ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 10: ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
10.1 PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL
COMMUNICATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM:
• Composed of endocrine glands and specialized
endocrine cells.
• Secretes hormones into the extracellular fluid.
• Hormones are chemical messengers that diffuse
into the bloodstream.
• Hormones are transported to target tissues or
effectors.
• Hormones stimulate specific responses in target
tissues.
• Endocrine glands are different from exocrine
glands, which have ducts for secretion.
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS:
1. Autocrine chemical messengers:
▪ Stimulate the cell that secreted them.
▪ Example: Eicosanoids (prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, prostacyclins, leukotrienes).
2. Paracrine chemical messengers:
▪ Act locally on neighboring cells.
▪ Secreted by one cell type into the
extracellular fluid.
▪ Affect surrounding cells.
▪ Example: Somatostatin, histamine,
eicosanoids.
3. Neurotransmitters:
▪ Secreted by neurons.
▪ Activate adjacent cells, including neurons,
muscle cells, or glandular cells.
▪ Secreted into synaptic clefts, not the
bloodstream.
▪ Example: Acetylcholine, epinephrine.
4. Endocrine chemical messengers:
▪ Secreted into the bloodstream by specialized
cells.
▪ Travel through the blood to reach target
cells.
▪ Coordinate the regulation of cell function.
▪ Examples: Thyroid hormones, growth
hormone, insulin, epinephrine, estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone, prostaglandins.
The endocrine system plays a crucial role in
maintaining homeostasis and regulating various
physiological processes in the body through the
action of hormones.
10.2 FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
1. The endocrine system is one of the two crucial
control systems of the body.
2. The other important control system is the
nervous system.
3. Hormones of the endocrine system are secreted
in response to humoral, neural, or hormonal
stimuli to regulate homeostasis.
4. Understanding the endocrine system requires
knowledge of various endocrine glands, their
hormones, and mechanisms of action.
5. Many body disorders result from hypersecretion
or hyposecretion of hormones.
MAIN REGULATORY FUNCTIONS OF THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
1. Regulation of metabolism:
- Controls the rate of nutrient utilization and
energy production.
2. Control of food intake and digestion:
- Regulates satiation (fullness) levels.
- Influences the breakdown of food into
individual nutrients.
3. Modulation of tissue development:
- Influences the development of tissues,
including those of the nervous system.
4. Regulation of ion levels:
- Monitors blood pH.
- Controls concentrations of Na+, K+, and
Ca2+ in the blood.
5. Control of water balance:
- Regulates water balance.
- Controls solute concentration in the blood.
- Regulates membrane permeability.
6. Regulation of cardiovascular functions:
- Helps regulate heart rate and blood pressure.
- Prepares the body for physical activity.
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients:
- Regulates blood glucose and nutrient levels.
8. Control of reproductive functions:
- Controls development and functions of
reproductive systems in both males and
females.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
9. Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk
release:
- Regulates uterine contractions during
delivery.
- Stimulates milk release in lactating females.
10. Modulation of immune system function:
- Helps control the production of immune
cells.
10.3 HORMONES
• The word "hormone" is derived from the Greek
word "hormon," meaning "to set into motion."
• Hormones are powerful molecules that play a
crucial role in the body.
CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES
• Hormones fall into two chemical categories:
lipid-soluble hormones and water-soluble
hormones.
• The cell membrane's selective permeability
influences hormone transport, interaction with
targets, and removal.
• Hormones can be further categorized based on
their chemical structures:
o Steroid hormones (derived from cholesterol)
o Thyroid hormones (derived from the amino
acid tyrosine)
o Other hormones categorized as amino acid
derivatives, peptides, or proteins.
LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Lipid-soluble hormones include steroids, thyroid
hormones, and certain fatty acid derivatives.
• Their small size and low solubility in aqueous
fluids make protection during circulation
necessary.
TRANSPORT OF LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Lipid-soluble hormones circulate in the blood
bound to binding proteins, extending their
lifespan.
• Potential removal mechanisms without binding
proteins: enzyme breakdown in the liver, lungs,
or bloodstream, excretion in urine or bile.
WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES
• Water-soluble hormones are polar molecules
and include protein hormones, peptide
hormones, and most amino acid derivative
hormones.
• Many water-soluble hormones circulate freely in
the blood, while some are bound to binding
proteins.
TRANSPORT OF WATER-SOLUBLE
HORMONES
• Water-soluble hormones can dissolve in blood,
and many circulate as free hormones.
• Some water-soluble hormones are large and may
require fenestrated capillaries for efficient
delivery to target cells.
• Others are small and remain bound to binding
proteins to prevent filtering from the blood.
HORMONE DESTRUCTION AND
ELIMINATION
• All hormones are eventually destroyed, either in
the blood or at target cells.
• Water-soluble hormones have short half-lives
due to rapid breakdown by enzymes in the
bloodstream and subsequent removal by the
kidneys.
• Target cells can also break down water-soluble
hormones internally, recycling amino acids.
• Hormones with short half-lives regulate
activities with rapid onset and short duration.
Stability of Water-Soluble Hormones
• Some water-soluble hormones are more stable
in the blood than others.
• Protective modifications of hormone molecules
include carbohydrate attachment, terminal end
protection from protease activity, and binding
proteins.
• Bound hormones circulate longer in the plasma
than free water-soluble hormones.
10.4 CONTROL HORMONE
SECRETION
TYPES OF STIMULI REGULATING HORMONE
RELEASE:
1. Humoral Stimuli:
• Molecules and ions in the bloodstream can
stimulate hormone release.
• These are called humoral stimuli, referring to
body fluids, including blood.
• Examples include calcium stimulating the
release of PTH, elevated blood glucose
stimulating insulin release, and elevated blood
potassium stimulating aldosterone release.
2. Neural Stimuli:
• Involves neural control of hormone secretion.
• Neurons release neurotransmitters into the
synapse with hormone-producing cells.
• Some neurotransmitters stimulate increased
hormone secretion.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• Example: Sympathetic nervous system
stimulates epinephrine and norepinephrine
secretion during exercise.
3. Hormonal Stimuli:
• Hormones are secreted to stimulate the release
of other hormones.
• Commonly seen with anterior pituitary tropic
hormones.
• Neurons in the hypothalamus release releasing
hormones that stimulate anterior pituitary
hormones, which, in turn, stimulate target
endocrine cells.
INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE:
• Inhibition of hormone release can occur through
the same three stimuli: humoral, neural, and
hormonal.
1. Inhibition by Humoral Stimuli:
• Often, a companion hormone is released in
response to the same humoral stimulus that
inhibits the original hormone.
• Companion hormones typically oppose the
action of the secreted hormone.
• Example: Aldosterone secretion in response to
low blood pressure is inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide (ANP) when blood pressure
rises.
2. Inhibition by Neural Stimuli:
• Neurons can inhibit hormone secretion when
their neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects
on target endocrine glands.
3. Inhibition by Hormonal Stimuli:
• Some hormones prevent the secretion of others,
known as inhibiting hormones.
• Example: Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones
prevent the secretion of tropic hormones from
the anterior pituitary.
REGULATION OF HORMONE LEVELS IN THE
BLOOD:
1. Negative Feedback:
• Most hormones are regulated by negative
feedback, where hormone secretion is
inhibited by the hormone itself when blood
levels reach a certain point.
• Hormones may also inhibit the action of
stimulatory hormones.
• Example: Thyroid hormones inhibit the
secretion of their releasing hormone and
tropic hormone.
2. Positive Feedback:
• Some hormones, when stimulated by a
tropic hormone, promote the synthesis and
secretion of the tropic hormone and
stimulate their target cell, creating a self-
propagating system.
• Example: Prolonged estrogen stimulation
promotes the release of anterior pituitary
hormone responsible for stimulating
ovulation.
10.5 HORMONE RECEPTORS AND
MECHANISMS OF ACTION
HORMONE ACTION AND RECEPTORS:
• Hormones exert their actions by binding to
target cell proteins called receptors.
• A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have
the receptor for that hormone.
• Receptors have specific sites where hormones
bind, ensuring specificity.
• Hormone receptors have high affinity for
hormones, requiring only a small hormone
concentration to activate them.
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS:
1. Lipid-Soluble Hormones:
- Bind to nuclear receptors.
- Enter target cells directly due to their
nonpolar nature.
- Influence gene transcription in the nucleus.
- Examples: Thyroid hormones, steroid
hormones (testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol).
2. Water-Soluble Hormones:
- Bind to membrane-bound receptors.
- Cannot cross cell membranes due to their
polarity.
- Initiate responses inside the cell.
- Examples: Proteins, peptides, epinephrine,
norepinephrine, some lipid-soluble
hormones.
ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS:
• Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein
synthesis.
• Hormone-receptor complex interacts with DNA
or cellular enzymes to regulate gene
transcription.
• Latent period of several hours between binding
and observable responses.
• Examples: Testosterone, aldosterone, thyroid
hormones, vitamin D.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
MEMBRANE-BOUND RECEPTORS AND
SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION:
• Membrane-bound receptors activate responses
through G proteins or intracellular enzymes.
• Some hormones, like epinephrine, use
membrane-bound receptors for rapid effects.
• Second messengers (e.g., cAMP) amplify the
hormonal signal.
• Second messengers activate cellular processes.
• Each receptor can produce thousands of second
messengers, leading to signal amplification.
SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION:
• Hormones that stimulate second messenger
synthesis can produce almost instantaneous
responses.
• Second-messenger amplification involves
thousands of second messengers activating
enzymes to produce large amounts of final
products.
• Efficiency of this amplification is significant for
rapid responses.
• Hormones with different mechanisms of action
suit different response time scales (e.g.,
epinephrine for quick responses, steroids for
long-term effects).
10.6 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND
THER HORMONES
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM OVERVIEW:
• Consists of ductless glands.
• Secretes hormones into interstitial fluid, which
then enters the blood.
• Endocrine glands have rich blood supply.
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS OF SOME
ENDOCRINE GLANDS:
• Pancreas: Endocrine part secretes hormones;
exocrine part secretes digestive enzymes.
• Ovaries and testes: Secrete hormones, produce
oocytes (female reproductive cells) or sperm
cells (male reproductive cells).
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS:
• Pituitary gland (hypophysis): Small pea-sized
gland.
• Located beneath the hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus controls autonomic nervous
system and endocrine system.
• Pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus
by the infundibulum.
• Divided into anterior and posterior lobes.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES:
• Growth hormone: Increases gene expression,
lipid breakdown, release of fatty acids, and
blood glucose levels.
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates
thyroid hormone secretion.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):
Increases glucocorticoid hormone secretion and
skin pigmentation.
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH):
Increases melanin production in skin.
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) or interstitial cell–
stimulating hormone (ICSH): Promotes
ovulation, progesterone production in females;
testosterone synthesis and sperm cell production
in males.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Promotes
follicle maturation, estrogen secretion in
females; sperm cell production in males.
• Prolactin: Stimulates milk production and
prolongs progesterone secretion.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES:
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Conserves water,
constricts blood vessels.
• Oxytocin: Increases uterine contractions, milk
letdown from mammary glands.
THYROID GLAND HORMONES:
• Thyroid hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine):
Increase metabolic rates.
• Calcitonin: Decreases bone breakdown, prevents
excessive blood Ca2+ levels.
PARATHYROID GLAND HORMONE:
• Parathyroid hormone: Increases bone
breakdown, vitamin D synthesis, and maintains
normal blood calcium levels.
ADRENAL GLAND HORMONES:
• Adrenal medulla: Epinephrine and some
norepinephrine increase cardiac output, blood
flow to muscles, glucose and fatty acid release.
• Adrenal cortex:
• Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): Increase
sodium transport, potassium excretion, and
water retention.
• Glucocorticoids (cortisol): Increase lipid and
protein breakdown, glucose synthesis, inhibit
inflammation and immune response.
• Adrenal androgens: Insignificant in males;
increase female sexual drive, hair growth.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
PANCREAS HORMONES:
• Insulin: Increases glucose and amino acid
uptake and use.
• Glucagon: Increases glycogen breakdown and
glucose release.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN HORMONES:
• Testosterone (males): Aids in sperm cell
production, reproductive organ maintenance,
secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior.
• Estrogens, progesterone (females): Aid in
uterine and mammary gland development,
external genitalia structure, secondary sex
characteristics, sexual behavior, menstrual
cycle.
• Prostaglandins: Mediate inflammatory
responses, increase uterine contractions and
ovulation.
THYMUS HORMONE:
• Thymosin: Promotes immune system
development and function.
PINEAL GLAND HORMONE:
• Melatonin: Inhibits gonadotropin-releasing
hormone secretion, thereby inhibiting
reproduction.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF PITUITARY
GLAND:
• Hormones from the pituitary gland control other
glands: ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, adrenal
cortex.
• Pituitary gland also secretes hormones affecting
growth, kidney function, birth, and mammary
gland milk production.
• Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland through
hormonal control and direct innervation.
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF ANTERIOR
PITUITARY:
• Anterior pituitary synthesizes hormones under
hypothalamus control.
• Releasing and inhibiting hormones from
hypothalamus regulate anterior pituitary
hormone secretion.
• Neuropeptides produced by hypothalamic
neurons enter capillary bed in hypothalamus.
• Releasing and inhibiting hormones pass through
hypothalamohypophysial portal system to
anterior pituitary.
• Neuropeptides stimulate or inhibit specific
anterior pituitary hormones.
• Anterior pituitary hormones travel in blood to
target tissues.
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF POSTERIOR
PITUITARY:
• Posterior pituitary stores hormones synthesized
by hypothalamic neurons.
• Neural input from hypothalamus controls
secretion.
• Axons of hypothalamic neurons conduct action
potentials through hypothalamohypophysial
tract to posterior pituitary.
• Axon endings release hormones into circulatory
system.
• Hormones influence target tissues.
INTERRELATION OF NERVOUS AND
ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS:
• Emotions (e.g., joy, anger) and stress affect the
endocrine system through the hypothalamus.
• Hormones can influence the functions of the
hypothalamus and other parts of the brain.
HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
• Anterior pituitary hormones are proteins with a
short lifespan.
• They bind to membrane-bound receptors on
target cells.
• Each hormone is secreted by a separate cell
type.
• Many are tropic hormones that stimulate other
hormone secretion.
SPECIFIC HORMONES:
• Growth Hormone (GH):
o Stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and
organs.
o Slows protein breakdown during fasting,
favors lipid breakdown.
o Deficiency results in pituitary dwarfism;
excess leads to giantism or acromegaly.
o Controlled by hypothalamic releasing and
inhibiting hormones.
o Daily peak levels during deep sleep and
increase during fasting and exercise.
• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
o Stimulates thyroid hormone secretion and
thyroid gland growth.
o Regulated by hypothalamic releasing
hormone.
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH):
o Stimulates cortisol secretion from adrenal
cortex.
o Maintains adrenal cortex function.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
o Regulated by hypothalamic releasing
hormone.
o Can affect skin pigmentation.
• Gonadotropins (LH and FSH):**
o LH in females: stimulates ovulation and
reproductive hormone secretion.
o LH in males: stimulates testosterone
secretion.
o FSH: promotes follicle development
(ovaries) and sperm production (testes).
o Regulated by a single hypothalamic
releasing hormone.
MICROBES IN YOUR BODY:
❖ Obesity has increased globally, with over 150
billion adults overweight or obese worldwide.
❖ In the United States, 40% of adults are obese,
leading to various health issues like insulin
resistance, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
❖ Two main factors contributing to obesity are
diet/lifestyle and gut bacteria.
❖ The Western diet, high in refined grains, red
meat, saturated fats, and sugary drinks, along
with reduced physical activity and sleep,
contributes to obesity.
❖ Gut microbiota may also play a significant role
in obesity.
❖ Lean individuals have more Bacteroidetes in
their gut microbiota, while obese individuals
have more Firmicutes.
❖ Gut microbiota impact nutrient processing,
hormonal regulation of nutrient use, and hunger
levels.
❖ An imbalanced gut microbiota can lead to
inflammation and insulin resistance, promoting
obesity.
❖ Manipulating gut microbiota in obese people
may help shift their metabolism towards
leanness, potentially through antibiotics,
prebiotics, or probiotics.
HORMONES:
❖ Prolactin:
▪ Promotes breast development during
pregnancy and milk production after
pregnancy.
▪ Regulation involves dopamine, formerly
known as prolactin-inhibiting hormone.
▪ Also plays roles in ion composition of blood
and immune function.
❖ Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH):
▪ Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin.
▪ Structure similar to ACTH and causes skin
darkening when oversecreted.
▪Regulation involves hypothalamic
hormones, one stimulating and one
inhibiting MSH secretion.
❖ Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary:
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
- Increases water reabsorption in kidneys,
reducing urine volume.
- Can constrict blood vessels (also called
vasopressin).
- Lack of ADH causes diabetes insipidus,
resulting in large amounts of dilute urine.
Oxytocin:
- Causes uterine muscle contraction and milk
letdown in lactating women.
- Used as Pitocin in certain childbirth and
postpartum situations.
THYROID GLAND:
o Thyroid gland produces three hormones: T3, T4,
and calcitonin.
o Consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus.
o Highly vascular, appearing red due to blood
supply.
o Thyroid follicles filled with thyroglobulin store
thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).
o C cells (parafollicular cells) secrete calcitonin.
o Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone
synthesis.
o Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion
involves the hypothalamus and pituitary, with
negative feedback maintaining hormonal
balance.
o Thyroid hormone disorders include
hypothyroidism (low levels) and
hyperthyroidism (excess levels).
o Calcitonin is released to lower elevated blood
calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts,
preventing excessive calcium absorption from
bones.
REGULATION OF CALCIUM ION BLOOD
LEVELS:
• Calcitonin helps prevent elevated blood Ca2+
levels.
• Lack of calcitonin secretion doesn't lead to
prolonged increase in Ca2+ levels.
• Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH) for calcium regulation.
• PTH has various effects, including increasing
active vitamin D formation, raising blood Ca2+
levels, and decreasing Ca2+ loss in urine.
• Vitamin D production depends on skin exposure
to UV light and PTH stimulation.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• Decreased blood Ca2+ levels trigger increased
PTH secretion, leading to bone reabsorption.
• Increased blood Ca2+ levels reduce PTH
secretion and stimulate calcitonin secretion.
• Hyperparathyroidism results from excessive
PTH secretion and can cause bone softening,
muscle weakness, and other issues.
• Hypoparathyroidism, due to low PTH secretion,
can lead to muscle cramps, tetanus, and
respiratory issues.
ADRENAL GLANDS:
1. Adrenal Medulla:
✓ Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (80%)
and norepinephrine (20%).
✓ Secretion occurs under conditions activating
the sympathetic nervous system.
✓ Increased sympathetic stimulation leads to
hormone secretion.
✓ Epinephrine and norepinephrine prepare the
body for physical activity, causing energy
release, increased blood pressure, and blood
flow to skeletal muscle.
2. Adrenal Cortex:
✓ Adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens.
✓ Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone regulate
ion balance and blood pressure.
✓ Aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption and
water retention, affecting blood volume and
pressure.
✓ Glucocorticoids, like cortisol, stimulate lipid
and protein breakdown, increase glucose
levels, and suppress immune responses.
✓ Cortisol secretion is regulated by the
hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and
negative feedback.
✓ Adrenal androgens influence secondary
sexual characteristics.
3. Pancreas, Insulin, and Diabetes:
✓ Pancreatic islets contain alpha cells (secrete
glucagon), beta cells (secrete insulin), and
delta cells (secrete somatostatin).
✓ Insulin promotes glucose uptake, glycogen
synthesis, and lipid synthesis.
✓ Glucagon raises blood glucose levels by
stimulating glycogen breakdown and
glucose release.
✓ Diabetes mellitus involves blood glucose
regulation issues.
✓ Type 1 diabetes results from insufficient
insulin secretion and requires insulin
injections.
✓ Type 2 diabetes involves insulin resistance
or receptor defects.
✓ Hormones like epinephrine, cortisol, and
growth hormone help maintain blood
nutrient levels.
4. Testes and Ovaries:
✓ Testes produce testosterone, regulating male
reproductive functions and secondary sexual
characteristics.
✓ Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone,
controlling female reproductive cycles,
sexual characteristics, and pregnancy.
✓ LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary
regulate hormone secretion from testes and
ovaries.
✓ Reproductive hormones have negative
feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary.
5. Thymus:
✓ Thymus secretes thymosin, aiding in T cell
development and immune system function.
✓ Important for immune system development,
especially in infants.
6. Pineal Gland:
✓ Pineal gland produces melatonin, which
regulates the reproductive system by
inhibiting gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
✓ Melatonin secretion responds to light
exposure, influencing sleep patterns.
✓ The pineal gland's function in humans is not
fully understood, but it plays a role in the
timing of sexual development.
10.7 OTHER HORMONES
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS:
1. Stomach and Small Intestine Hormones:
• Cells in the lining of the stomach and small
intestine secrete hormones.
• These hormones stimulate the production of
digestive juices from the stomach, pancreas, and
liver.
• Secretion occurs when food is present in the
digestive system.
2. Graves Disease (Hyperthyroidism):**
• Grace's symptoms: excessive sweating, flushing,
rapid heartbeat, nervousness, difficulty
concentrating, weakness, weight loss despite
increased appetite.
• Caused by elevated secretion of thyroid
hormones.
• Immune system produces unusual antibodies
stimulating thyroid hormone secretion.
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
• Elevated thyroid hormones inhibit releasing PROSTAGLANDINS:
hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone.
• Function as intercellular signals.
• Radioactive iodine treatment (131I) used to
• Act mainly as autocrine or paracrine chemical
destroy thyroid cells and treat Graves disease.
signals.
REPRESENTATIVE DISEASES AND • Effects occur in the tissues where they are
DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: produced.
• Various roles, including muscle
1. Diabetes Insipidus:
relaxation/contraction, inflammation, blood
- Due to lack of ADH from posterior pituitary.
clotting, and pain modulation.
- Results in excessive urination.
2. Hashimoto Thyroiditis: OTHER HORMONES:
- Autoimmune disease causing decreased
thyroid hormone secretion. • Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH/ANP) from the
- Metabolic rate decreases, weight gain is right atrium reduces blood volume and pressure
possible, and activity levels are depressed. by inhibiting Na+ reabsorption in the kidneys.
3. Primary Hyperparathyroidism: • Erythropoietin secreted by the kidneys
- Mostly caused by parathyroid gland stimulates red blood cell production in response
adenoma. to low oxygen levels in the blood.
- Elevated blood PTH levels, increased blood • Placenta secretes hormones (estrogen,
Ca2+ levels, weakened bones, and potential progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin)
muscular weakness. during pregnancy to maintain pregnancy and
4. Addison Disease: stimulate milk production.
- Low levels of aldosterone and cortisol from
adrenal cortex.
- Symptoms include low blood Na+ levels,
low blood pressure, and excessive urination.
5. Gestational Diabetes:
- Develops in pregnant women due to actions
of placental hormone (human placental
lactogen, HPL).
- Can lead to elevated blood glucose levels if
untreated, causing excessive fetal growth.
6. Age-Related Changes to the Endocrine System:
- Decrease in GH secretion with age, but
exercise can offset this decline.
- Melatonin secretion decreases, affecting
sleep patterns and hormone secretion.
- Thyroid hormone secretion decreases
slightly with age, with potential immune-
related damage.
- Reduced renin secretion in kidneys impacts
blood pressure regulation.
- Reproductive hormone secretion declines in
elderly, leading to menopause.
- Thymosin secretion decreases, impacting
immune system effectiveness.
- Parathyroid hormone secretion increases to
maintain blood calcium levels.
- Some individuals may develop type 2
diabetes mellitus with age-related weight
gain.