CBE 3322: Heat Transfer Operations

Section 2b: 1D Steady-State Conduction

(Thermal Resistances)

Dominic Pjontek, Ph.D., P.Eng.

University of Western Ontario
Plane wall - Temperature distribution

◼ Let’s consider a plane wall separating two fluids, shown below.

◼ Because one fluid is hotter than the other, energy will be conducted
from left to right across the plane wall.

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(Thermal resistances) 2
Plane wall - Temperature distribution

◼ The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by

solving the heat equation with the proper boundary conditions.
  T    T    T   T
❑ Reminder: k +  k  +  k  + q =  CP
x  x  y  y  z  z  t

◼ For steady-state and with no source or sink of energy, we obtain:

d  dT 
k =0
dx  dx 

◼ Assuming the thermal conductivity (k) is constant, the equation is

integrated twice to obtain the general solution:

T (x ) = C1 x + C 2

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Plane wall - Temperature distribution

◼ At this point, we must apply appropriate boundary conditions

❑ B.C. 1: T(0) = Ts,1

❑ B.C. 2: T(L) = Ts,2

◼ Applying these boundary conditions:

❑ From B.C. 1 (when x = 0): Ts,1 = C2

❑ From B.C. 2 (when x = L): Ts,2 = C1L + C2 = C1L + Ts,1

Ts ,2 − Ts ,1
thus: C1 =
L

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(Thermal resistances) 4
Plane wall - Temperature distribution

◼ We thus have the following temperature distribution:

x
T (x ) = (Ts ,2 − Ts ,1 ) + Ts ,1
L
◼ With the temperature distribution, we can now use Fourier’s law to
determine the heat transfer rate:

dT k A
qx = − k A = (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
dx L
◼ Note that the surface area is normal to the direction of heat transfer
and constant for a plane wall. The heat flux is thus:
qx k
"
q =
x = (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
A L
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Conduction problem standard approach

◼ At this point, you may be asking why we did we carry out the
previous analysis if had previously obtained the final result…?

◼ The method we followed is an example of the standard approach

to solve a conduction problem.

1. First, we simplified the appropriate heat equation to obtain

the temperature distribution.

2. Next, the appropriate boundary conditions were applied.

3. Lastly, the heat transfer rate was determined.

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(Thermal resistances) 6
 Thermal resistances

◼ The earlier example also illustrates an important concept for 1D

steady-state conduction:
❑ There exists an analogy between the diffusion of heat and an
electrical charge, where a thermal resistance can be
associated with the conduction of heat.
◼ Reminder:

Ohm’s law heat transfer

potential temperature
current V difference
heat rate T difference
[A]
I= [V]
[W]
q= [K]
R R
conductor thermal
resistance resistance
[Ω] [K/W]

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Thermal resistances

◼ We define the thermal resistance for conduction (Rcond) as follows:

Conduction Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 L Length [m]

resistance R cond = =
[K/W] qcond kA Area [m2]

Conductivity [W/m·K]

◼ Similarly, we define the thermal resistance for convection (Rconv):

Convection Ts − T 1
resistance R conv = =
[K/W] qconv hA Area [m2]

Convective heat transfer

coefficient [W/m2·K]

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(Thermal resistances) 8
Thermal resistances

◼ Lastly, we define the thermal resistance for radiation (Rrad):

Convection Ts − Tsur 1
resistance R rad = =
[K/W] qrad hrad A Area [m2]

radiation heat transfer

coefficient [W/m2·K]

❑ Where: (
hrad =   (Ts + Tsur ) Ts2 + Tsur
2
)
❑ It should be noted that the previous simplification is only valid
if the surface is surrounded by another medium and assuming
the gray body approximation.

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Thermal resistances – Plane wall
◼ If we return to the earlier diagram, we can now include an
equivalent thermal circuit.

T∞,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 T∞,2

qx
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A

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Composite wall

◼ Thermal circuits can also be used for more complex systems, such
as composite walls, as shown in the image below.

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(Thermal resistances) 11
Composite wall

◼ The 1D heat transfer rate for this system can be expressed as:
T ,1 − T ,4
qx =
R
T ,1 − T ,4
qx =
(1 h1 A ) + (L A k A A ) + (L B k B A ) + (L C k C A ) + (1 h4 A )

◼ Alternatively, the heat transfer rate can be related to the

temperature difference and resistance of any element:

T ,1 − Ts ,1 Ts ,1 − T2 T2 − T3
qx = = = = ...
1 h1 A L A k A A LB k B A

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(Thermal resistances) 12
Composite wall

◼ With composite systems, we often define an overall heat transfer

coefficient (U) as follows:

qx = U A T

◼ Where ΔT is the overall temperature difference.

◼ Referring to the previous example, the overall heat transfer
coefficient is related to the total thermal resistance (Rtot):

1
U=
R tot A

U = (1 h1 ) + (L A k A ) + (L B k B ) + (L C k C ) + (1 h4 ) −1

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Composite wall (Example)

◼ The walls of a refrigerator are typically constructed by sandwiching

a layer of insulation between sheet metal panels. Consider a wall
made from fiberglass insulation of thermal conductivity ki = 0.046
w/m·K and thickness Li = 50 mm. The steel panels each have a
thermal conductivity kp = 60 W/m·K and thickness Lp = 3 mm.
Coefficients associated with natural convection at the inner and
outer surfaces may be approximated as hi = ho = 5 W/m2·K.

◼ If the wall separates refrigerated air at T∞,i = 4°C from ambient air
at T∞,o = 25°C, what is the heat gain per unit surface area?

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Series-parallel configuration

◼ Some walls can also be characterized by series-parallel

configurations, as shown below.
◼ Even though the heat flow can be considered multidimensional, a
one-dimensional assumption is generally valid at steady-state.

Thermal circuit:

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Series-parallel configuration

◼ The previous thermal circuit can be simplified:

Or
RP

−1
1 1 
Reminder for parallel circuits: R P =  + + ...
 R1 R 2 

 k (A 2 ) k G (A 2 ) 
−1

For this example: R P =  F + 

 LF LG 

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Series-parallel configuration
(Online Example)
◼ Consider a composite wall that includes an 8 mm thick hardwood
siding, 40 mm by 130 mm hardwood studs on 0.65 m centers with
fiber glass insulation, and a 12 mm layer of gypsum wall board.
◼ What is the thermal resistance associated with a wall that is 2.5 m
high by 6.5 m wide that has 10 studs (each 2.5 m high)?

Material Thermal conductivity

(W/m·K) Hardwood siding (exterior)
Hardwood siding 0.094

Hardwood stud 0.16

stud
insulation

Gypsum 0.17

Insulation 0.038 Gypsum (dry wall)

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(Thermal resistances) 17
Contact resistance

◼ It is important to realize that the interfacial temperature drop

between two materials in a composite system may not be negligible.
◼ This temperature drop is accounted for using the thermal contact
resistance (RC”):

" TA − TB
R =
C
q"x

Contact resistance [m2·K/W]

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Contact resistance

◼ Contact resistance is mainly due to surface roughness effects,

which then results in gaps filled with a given fluid (generally air).

◼ Heat transfer at the interface can be modelled as a parallel circuit:

❑ Surface contact locations,
❑ Conduction through the fluid filling the gaps,
❑ Radiation through the gaps.

◼ Even though it can be modelled, the most accurate way to predict

the contact resistance is through experimental measurements.

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(Thermal resistances) 19
Contact resistance

◼ How we can reduce contact resistance:

❑ Increase area of contact spots (i.e., reduce the surface
roughness, increase joint pressure)
❑ Selecting an interfacial fluid with a larger thermal conductivity
(e.g., helium, silicone oil)
❑ Use of a thermal grease between contacting surfaces

Interface Contact resistance (m2·K/W)

Air 2.75

Helium 1.05

Silicone oil 0.525

Stainless/stainless with Dow Corning 340 grease 0.04

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Contact resistance (Example)

◼ A composite wall separates combustion gases at 2600°C from a

liquid coolant at 100°C, with gas and liquid side convection
coefficients of 50 and 1000 W/m2·K, respectively. The wall is
composed of a 10 mm thick layer of beryllium oxide on the gas side
and a 20 mm thick slab of stainless steel (AISI 304) on the liquid
side. The contact resistance between the oxide and the steel is 0.05
m2·K/W.
◼ What is the heat loss per unit surface area of the composite?
◼ Sketch the temperature distribution from the gas to the liquid.

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Cylindrical system

◼ Let’s use the following hollow cylinder, where the inner and outer
surfaces are exposed to fluids at different temperatures, as an
example:

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Cylindrical system – temperature distribution

◼ For steady-state conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate

heat equation simplifies as follows:

1 d  dT 
k r =0
r dr  dr 

◼ The temperature distribution can be determined by solving the

above equation and applying appropriate boundary conditions.
◼ Assuming k is a constant, we integrate twice to obtain:

T (r ) = C1 ln r + C 2

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Cylindrical system – temperature distribution
◼ We use the following boundary conditions:
❑ B.C. 1: T(r1) = Ts,1
❑ B.C. 2: T(r2) = Ts,2

◼ Applying these, we obtain:

❑ From B.C. 1 (when r = r1): Ts,1 = C1lnr1 + C2
❑ From B.C. 2 (when r = r2): Ts,2 = C1lnr2 + C2

◼ Solving for C1 and C2, we obtain:

Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 r
T (r ) = ln  + Ts ,2
ln(r1 r2 )  r2 

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Cylindrical system
◼ With the temperature distribution, we can now use Fourier’s law to
determine the heat transfer rate:
dT dT
Reminder for a cylinder: qr = −k A = −k (2  r L )
dr dr
◼ We obtain the following expression:

2  L k (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
qr =
ln(r2 r1 )

◼ Which leads to the following thermal resistance for a cylinder:

ln(r2 r1 )
R cond =
2 L k

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Composite Cylindrical system

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Composite Cylindrical system

◼ Similar to the composite wall, we can write the following expression:

1
qr = UA (T ,1 − T ,4 ) Again: UA =
R tot

◼ It is important to note that for a cylindrical system, the U value is

defined in terms of the selected surface area, as the surface is
not constant.
◼ The following expression is thus valid for the previous example:

U1 A1 = U2 A 2 = U3 A 3 = U4 A 4 = ( R )
−1

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Spherical system

◼ Applying the approach that we’ve used for a plane wall and
cylindrical systems, we obtain the following expression for the heat
transfer rate in a spherical system:

4  k (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
qr =
(1 r1 ) − (1 r2 )

◼ Based on this, we can define the thermal resistance for conduction

in a sphere as follows:
1 1 1 
R cond =  − 
4  k  r1 r2 

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(Thermal resistances) 28
Cylindrical system (Example)

◼ A 0.20 m diameter, thin-walled steel pipe is used to transport saturated

steam at a pressure of 20 bars (Tsat = 486 K) in a room for which the air
temperature is 25°C and the convection heat transfer coefficient at the
outer surface of the pipe is 20 W/m2·K.

a) What is the heat loss per unit length from the bare pipe (i.e., no
insulation)? Estimate the heat loss per unit length if a 50 mm thick
layer of magnesia insulation (k ≈ 0.058 W/m·K) is added. The steel
and magnesia may each be assumed to have an emissivity of 0.8,
and the steam side convection resistance can be neglected.

b) The cost associated with generating the steam and installing the
insulation are known to be $4/109 J and $100/m of pipe length,
respectively. If the steam line is to operate 7500 h/yr, how many
years are needed to pay back the initial investment.

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(Thermal resistances) 29
Cylindrical system (Online example)

◼ Is there an optimum thickness for radial systems due to competing

effects?
❑ Let’s study this for the system below:

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