF ORGANISMS
SPECIES
COLLECTED(n)

holly 9

bramble 3

oak 3

butcher's broom 5

ivy 3

yew 1
Total no of
organisms(N)

Calculate the index of diversity of this area and decide whether it has high or low
biodiversity.

The areas that have high biodiversity, are very stable ecosystems. The ecosystems
that are rich in biodiversity, have a high level of productivity and the organisms
can grow and reproduce rapidly.
When an environment has extreme environmental conditions (eg deserts), the
biodiversity is low. These types of ecosystems are unstable and susceptible to
change. Severe frost, a flood, or a new pathogen can destroy one or more
populations. This type of ecosystems has unfilled niches. Niche is the role an
organism plays in a community (niche of a plant is the producer). Therefore, an
incoming organism can establish very rapidly and overpower the existing
organisms, if they are competing for food or territories.
The ecosystems with high biodiversity are very stable and moving in and out of a
new species will have no effect on the ecosystem.
Biodiversity can be lost due to natural events (such as volcanic eruption, flooding)
or as a result of human activities.
Small or isolated ecosystems are more vulnerable to damage and destruction. If
these areas are biodiversity hotspots, there is a high risk of losing the biodiversity
if natural or human-produced disaster takes place. Necessary steps should be taken
to conserve these ecosystems.
WHEN TO MEASURE BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is not constant; throughout the year it will change.
Biodiversity within a species also an important concept. The gene pool of a species
is all the genes in the genome, including all the different variants of each gene.
Modern DNA analysis allows to measure the genetic diversity within a species.
GENE AND ALLELE FREQUENCY
Mutations are the changes in the DNA structure. Many mutations have no effect
on the phenotype, but some may have useful or damaging effects.
Mutations can increase the gene pool of a population by increasing the number of
different alleles.
The relative frequency of an allele in a population is called the allele frequency.
If a mutation results an advantageous feature, it will be selected by the natural
selection and its frequency in the population will increase.

If the mutation is disadvantageous, it is removes from the gene pool by the

natural selection.
Sometimes, if environmental conditions change, the disadvantageous allele may
become advantageous.
The changes in allele frequency due to natural selection may lead to emerge new
species.
MEASURING GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
Genetic variation within a population is very important because without variation
a population is vulnerable.
By analyzing the DNA and comparing regions for similarities and differences, the
genetic diversity of populations can be measured.
For a characteristic feature, there are homozygous and heterozygous individuals.
If an organism is a homozygote, only one band is shown up in DNA analysis. But
heterozygote will show two bands, one band for each allele. This is used to calculate
heterozygosity index for the population using the following formula.
*Heterozygosity index= number of heterozygotes/number of individuals in the
population
Heterozygosity index is a useful measure of genetic diversity in a population.
A high heterozygosity index shows high level of genetic variation in a population.
Which is potentially a healthy population. Low index suggests a population is in
trouble.
Qn: The DNA of 23 individuals of a species of European toad has been analyzed.
Five of the toads are heterozygous and the rest are homozygous. Calculate the
heterozygosity index of the toad population.

When conserving biodiversity with limited funding, the areas with the highest
biodiversity should be selected to protect.

THE ISOLATED ISLANDS OF HAWAII

The islands of Hawaii are very isolated, and they have a great biodiversity., 1000
species of native flowers, 10000 species of insects, 1000 species of land snails and
about 100 species of birds.
Analysis of DNA revealed that endemic populations are very closely related
although some of them look different.
Places where endemism is common, have a rich biodiversity in species numbers,
but low genetic diversity. Therefore, these endemic populations are very
vulnerable to the diseases.
ADAPTATION TO A NICHE
Each organism exists in a niche. Niche is the role of an organism in the community.
A successful species is well adapted to its niche. The individuals of that species show
characteristics that increase the survival and reproduction. These genes are passing
to the next generation.
Adaptations are of different types, anatomical, physiological and behavioural.
Anatomical adaptations: involves the structure of an organism. Eg; sticky hairs of
the sundew plant to capture insects, thick layer of blubber in seals and whales.
Sundew plant:

Physiological adaptations: involves the way of the body works, different

biochemical reactions, or enzymes.
Eg; diving mammals can stay under water for much longer time than non-diving
mammals. When they are under water, the heart rate drops (this is called
bradycardia) and less blood is pumped around the body, less oxygen is used. The
main body muscles work effectively using anaerobic respiration than those of land
animals.
Behavioral adaptations; these adaptations are related to their behaviours for a
better survival. Eg; many insects and reptiles orientate themselves to receive
maximum amount of sunlight when temperature is low. This warmup helps them
to escape predators. When they get hot, they orientate to minimize the exposure
to the sun.
Hunting as a team, huddling together for warmth increase the survival chances of
both individuals and groups. Migrating of birds to avoid harsh conditions also a
behavioral adaptation.
ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL
Successful adaptations are important to survive and succeed in a particular
environment.
Fungal carnivores: Normally fungi are saprophytes, feeding on dead materials in
the soil. But some fungi (eg Arthrobotrys anchonia) are active carnivores, they
develop adaptations to capture and feed on Nematode worms. Some produce
sticky nets to trap them. Then they develop hyphae that penetrate the worm body
and is digested, nutrients are absorbed.
CAMELS
Camels are large mammals that live in hottest, driest niches in desert
environments. It’s a plant eater and show huge range of anatomical, physiological
and behavioural adaptations for their survival.
Anatomical adaptations of camels:
1. Large eyes for good vision, long lashes to protect the eyes from sandy
environment.
2. Long, slit-like nostrils- can close and protect the nostrils against sand and
wind.
3. Split upper lip, hairy, extensible and sensitive to identify and gather food,
avoid the thorns that are present in many desert plants.
4. Hump on the back- insulate from the heat of the sun, stored fats in the hump
allows easy evaporation of sweat and for cooling down the body.
5. Large flat feet with tough pads- to spread out the body weight when walking
and to prevent heat damage.
 6. Tough pads on the knees- to prevent damage from hot sand when camel
rests.

Physiological adaptations of camels:

Camels expose to extremes of temperatures in the deserts, extreme in the day and
cold at night. To cope with all these extremes, without using all their resources,
they show some physiological mechanisms.
1. Skin is covered with fine hairs which can be erected to trap an insulating
layer of air during cold nights.
2. Can withstand a wide range of internal (core) body temperature. Camels
maintain their body temperature within a 2oC range. But, when they are
under heat stress, when the camel is dehydrated, camel can maintain that
range over 6oC. This saves energy and water as it does not need to produce
so much sweat.
3. Camels can lose 30% of their body weight through water loss. Drinking water
in 10mins can make that water loss, without changing the osmotic potential
of the blood. The blood does not become thick (unable to flow) when the
camel is dehydrated.
 4. Hump of the camel contains fatty tissue which acts as a food store. During
cellular respiration, fat is broken down to release energy and water is
produced as a by-product. This metabolic water is used to survive longer
than most mammals without drinking water.
WATER BALANCE
In a desert, little water is available. Therefore, for the survival, camels must show
some adaptations.
1. Camel body tissues can withstand a loss of up to 30% of the body water
without being damaged and it can go for up to 10days without water in the
desert heat.
2. Without affecting the osmotic balance of the cells, they can drink up to 180
litres of water in 24 hrs.
3. When the fat in the hump is broken down in aerobic respiration, water is
produced as a waste. 20kg of fat releases a total of 21kg of water. Hump of
a camel can store around 35 kg of fat.
4. Water is lost by sweating, in urine and faeces. Camels minimize water loss by
sweating. Their kidneys produce concentrated urine which reduces water
loss and can drink salty water. When a camel is dehydrated, the production
of urine is slowed down to reduce the water loss.
5. Even when they are dehydrated, they produce dilute milk which enables
them to breed successfully in the desert. In these dry environments, they can
provide good milk for the people.
BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS OF CAMELS
These behavioural adaptations are more common in wild camels than in
domesticated camels.
1. When they feel dehydrated, they sit down early in the morning with their
legs tucked, so they absorb little heat from the ground by conduction.
2. Camels orientate their bodies towards the sun, so little body surface is
exposed to the heating rays.
3. To minimize the surface area of each camel exposed to the sun, groups of
camels lie down together.
 4. Camels are browsers. Their height allows them to eat wide range of
vegetation from the shrubs and trees.

GENE POOL AND GENETIC DIVERSITY

In genetics, dene is the unit of evolution.
The total of all the alleles in a population at a given time is called the gene pool.
Evolution is considered as a permanent change in allele frequencies within a
population. The frequency of alleles in a population is not fixed. Because, as the
environment changes, the allele frequencies of different alleles change through the
process of natural selection and adaptation.
Eg: warfarin is a chemical which prevents blood clotting, it is a rat-poison too.
When warfarin is introduced to rats, some rats did not die as they were resistant
to warfarin. Due to a mutation, by chance, they were resistant to the chemical. In
this example, the poison acted as a powerful selection pressure, and it increased
the allele frequency of the resistance allele.
When a change occurs in the environment, some individuals who have resistance
alleles get the advantage in the new conditions. Then they reproduce successfully
and pass that resistance alleles to the next generation. Those who are not having
this allele will die. Therefore, susceptible alleles reduce their allele frequency in the
population. Therefore, warfarin is not a rat-poison anymore. More powerful poison
should be developed.
Let’s consider a gene with two possible alleles, A and a.
The frequency of the dominant is represented by p and the frequency of the
recessive allele is represented by q. The frequency of the dominant allele plus the
frequency of the recessive allele will always equal 1.
p+ q = 1
Measuring the frequencies of heterozygotes and homozygotes in the population
is not possible. But we can observe the distribution of recessive phenotypes in a
population.
In 1908, two scientists, G.N.Hardy and W. Weinberg developed an equation, that
can be used to describe the relationship between the frequencies of alleles and
genotypes within a stable population that is not evolving. This is called the Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium theory.
According to this theory, in a population that is not evolving, the allele frequencies
will remain stable from one generation to the next if there are no other
evolutionary influences.
If the population is evolving, allele frequencies will change from generation to
generation.
When a new species is formed, gene flow will be reduced because no more
breeding between the two original populations.
The Hardy-Weinberg equation is used to calculate the allele and gene frequencies
in population genetics.
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p2= frequency of homozygous dominant genotype in population
2pq = frequency of heterozygous genotype in population
q2 = frequency of homozygous recessive genotype in population
USING THE HARDY-WEINBERG EQUATION
Recessive phenotypes are easily observable. Therefore, their frequencies can be
measured, and allele frequencies can be calculated. By using the Hardy-Weinberg
equation, genotype frequencies can be estimated.
*Worked example should be given.
CONDITIONS OF THE HARDY-WEINBERG EUILIBRIUM
This equilibrium can be used under the following conditions.
1. No mutations
2. Random mating
3. Population is large.
4. Population is isolated, no immigrations or emigrations.
5. No selection pressures, all genotypes are equally successful.
Under these conditions, the allele frequencies will remain constant within a
population from generation to generation.
Deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg principle means species are continuously
changing. The selection pressures cause the changes in the gene pool, changing
the allele frequencies and driving the speciation forward. Therefore, it results
formation of new species.
MUTATIONS
When mutations are not occurred, allele frequencies remain the same.
Mutations are the changes in the genetic material, so the alleles are changed.
In a population, spontaneous mutations occur all the time but do not affect the
population very rapidly.
In animals, mutations in the germ cells will pass to the next generation.
Occasionally, mutations bring benefits to an individual and become established
within the gene pool.
NON-RAMDOM MATING
Non-random mating is the possibility of mating of any two individuals in a
population, independent of their genetic make-up.
If mating occurs randomly, the allele frequencies in the population will stay the
same.
If a male animal showing some characteristic features to attract females during
mating season, its not random mating. Eg; displaying of impressive tail of the male
peacocks to peahens.
This behaviour seems attracting more females than the average number.
Therefore, this applies a selection pressure and allows to mate and pass their
genes. So, offspring will carry the alleles for attractive characteristics. This is
natural selection in action.
Within the human populations, non-random mating is the normal situation.
But sometimes different factors are considered when selecting partners by
individuals, families or by social groups.
POPULATIONS OF VARYING SIZES
The Hardy-Weinberg equation is applied for a large population. Large populations
contain large gene pools. Therefore, the chance of losing an allele by random
events is reduced in a large population. So, there is a higher chance of a potentially
useful allele being maintained in the larger population. To maintain biodiversity,
large, genetically diverse populations are needed.
ISOLATION
To maintain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the populations must be isolated, no
immigration or emigration. In the living world, this is very rare.
Through pollination, migration, etc genetic material moves (gene flow) into or out
of the population.
When gene flow of two populations is reduced, the populations become isolated
and more likely to occur speciation.
SELECTION PRESSURE
Many alleles are neutral, some gives an advantage or disadvantage to the organism.
If the environmental conditions get changed, new selection pressures will be
exerted, and the neutral alleles may become advantageous or disadvantageous
and they may pass to the next generation. Therefore, the genetic make-up will
change over time. The individuals with better genes will survive and they pass their
successful alleles to the next generation. This is natural selection which
continuously happens on the earth.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION AND SPECIATION
A species is a group of organisms sharing several features which are capable of
interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
Speciation is the formation of a new species. Speciation happens as a result of the
isolation of parts of a population.
When the gene flow between different populations is reduced, the populations
become reproductively isolated.

The two isolated populations experience different selection pressures. As a result,

natural selection act in different ways on the two populations. Over a period, both
genotype and phenotype of the isolated populations will change. Therefore, the
members of the two populations cannot successfully interbreed.
Speciation can happen as a result of hybridization which is common in plants.
Hybridization is the breeding of closely related species to form fertile hybrid
offspring. Sometimes, hybrids do not produce fertile offspring if they are cross
back with their parent plants.
ISOLATING MECHANISMS
When different species are evolved from an original species, the must become
reproductively isolated from each other. In this condition, the gene flow is
restricted. This can be happened in several ways.
1. Geographical isolation- a physical barrier, such as a river or a mountain
range separate the individuals from an original population.
2. Ecological isolation- two populations prefer to live in different parts of the
habitat in the same region.
3. Seasonal isolation (temporal isolation)- timing of flowering and sexual
receptiveness of different populations become different from the usual
timing which leads to form two groups reproducing several months apart.
4. Behavioral isolation- Changes in courtship behaviours, display or mating
patterns, so that some animals do not recognize others as potential mates.
This is due to a mutation which causes the changes in colours and patterns.
 5. Mechanical isolation- Due to a mutation, the shapes of sexual parts of the
bodies get changed and therefore, successful mating can be happened
among some members of the group. Due to the differences that happen in
stigma and stamens, pollination becomes unsuccessful.
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION
Allopatric speciation is the main evolutionary process which occurs when
populations are physically or geographically separated.
This could happen as a result of natural changes (eg; islands form and disappear as
ice melts, drying up or appearing of rivers and lakes) or as a result of human
interventions (eg dams, roads and cities).
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Adaptive radiation occurs when one species develops rapidly to form several
different species which all fill different ecological niches.
AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS AND MONOTREMES
Marsupials and monotremes are two groups of mammals live in Australia.
Marsupials protect their young in pouches. Monotremes are the egg-laying
mammals.
About 5.5million years ago, Australia was joined to the rest of the world. At that
time, the only mammals were marsupials and monotremes. After Australia
separated from the rest of the continents, the marsupials evolved to fill wide range
of niches such as the large, herbivorous kangaroo and koala with its eucalyptus tree
niche.
DARWIN’S FINCHES
The birds, finches provide an example of how different selection pressures results

from the availability of different niches lead to adaptive radiation.

Finches were discovered by Charles Darwin on the Galapagos Islands near the
equator. There are several feeding niches for birds. Eg small seeds, large nuts,
insects living in rotten bark etc.
The birds that were present at the island had variations in alleles and
characteristics. Different niches on the island favored individuals with different
variations. Eg; a bird with small, strong bill would eat mainly seeds. They will pass
this characteristic to their offspring. Natural selection will favour for them. A finch
with a longer, thinner beak could get insects from dead wood.
Since different types of finches exploit food from different sources, it avoided
competition for the same food resource.
In this example, food is the selection pressure. Since finches with similar shape of
beaks stay together, interbreeding happened among them which produces

different species that looked different.

They may vary in size and appearance. But DNA analysis have proven that they are
similar.
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
This happens between populations of a species living in the same place that
become reproductively isolated by mechanical, behavioural or seasonal changes.
Sympatric species are closely related.
POPULATION BOTTLENECKS
A large population maintain a large gene pool. If the size of the population is
greatly reduced, the gene pool also gets reduced and allele frequencies too get
changed.
The size of a population may be suddenly reduced by environmental disasters, a
new disease, hunting by humans or predators or habitat destruction. This is called
a population bottleneck which causes a severe decrease in gene pool of the
population. Therefore, many of the genes present in the original population are lost
and the gene pool shrinks, and the genetic diversity is reduced.
Cheetahs are the fastest land animals. They have very little genetic diversity.
Their gene pool is very small and 99% of their alleles are common to all, therefore
little genetic diversity. If a sudden environmental change or a new disease is
appeared, they are very vulnerable.
THE FOUNDER EFFECT
When a small number of individuals leave the main population, and set up a
separate new population, it is called the founder effect.
When they are leaving, they do not carry all the genes of the main (original)
population.
Therefore, the unusual genes of the founder members of the new population will
increase as the population grows. Founder effect may cause a considerable effect
in allele frequencies in a population, because the current population’s gene pool is
significantly different from that of the original population.
CONSERVATION
The human population on earth is over 7 billion, is growing day by day.
Humans release greenhouse gases (CO2, methane) to the atmosphere through
breathing, using electricity, combustion of fossil fuels, farming etc.
Over 200 million tonnes of waste get collected and much of that goes into seas,
oceans, rivers and lakes. The pollution caused on ecosystems is massive.
People constantly taking resources from the environment. Ecosystems provide
food, water, building materials, clothing and medicines.
Therefore, biological resources are decreasing day by day.
Due to human influences, it results the extinction of species and loss of biodiversity.
HUMAN THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY
Humans affect the environment on many ways.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Global temperatures are rising. Extreme weather events are happening all over
the world. Due to these changes in the climate, many plants and animals find it
difficult to survive on earth.
DEPLETION OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
Increasing population demands for more and more resources such as, food, land,
firewood etc. from the environment.
As a result, biological resources are decreasing and ecosystems on land and in
oceans destroyed.
Along with these, biodiversity also decreasing due to human activities such as
overfishing, habitat reduction and as a climate change.
Therefore, necessary steps should be taken.
Conservation is defined as the keeping and protecting a living and changing
environment.
It is an active process which involves below projects.
1. Reclaiming land after industrial use
2. Helping to setup sustainable agriculture systems in the developed world
3. Protection of threatened species
4. Global legislation on pollution levels and greenhouse gas emissions
Around the world, there are many plants and animals threatened with extinction
due to habitat loss or climate change.
There are many ways of conserving them.
1. Ex-situ conservation- conservation takes place outside their natural habitat.
2. In-situ conservation- takes place in the natural habitat of the organism.
EX-SITU CONSERVATION
When an organism is threatened with extinction, no time to conserve their habitat
or protect them on site (in-situ). Therefore, some of the animals or planta are
removed from their natural habitats and after increasing the numbers, they are
returned to their natural environment.
Ex-situ conservation of plants
It has been predicted that 25% of world’s flowering plant species could disappear
within the next 50 years. Therefore, the genetic material of these extinct species
would be lost forever.
Botanic gardens maintain collections of many valuable plants.
The Royal Botanic Garden, UK keep a seed bank (Millennium Seed Bank) which
stores around 80000 seeds that are collected from native plants, plants threatened
with extinction and the plants from the areas that are experiencing a rapid loss of
habitat. Now there are over 1000 seed banks around the world.
In seed banks, the seeds are stored under ideal conditions. Live seeds are collected
from the wild, removed from the fruits and cleaned. They are screened using X-rays
to see whether they contain fully developed embryos. Then they are dried, put
into jars, and stored between -20 and -40 0C. Under these conditions, many seeds
will survive and remain capable of germinating for up to 200 years.
Most plants produce huge numbers of seeds. Therefore, without damaging the
natural population, they can be collected. Seeds are small, so large numbers can be
stored quite cheaply in a small space.
But the seeds of some species cannot store well, eg; mango, rubber, oak, avocado,
cocoa and coconut as they are too big. Conservation of these plants should be
done in a different way.
Orchids, potatoes can be conserved as tissue cultures which takes less space and
time.
Ex-situ conservation of animals
Conservation of animal species in the wild is not possible as they are continuously
face to the threat of extinction.
Zoos and wildlife parks are important in animal conservation.
In captive breeding programs, individuals of an endangered species are bred in
zoos and parks and reintroduce them into the wild to save them from extinction.
In this way, their original population is restored.
Reintroduction is not always successful. It can be successful in national parks or
other protected areas.
Captive breeding programs have been done for white and black rhino in east Africa
to save them from extinction.
Following problems are shown in captive breeding and reintroduction
programmes.
1. Not having enough space or sufficient resources in zoos and parks for all the
endangered species.
2. Difficult to provide the ideal conditions for breeding. Eg; difficult to breed
giant panda even when conditions are ideal.
3. Animals that have been bred in captivity may find difficult to adjust to
unsupported life in the wild.
4. When the population is small, the gene pool is reduced. To overcome this
problem, zoos keep detailed records of the genetic data of the breeding
individuals. For artificial insemination, the sperms can be exchanged with
other zoos to increase the genetic variation in the offspring.
5. Reintroduction programmes can be very expensive and time-consuming, or
they may fail.

SUSTAINABILITY
Habitats and ecosystems can be conserved by encouraging sustainable methods
of land use.
Eg; When illegal logging operations are done in rain forests, all the trees are cut
down and burned the ground (slash and burn technique) to harvest wood and clear
the soil for farming. In this way, the soil become infertile, and biodiversity lost.
But, if the trees are selectively harvested and if the trees are replanted for the
future, biodiversity can be maintained. This is sustainable forestry.
Sustainable agriculture includes farming methods that minimize the damage to the
environment and avoid monoculture.
Using organic fertilizers, minimizing the use of artificial fertilizers and chemical
pesticides, using biological pest control, planting in rotation to avoid the soil
becoming barren are important in this task.
To provide food for the people, large-scale farming is vital. To increase yields,
sustainable methods such as biological pest control which is cheaper, and
environment-friendly can be practiced rather than using expensive manufactured
chemicals.
While providing food and income for the people, we need to maintain sustainable
agriculture and sustainable tourism, minimizing loss of biodiversity. Sustainable
tourism minimizes damage to the environment, provides jobs and money for local
people and maintains biodiversity.
Costa Rica is a country which has reversed its habitat loss and worked hard to
conserve rich biodiversity. Most of the electricity is generated using renewable
resources. Considerable national income is earned from sustainable ecotourism.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
Education is needed to understand following important facts in conservation.
1. The impact of human activities on the natural world
2. Ways in which people can act to protect animals, plants and habitats.
3. They should be educated about the zoos, national parks and seed banks.
4. How plants, animals are threatened by human behaviors.
5. How the threatened species can be protected.