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Structure of Atom Project
Structure of Atom Project
The atomic model which we study today was not given at one time. Several
attempts were made by scientists and later improved leading to the current atomic
model. Let’s learn about different atomic models which led to the evolution of the
present model
ATOMIC MODELS
Many scientists used atomic models to understand the structure of the atom in the
early centuries. Each of these models had advantages and disadvantages of its own
and played a significant role in the development of the modern atomic model.
Scientists like John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr made
the most noteworthy contributions to science.
This section of the article discusses the following theories regarding atomic
structure:
1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2. Thomson’s Atomic Model
3. Rutherford’s Atomic Model
4. Bohr’s Atomic Model
5. Quantum Mechanical Model
This theory was not able to explain the existence of isotopes and isobars.
Later the atoms were found to be divisible, and Dalton’s claim of atoms being
indivisible was proved to be wrong.
The discovery of constituting particles of atoms led to a better understanding of
chemicals, these constituting particles are called subatomic particles.
JJ THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL
ABOUT JJ THOMSON
Sir Joseph John Thomson was also an English chemist famous for his discovery of
electrons known as Thomson’s Atomic Model, for which he also got the Nobel
Prize. He conducted a cathode ray experiment to invent electrons. He proposed that
atoms are like a sphere of positive charge with negative charge embedded in them.
He named this atomic model as Plum Pudding Model.
In this experiment, a glass tube with two openings is taken. One opening is for the
vacuum pump and the other is for intake through which the gas to be filled in the
tube is pushed in. Using the vacuum pump a partial vacuum pump is maintained
inside the glass chamber. In simple words, a cathode and anode are placed inside
the glass tube. The anode is perforated and a photosensitive foil made up of Zinc
Sulfide is placed behind it. When high voltage is applied a ray originates from the
cathode and moves towards the anode making a spot on Zinc Sulfide foil.
OBSERVATIONS OF CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT
The following observations were made when the current was allowed to flow
between the cathode and anode.
When the high voltage power is connected and switched ON, rays were
transmitted from the cathode towards the anode. Fluorescent spots were
observed on the ZnS screen and it confirmed the fact the rays were being
transmitted. These rays were given the name Cathode Rays.
When an external electric field was projected on the tube, the rays got deviated
toward the positive electrode. But in the absence of the electric field, the rays
got back in a straight line.
But when rotor blades were fixed in the path of the cathode rays, the rays
seemed to rotate. This proved that cathode rays were made of particles that had
some mass in them.
Using all the evidence, Thomson reached the conclusion that cathode rays are
composed of negatively charged particles called electrons.
By applying electric and magnetic fields on the cathode ray, the charge-to-mass
ratio (e/m) was found. The e/m for electrons came out to be 17588 × 10 11 e/bg
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON
After performing the Cathode Ray Experiment, JJ Thomson explained that the rays
that were originating from Cathode and moving towards Anode consists of
negatively charged particles called Electron. He further stated that the presence of
these negatively charged particles is not limited to specific matters but will be
present in every matter irrespective of mass and property. The discovery of the
Electron was done in 1897.
Mullikin did an oil-drop experiment to find the charge of the electron using the
e/m ratio. He found the charge of the electron = 1.6 x 10 -16 C and the Mass of the
Electron = 9.1093 × 10-31 kg.
The main drawback of Thomson’s model is that this model is not clear about
the stability of an atom.
This model could not adjust to other subatomic particles discovered in the
future.
Drawing conclusions from all the above observations, Rutherford proposed his
Atomic structure which had the following properties –
The nucleus lies at the center of the atom, and the maximum of the charge and
mass is concentrated there only.
Atoms are spherical in nature.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit.
DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS
In Gold Foil Alpha Particle Experiment, Rutherford observed that most of the
spaces inside an atom are vacant and there is a small dense region located at the
center inside the atom. He termed this region as Nucleus and said that this Nucleus
is positively charged and most of the masses of the atom are concentrated in
Nucleus only.
LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL
Just like other atomic models, Rutherford’s model also had many shortcomings.
Since electrons revolve in a circular orbit around the nucleus in an atom it is an
accelerated motion. As per Electromagnetic Theory when a charged particle is
in accelerated motion it loses energy. Hence, electrons will spend a lot of
energy and eventually, they will lose the entire energy and the atom will
collapse. This raises serious questions about the stability of the atom.
Rutherford didn’t say anything about the position of electrons whether all
electrons be in the same or different orbits and the reason behind it.
If the electrons are revolving continuously around the nucleus, then the
spectrum that they emit should be a continuous spectrum, but what we observe
is a line spectrum.
Neils Bohr, a student of Rutherford proposed his model in 1915 to address the
limitation of Rutherford’s Atomic Model. It is the most widely used atomic model
and is based on Planck’s theory of quantization. It explains that electrons always
move in fixed orbitals only, and they are not present everywhere in the atom. Bohr
also explained that each orbit has a fixed energy level. An orbit is also called an
Energy Shell. Rutherford only explained the nucleus of the atom while Bohr made
changes to that model and added electrons and energy levels.
As per Bohr’s model, inside an atom, there is a small nucleus that is positively
charged and is surrounded by negative electrons which move around in orbits
which has specific energy level. To revolve in a particular orbit, electrons must
possess energy equal to the energy level of the shell. Bohr found out that the larger
the distance of an electron from the nucleus, the larger its energy which means the
orbits near the nucleus has smaller energy and the shell farthest from the nucleus
has larger energy.
Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by
negative electrons moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron
located away from the nucleus has more energy, and the electron which is closer to
nucleus has less energy
Inside atoms, electrons are present in discrete orbits called “stationary orbits”.
Quantum numbers are used to represent the energy levels of these shells.
When an electron stays in its own orbit, no absorption or emission of energy
takes place.
Electrons revolve in these stationary orbits only.
The energy of the stationary orbits is quantized
The energy level are represented by a integer (n=1,2,3) known as the quantum
number. The range of the quantum number starts from nucleus side with n=1
having the lowest energy level . the orbits n=1,2,3,4,….. are assigned as
K,L,M,N,.. shell and when an electron attains the lowest energy , it is said to be
in ground state
The electrons in an atom moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy
level by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher
energy level to lower energy level by losing energy
It works only for single-electron species such as H, He+, Li2+, and Be3+
When a more accurate spectrometer was used to observe the emission spectrum
of hydrogen, each line spectrum was seen to be a combination of multiple
smaller discrete lines.
Bohr’s theory was unable to explain Stark and Zeeman’s effects.
BOHR’S THEORY
Bohr combined a classical and early quantum concept and gave his theory in the
form of three postulates. These are
1. First postulate:
It was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits
without the emission of radiant energy contrary to the predictions of
electromagnetic theory. According to this postulate, each atom has certain
definite stable states in which can exist, and each possible state has definite
total energy. These art called the stationary states of the atom.
2. Second postulate:
It defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the electron revolves
around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is
some integral multiple of h/2 π where h is the Planck's constant (= 6.6 x
10^-34 J s). Thus the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is
quantised. That is,
L = nh / 2 π
3. Third postulate:
It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified
non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is
emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and
final states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by,
hv = E(initial) - E(final)
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM
Quantum Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion and
kinematics of microscopic objects. Since atoms are of below microscopic size
and the limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model motivated the scientists to give a
more general and accurate atomic model based on Quantum Theory.
2πr = nλ
= nh/p (λ=ph)
Lr = mvr = nh/2π
QUANTUM NUMBER
To describe the location of an electron inside an atom we need a set of 4 numbers
known as Quantum Numbers. These Quantum Number helps in distinguishing
different orbitals which contain electron. Orbitals that have a smaller number mean
they are closer to the nucleus, have a smaller size, and have a larger probability of
finding an electron. The four types of Quantum Numbers are listed below:
n Shell
1 K
2 L
3 M
n Shell
4 N
It is represented by ‘l’. It gives an idea of the subshell and 3D shape of the orbital.
The subshells are given as s, p, d, and f. The value assigned to subshells are 0 = s,
1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f. A shell contains 0 to n-1 subshell. For Example, the third shell
i.e. n = 3 will have 0 to (3-1) subshells i.e. 0 to 2 subshells which include 0,1 and 2.
n l Subshell Notation
1 0 1s
2 0 2s
2 1 2p
3 0 3s
3 1 3p
3 2 3d
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
The subatomic particles are the particles that are present inside the atom, There are
three subatomic particles that are,
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
1. PROTONS
2. NEUTRON
3. ELECTRON
Charge of an electron is -1e, which is approximately -1.602 × 10-19
Mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31.
Mass of an electron is almost negligible as compared to the mass of an
atom, so an electron’s mass is ignored while calculating the mass of an
atom.
Protium 1 1 1 1 0
Deuterium 1 2 1 1 1
Tritium 1 3 1 1 2
The stability of isotopes is different. The half-lives are also different. But they
generally have similar chemical behavior because they have the same electronic
structures. The pictorial representation of isotopes of hydrogen can be seen
below:
Proton: Positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei are given the
name Proton. Rutherford discovered the proton in his famous cathode ray
experiment that was conducted between 1911 and 1919. Protons are about
99.86% as massive as neutrons. The number of protons in an atom is unique for
each element
Electron: Electrons are very tiny compared to protons and neutrons, about
1800 times smaller than either a proton or a neutron. Electrons are just 0.054%
as massive as neutrons. Electrons were discovered in 1897 by Joseph John (J.J.)
Thomson, a British physicist. Electrons have a negative charge and are
electrically attracted to the positively charged protons
Neutron: Rutherford theorized the neutron’s existence in 1920 and was later
discovered by Chadwick in 1932. Neutrons were found during experiments
where atoms were shot at a thin sheet of beryllium. Subatomic particles with no
charge were released – and were named neutrons. Neutrons are uncharged
particles found within all atomic nuclei
Isotopes: Members of the same family of an element that all have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are named isotopes. The
number of protons in a nucleus determines the element’s atomic number on the
Periodic Table. All the isotopes have unique properties, just like all family
members have their own qualities.
BIBILOGRAPHY
www.google.com
http://byjus.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/
http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
http://www.britannica.com/