ANG PELIKULA BILANG ISANG PAGNINILAY-NILAY: STUDYING POWER

RELATIONS IN HETEROSEXUAL AND QUEER RELATIONS IN MAYNILA SA MGA

KUKO NG LIWANAG (1975)

January 26, 2024

Submitted by:

Monica Sofia S.A. Chu

Communication Research 105 FYZ

 ABSTRACT

Philippine cinema has seen many films that hold a lasting cultural impact on both the

audience and fellow filmmakers. One of the most culturally significant cinematic works, Maynila

sa Mga Kuko ng Liwanag (1975), produced by local filmmaker, Lino Brocka, has challenged the

status quo of dominant heteronormative cultures with its radical depictions of queer sexuality

and queer characters. Both recognized in its success and impact, Brocka’s Maynila has been

studied by scholars and filmmakers alike. However, with the lack of discussion on the forces of

power, the research aims to dissect how power manifests itself in the heterosexual and

homosexual relations both present in this film. To supplement this qualitative research, it will be

guided by Buckland’s (1999) theorization of semiotics, sex-role theory, and Dunbar’s (2004)

dyadic power theory. In detail, in examining sex roles and power, this study will base its critique

on film elements, including narrativity, mise-en-scène, sound, and editing.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2

INTRODUCTION 3

Background of the Study 3

Statement of the Problem and Objectives 7

Significance of the Study 7

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 9

Depictions of Love and Romance in Cinema 9

Dissecting Film Depictions: Dialogue, Focalization, and Mise-en-scène 11

The Dominant Gaze: Heteronormativity in Philippine Cinema 13

The Alternate Gaze: Queering Identities in Film 13

Synthesis. 15

STUDY FRAMEWORK 16

Theoretical Framework 16

Film Semiotics 16

Sex-role Theory 18

Dyadic Power Theory 20

Integrated Theoretical Framework 21

Conceptual Framework 22

Analytical Framework 23

References 25

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 INTRODUCTION

Since the advent of cinema, filmmakers have strived to surface the stories coming from

their own experiences or creative imaginations. Romance and sex, innate in the human

experience, have been intrinsic to countless film narratives. These narratives naturally reflect

certain socio-political contexts. Beyond films, the filmmaking industry has long been dominated

by male directors, producers, writers, and even depictions of male dominance in film narratives.

Naturally, film representations cater to the dominant culture, heterosexual narratives, i.e.,

romance between opposite sexes, included. Complementary to the dominant culture, the

non-dominant, queer narratives have also found their way into the film medium. In straight and

queer romances respectively, questions of power dynamics between the characters can surface.

This study attempts to examine these forces of power separately in Lino Brocka’s Maynila sa

Mga Kuko ng Liwanag (Manila in the Claws of Light) (1975) and assess these power dynamics

in the romances between characters in heterosexual relations and characters in homosexual

relations.

Background of the Study

The film medium is wildly versatile in its capabilities. As creative or documentative

reflections of real-life experiences, films have long been governed by social paradigms (Mack,

2017). These social paradigms are commonly accepted beliefs across society. Familial structures

or gender roles are examples of social paradigms, and these have been reflected across many

mediums, including films. Beyond entertainment, films have been mechanisms to spotlight

certain perspectives, incite desires, construct social experiences, and cultural realities (Kaul,

2014).

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 The film medium, although pioneered by filmmakers in Europe, also established itself in

Asia not long after, including the Philippines. The evolution of Philippine cinema had a slow, but

sure start at the turn of the 20th century. However, in the Philippines, it was Jose Nepomuceno,

an acclaimed Filpino filmmaker, who noticed that film could be an effective tool to expose truths

and challenge societal conditions (Bautista, 2015). Once filmmakers realized that film could go

beyond as a tool for escapism or entertainment, films became bigger than themselves, going past

the borders of a screen or theater. Film evolved as a medium and tool to express ideas that

challenged the status quo. However, with films that challenge dominant ideas, naturally, this

raises concern among those whose power and wealth are being put into question. To provide a

historical perspective, the Philippines saw one of the worst, if not the worst, cases of media

suppression with martial law in the 1970s and 1980s the Philippines.

Under the Marcos regime, the local film industry saw major progressions and setbacks.

This period in Philippine history was interesting for art as the Marcoses put millions of pesos

into wanting to cultivate more art, beauty, and cultural power. However, this investment came

with the condition that films shall not violate national values or state interests. Come to the

establishment of the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) in the

latter period of the Marcos regime, arguably, dictatorship, creative expressions that openly

critiqued the injustices committed by and incompetencies of the administration were censored,

even banned (Conti, 2014). Of course, the MTCRB is a classification board, but, it is also a

censorship board. It was established to effectively censor films that may violate its respective

amendments and protocols.

In this discussion of media censorship, critical and radical films undoubtedly have a

place. The mere existence of the bakla in Philippine films is highly debated, more so for

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depictions of queer stories that showcase critique of the heteronormative status quo. Studying

queer relations in Philippine film, though insightful on its own, requires the study of their

cisgender, heterosexual counterparts. To reiterate, the non-dominant group is incomplete without

its dominant counterpart. As queer studies evolved, scholars found that many societal structures

catered to the cisgender, heterosexual majority, but at the root of it all, society catered to men. In

a world that was governed by patriarchal ideals, it comes as no surprise that films followed suit.

Filmmakers knew that films could be powerful tools when it came to promoting the ideas they

wanted to stay with their audience and, on a larger scale, popular culture. Hence, mainstream

cinema commonly foregrounded narratives depicting the ideal male, the ideal female, the nuclear

family, and opposite-sex attraction as the “natural” state. Queerness in films was frequently

subject to marginalization through neglect, mockery, and comedy. Nonetheless, queer narratives

started to slowly integrate themselves into film. Cinema has undoubtedly played a role in

instigating normalcy for the queer community. At large, with more queer representation, these

films depict queer people that should not be othered, but rather, simple people with complex

ideas, desires, needs, and experiences (Davies, 2016).

To study the dynamics within depictions of heterosexual and queer relations and their

respective power relations, the films directed by Catalino “Lino” Ortiz Brocka shall be used. The

Filipino filmmaker is widely regarded as one of the greatest directors whose radical films

explored the stories of the marginalized and neglected sectors of society. Seen in the 66 films that

he made, Brocka spotlighted and empowered the disparaged sectors of Filipino society —

“slum-dwellers, prostitutes, construction workers, etc.” (National Commission for Culture and

the Arts, 2019a). The most notable of Brocka’s filmography include “‘Santiago’ (1970),

‘Wanted: Perfect Mother’ (1970), ‘Tubog sa Ginto’ (1971), ‘Stardoom’ (1971), ‘Tinimbang Ka

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Ngunit Kulang’ (1974), ‘Maynila sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag’ (1975), ‘Insiang’ (1976), ‘Jaguar’

(1979), ‘Bona’ (1980), ‘Macho Dancer’ (1989), ‘Orapronobis’ (1989), ‘Makiusap Ka sa Diyos’

(1991).” (National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2019b).

Issues of power, specifically power relations, require a comprehensive and rigorous

analysis to capture its subtleties and variations. In the context of film depictions, the study of

power relations can provide a mirror to the filmmaker’s creative vision, beliefs, attitudes, and

even advocacies. Another added factor, heteronormative and homonormative romantic and

sexual dynamics, provides a more personal, grounded approach to analyzing power, romance,

and sex in film. All in all, using Brocka’s most acclaimed films, this study aims to achieve clarity

with the subtleties and differences in heterosexual versus queer relations, as well as the

prominence of power relations.

As the researcher, I strive for film and filmmaking spaces to give more way to queer

stories and queer creativity. It is important to critique film narratives, especially a film like

Maynila sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag, regarded as one of the most acclaimed and influential films

in Philippine film history. The film was released in 1975, a time when the Philippines was

grappling with one of the most politically and economically turbulent points in history. This

film’s depiction of queer sexualities, arguably, defied the status quo of the local film industry at

the time. Although queer narratives go beyond romance and sex, this study focuses on romance

and sex because it has long been the basis for discrimination, oppression, and violence. However,

Maynila sa Mga Kuko ng Liwanag is not alone in its attempts to challenge the status quo. I

believe that it is important to call attention to texts, film or not, that put dominant ideologies into

question and if these dominant ideologies sideline or disempower those who do not have a voice.

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 Statement of the Research Question and Objectives

Research Question

How do power relations surface in the depictions of heterosexual and queer romantic and sexual

relations in Maynila sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag (1975)?

Objectives

Using Lino Brocka’s Maynila sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag (1975), this study aims to:

1. Explore depictions of heterosexual romance and queer romance separately according to:

a. gender norms; and,

b. behaviors in social interactions;

2. Compare and contrast heterosexual and queer depictions according to their expectations,

norms, and behaviors; and,

3. Discover the power relations in heterosexual and queer relations respectively, according

to:

a. the factors that cause individuals to feel powerful relative to others;

b. the communication processes that result from experiences of power; and,

c. the outcomes for both the relationship and the individuals within it.

Significance of the Study

This study can illuminate the nuances of queer romance and sex depicted in Lino

Brocka’s most acclaimed films. Capturing the nuances of depictions of queer relations and their

differences from heterosexual relations is pivotal as it provides insights into the evolution of

queer identities in Brocka’s revolutionary films. Dissecting, analyzing, and critiquing queer and

heterosexual relations present in Brocka’s films allows, first, provides a uniquely radical,

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Filipino take on love, sex, and identity politics, and second, urges discussions of the queer

identity to go beyond matters of sex and gender, but complex storylines, and third, adds to the

discourse concerning the local LGBTQ+ cultures during one of the most important periods in

Philippine history, martial law.

This study also aims to add insights to the discussion of gender and sexuality in

Philippine film studies, specifically how power relations play a role in these narratives and why

dissecting power should be paid more attention. In the large body of film studies, there have been

many that have examined the subject matter of love and romance, queer or not. However, when it

comes to the issue of power relations, past studies have delved into the power relations of race,

socio-economic class, familial relations, and gender, i.e., in the context of the role of the female

relative to the male. There is still a noticeable gap in the literature for studies that center on

romance, much more on how power operates in a heterosexual romance, in a queer romance, and

how these two compare and contrast with one another.

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 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Marginalization has always compromised the visibility of certain identities and cultures.

The depictions of marginalized identities, through the standpoints of the oppressed, can disrupt

dominant cultures and patterns. Alternate gazes, like the female or queer gazes, can document

female and queer cultures outside of the dominant paradigm of the male gaze. These cultures can

be explored through depictions of romance and sex, and with higher visibility, comes power.

This review provides a discussion on how love and romance have been examined in past studies,

how films have been previously broken apart using elements of film analysis, the

heteronormative and queer gazes, and past literature studies using this study’s three main

theoretical perspectives, semiotics, sex-role theory, and dyadic power theory.

Depictions of Love and Romance in Cinema

Depictions of romance and love in cinema have been a staple in the film industry. In a

past study tackling the portrayal of women in Hollywood films in interracial relationships. Out of

a sample of 36 films, the findings of this study indicated that the portrayals of women in

interracial relationships across these films are quite problematic. According to the data, the

majority of these relationships involved Asian women and white men, with the women depicted

as vulnerable, youthful, and often over-sexualized. Interracial relationships, although present, are

irrelevant to the plot, sexualized, or lacking depth (Ramoutar, 2006). This study used a variety of

theoretical perspectives, particularly feminist theory, social construction of reality theory, and

cultivation theory. Integrating those three theories, the study explored how violence against

women plays a part in the portrayal of interracial relationships. Similarly critical, although

tackling another type of marginalization, this study is insightful in the manner it critiques film as

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a tool to maintain harmful stereotypes and perpetuate White, male dominance. Although situated

in a Western context, this related literature can supplement building this research’s framework on

approaching critical, sensitive topics like marginalization as well as critiquing film portrayals.

Another study conducted by Huang (2016) examined romantic relationships depicted in

ten Chinese films released between 2010 and 2016. In its definition of terms alone, Chinese

romantic films are defined as “the type of films which mainly describe the process of male and

female characters developing their romantic relationships” (p. 5), completely leaving out the

possibility for queer relationships to be studied, despite the study’s scope not being specified to

specifically heterosexual relationships. That aside, the film did manage to critique recurring

stereotypes in Chinese romance films, including elements about a character’s views of love,

occupation, family background, and more. Such critiques include traditional views of love and

sex, i.e., how premarital sex is immoral and reflects bad character. However, the film found that

the more modern films included in the study’s sample showed that views of sex have changed,

like how filmmakers started to portray sex as an expression of love or desire, which was still

taboo and rarely portrayed in earlier Chinese cinema. Another critique involved how there were

stereotypical dynamics between romantic partners including, “blue collars and white collars; rich

family and poor family; positive view of love and negative view of love…” (p. iv). Overall, this

study contained a comprehensive discussion of romantic relationships. Nonetheless, this

discussion of romantic relationships was limited to heterosexual romance. Compared to the

previous study, this is set in an Asian context and, therefore, closer in a geographical sense.

Although, it is exclusionary of same-sex romance, leaving a gap in queer film studies.

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 Aside from love and romance, the following section will discuss how past literature has

studied their respective subject matters, including studies touching on power, through the

analysis of the film elements, dialogue, focalization, and mise-en-scène.

Dissecting Film Depictions: Dialogue, Focalization, and Mise-en-scène

In studying power dynamics, one can look to language and discourse. The conversations

between characters in a film can tell the audience a lot about their personalities, and even

intentions, motivations, and desires. Essentially, dialogue can reveal the inner layers of a film

character. Rozzaq et al. (2016) used critical discourse analysis to study power relations in the

film, The Judge (2014) and found that certain words and phrases can signify using characters as

a means of one, control, and two, threaent. The language used between two characters can

“manipulate people” because “language has power in it” (p. 9). Using dialogue, characters can

win, control, and threaten. The author broke down the lines of dialogue between the characters to

see which words signify motivations to exert power or threaten, like the tone of a certain phrase,

the implied meaning, et cetera. This study is useful in deepening the understanding of how the

dialogue between two or more characters can shape who holds the power and who does not.

Besides dialogue, studying film also requires the analysis of focalization. Focalization is

the perception of narratives that are subjective and relative to the narrator or other characters in a

story. In other words, this is what eye a story is told through, how one sees the world in a relative

sense–the focal point. The treatment of a character in the film, what is given focus, is key in

understanding the intention of the narrative. The focalization dictates what the audience

perceives, intentionally done by the director to emphasize certain plotlines, characters, and

sequences. Terry (2018) understood focalization as the mechanism to concentrate the viewer’s

curiosity through close-up shots and scenes that construct the film characters in a more dynamic

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and nuanced way. In this international study, the author examined depictions of black female

characters and their marginality as a product of a Eurocentric society. It was asserted that the

marginality of these black female characters is “produced and reproduced through invisibility”

(p. 1).

Lastly, mise-en-scène, is a French term used to analyze the setting and scenery in film.

The setting that the characters are set in is also important. In layman’s terms, this is whatever the

viewer can see on screen, including the color, the lighting, the blocking of the characters, the

setting, the position of the camera, and other spatio-temporal characteristics. A case study done

by Velasco (2004) examined two Filipino melodrama films released in the late 1950s, namely

Sino’ng Maysala? and mga Ligaw na Bulaklak. The study used three criteria to evaluate these

two films, including “the formal, expressive content that includes the external conventions of the

genre adopted by the films, as manifested primarily by elements of their mise-en-scene” (p 32).

The author used elements like the use of harsh tones of red and yellow to convey passion and

how certain objects were used as metaphors important to the story’s narrative. In these Filipino

melodramas, the character’s internal disturbances were made external through the use of colors,

settings, and objects. This, along with many other studies, has used mise-en-scène to make sense

of the film’s messages.

The analysis of these three film elements, in particular, provides key insights into why

films are the way they are, why scenes are shot a certain way, why certain sequences are longer

than others, why characters are blocked or framed in a certain way, et cetera. It is critical to

understand the intention of the filmmaker behind what the viewer is seeing on the screen.

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 The Dominant Gaze: Heteronormativity in Cinema

Zooming out from the previous section, this section will discuss how film and genre

conventions reflect dominant heteronormative cultures. In a study done by Martin & Kazyak

(2009), the scholars examined how children films, especially films produced by Disney,

constructed ideas of heteronormativity. An array of ethnographic studies have asserted that by

the time a child is in elementary school, they comprehend the “normativity of heterosexuality”

(p. 316) (Best 1983; Renold, 2002; 2005; Thorne, 1993 as cited in Martin & Kazyak, 2009).

Children’s movies, particularly in Disney films, remain largely contingent on more traditional

constructions of gender, like how media can associate “heterosexuality and romantic love to

femininity” (p. 323) and the emphasis given on “finding a man/prince for the heroines” (Junn

1997; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995 as cited in Martin & Kazyak, 2009). The study’s findings

include that the most common documentation of heterosexuality is one of “heteroromantic love

and its exceptional, magical, transformative power” (p. 323). And, that “heterosexuality is

constructed as men gazing desirously at women’s bodies” (p. 323).

Although, this study was conducted in 2009, this study provided a more comprehensive

analysis of how heterosexuality is depicted in films with children as the target audience. The

concept of heteronormativity is not only romance constructed between opposite sexes, but one

that is monogamous as well. The construction of heterosexuality as normative while homosexual

relations are still put to the side, used for comedic purposes, or otherwise left out of the narrative.

Starting from early childhood, these social norms are embedded into audiences across the world.

The Alternate Gaze: Queering Identities in Cinema

Beyond the confines of the film screen, stories have a place in social realities. After all,

cinema can be argued to be the medium that can reflect the social and political realities of certain

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groups, cultures, and even entire societies. The bakla in Philippine cinema has developed from

being invisible to relatively visible in the film industry. The popularity of queer characters in film

has been shaped by mostly comic treatment.

Gay characters had high visibility during the Marcos dictatorship era, "the most

prominent body of work being Brocka's tackling of homosexuality at regular intervals: from his

early Tubig sa Ginto (1971) to Ang Tatay Kong Nanay (1978), including the peripheral gay

characters in Maynila: Sa Mga Kuko ng Liwanag (1975),” and more (David, 2012). These

included depictions of homosexuality that were real and nuanced. Queer characters, in the body

of Brocka’s works, were treated to a more realistic, and even sympathetic depiction. Depictions

that put gay characters in the foreground were subversive in the eyes of the mainstream film

industry, especially in an otherwise heteronormative milieu. The Marcos regime, on several

accounts, (Benjamin, 2023; David, 2012; David, 1990), harbored the emergence of the presumed

“second golden age of Philippine cinema”. This study demonstrates Brocka’s works, pushing for

the visibility of gay identities, came with reactions from the industry, audiences, and eventually,

changes in how the audience perceives the gay character.

From a broader perspective, films majorly shape concepts of gender and sexuality itself.

The construction of gender and queerness is not a single concept, but a social construction

shaped by the sustained fluctuations in central societal forces concerning politics, economics,

social spheres, and economics (Jackson, 2011 as cited in Nuñez, 2016). The concept of

“othering” is also critical in this discussion of film gazes. In the context of a film, this is the

treatment of a character that alienates, stereotypes, and discriminates relative to the other

characters in the film, usually belonging to a powerful group. For instance, queer characters can

be othered by focalizing the heteronormative characters by trimming sequences, removing

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important contexts, or the intentional misrepresentation of these marginalized characters. In

simple terms, this refers to painting these characters in a negative light, or not even bothering to

“paint the picture” in the first place.

Synthesis

This review of related literature showed how film depictions have shaped

conceptualizations of queer identities and how these depictions have been broken down in

previous studies. Looking for power dynamics in film requires a nuanced understanding. Overall,

there have been many studies on marginalized identities in cinema, both locally and

internationally. However, a noticeable literature gap was the dissection of power in the context of

romance and sex, especially relative to heteronormative versus homonormative relationships, in

film. Power has been understood in past studies relative to race, socio-economic class, and other

demographics, however, when it comes to romance, there is still more to discover.

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 STUDY FRAMEWORK

This study framework employs Buckland’s (1999) take on film semiotics as an overall

theoretical anchor but delves into aspects of gender using Edward’s (1983) theorization of sex

roles and aspects of power using Dunbar’s (2011) dyadic power theory. The following sections

will cover how these ideas and assertions apply to this study theoretically, conceptually, and

analytically.

Theoretical Framework

This study uses three theoretical anchors, including semiotics as an overall anchor, to

delve into issues of gender, romance, sexuality, and power, the two core anchors employed are

sex-role theory and Dunbar’s dyadic power theory. These two critical theories will be the

foundation for how this study will dissect depictions of heterosexual romance and queer

romance, along with each of their separate power relations, in its chosen film, Brocka’s Maynila

sa Mga Kuko ng Liwanag.

Film Semiotics

To start, semiotics has long been used as a framework to study visual mediums, such as

film or graphic advertisements. This section discusses how semiotics have been used to study

film and later, expands to how Buckland’s (1999) analysis of film semiotics can apply to

discussions of gender and power.

The main assertion that the theory of semiotics forwards is that visuals, images, gestures,

symbols, linguistic and nonlinguistic, can create meaning. Using semiotics to study film,

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Buckland (1999) discusses linguistic and semiotic models and coming from this, how to analyze,

describe, construct, and evaluate film material.

The Semiotic Model of La Langue and Parole

The function of a semiotic model is not to unearth or discover its particular object of

interest but to construct it. The proper construction entails the examination of the “hierarchy

between underlying (latent, nonobservable) reality and surface (manifest, observable reality).”

(p. 85). The underlying reality, in this case, is referred to as cinematic language. Buckland

prefaces with how semiotics is rooted in the study of structured linguistics, giving focus to Swiss

linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure’s model of la langue and parole. This linguistic model suggests

that communication should be looked at like a “circuit”, an intersubjective system of

communication going back and forth from sender to receiver. This model is characterized by

assertions that communication processes are all interrelated. La langue refers to the rule system

of signs, messages, and gestures shared by a collective society, and in contrast, la parole, pertains

to the individual use of language, specifically uttered, everyday expressions, and how the use of

language is characterized by the rule systems developed by society.

A Breakdown of Film Semiotics

This section will discuss how one can employ semiotics to “analyze, describe, construct,

and evaluate” (p. 88) film material. First, semiotic analysis and description is the attempt to what

meaning an image communicates. For instance, a red light universally communicates danger,

alertness, or to stop. The mise-en-scène, everything the viewer sees in the frame, can be

subjected to semiotic analysis. For instance, the color grading used is commonly used to

communicate emotion, e.g., bright tones to symbolize happiness, peace, or excitement, or dark

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tones to symbolize sadness, loneliness, or danger. Semiotics can also construct or evaluate films.

The construction of a film lies in its cinematic language, the film conventions used to portray

something to the audience. This is how filmmakers communicate more complex emotions, ideas,

and themes. For example, when there is a close-up shot of a subject, the filmmaker is likely

emphasizing the said subject. Close-ups show the subject or event occurring within the frame as

something the audience should pay attention to because it may be an important plot point. Lastly,

semiotics can be used to evaluate. This is the outward-facing perspective present in the process

of conducting semiotic analysis. This relates to the images on-screen to their cultural context and

societal implications. This touches on subject matters like what message the film may be

portraying through its mise-en-scène, focalization, or other film elements. This can specifically

refer to how a film can highlight societal challenges such as poverty, workers' rights, and

marginalization, through its creative or documentative meditations.

Moving on from semiotic film theorization, another core of this study is its discussion of

sex roles. The following section will introduce another one of the three main theoretical anchors

that this study is using to analyze and critique Brocka’s Maynila sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag

(1975).

Sex-role Theory

The theorization of “sex roles” dates back to discussions between feminist scholars on

what role the female had to play in various contexts, like in the home as the “housewife”. This

theory of roles can be tackled using functionalist perspectives, and Parsonianism in particular,

treats roles as a normative and ’static’ concept. This means that it emphasizes the society over

the individual, putting socialization, value consensus, and social integration above all. In contrast

to the interactionist perspective, role-playing is looked at as a process, a social production, rather

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than as a mere conformity. Here, human actors are thought of as equals to the society they live

in, if not more important than society and its norms and institutions (Edwards, 1983).

In sex-role theory, “role” is “the mediating concept linking individual to society” (p.

387). This strived to move away from the dangers of biological reductionism, in simpler terms,

being reduced to one’s sex. However, this theorization of roles did spark sociological discourse

on how to approach the notion of the role of the female critically, but also carefully. Despite this,

the role as a concept itself was deemed problematic by sociologists and other scholars.

In the functionalism paradigm, there are the following key elements identified by Connel

(1979, 8) and Pfohl (1975, 251-6) as cited in Edwards (1983):

1. the presumption of a social structure containing positions or statuses, attached to

each of which is a ’ role’ or set of tasks, actions or behaviors; if individuals enter

into the analysis, it is as the occupants of positions and the enactors of roles;

2. roles are seen as sets of normative expectations held by occupants of related or

counter positions which are (or are experienced as) constraining on the

individuals in the relevant positions;

3. role expectations are internalized as part of normal socialization and this is the

primary source of role conformity;

4. role behavior is sanctioned (positively and negatively) by those occupying counter

positions who, as a result of their socialization into the common and integrated

value system, are acting as the moral agents of society.

However, there are issues in this functionalist approach as this may lead to polarization of

masculine and feminine roles when in reality, there can be a blurring between the two roles,

especially when involving social realities that actively go against these traditionally masculine or

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feminine roles. The sex-role theory, therefore, can be expanded to distinguish gendered

stereotypes and actual behavior, moving away from deterministic and unrealistic conclusions.

Dyadic Power Theory

Power, argued by communication scholars and those in related fields, is a crucial, even

integral part of studying any relationship. To study power in dyads is to examine things

consisting of two elements. Dyadic power theory (DPT), theorized by Norah E. Dunbar, takes a

closer look at how power operates in dual relationships, e.g., romantic relationships, relative to

the motivation behind a decision and the perception of one’s power concerning their partner. This

theory also predicts that one’s perception of power can be dictated by the dominant

communication behaviors employed to take control (Dunbar, 2004; see also Dunbar & Adam,

2017).

It is important to note that DPT took from previous perspectives, including another

theoretical anchor, sex-role theory, along with related theories such as social exchange theory, the

chilling effect, and normative resource traditions. To introduce the theory, there are six main

components of DPT, including power, defined as the potential to dictate the behavior of another

person; control attempts, referring to the efforts made by one person to control the other’s

behavior; control, which is when these attempts to change the others’ behavior induce

compliance; authority, which are the norms associated with who “should” be in control;

resources, which is anything that one partner makes available to the other, which can be used to

satisfy needs or achieve goals; and lastly, relative, refers to the “power differences between

partners in relation to each other” (p. 239).

The main assumptions of DPT are derived from past perspectives like social exchange

and normative resources traditions. However, DPT “assumes that perceived relative power

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differences are what influences the partners’ control attempts.” (p. 239). Also, in the case when

the goals of partners may be congruent, power differences may not be relevant. When goals and

motivations are not in conflict with one another, differences in power, authority, or access to

resources may not be relevant. Power can be seen in communication in many instances,

including problem-solving exchanges, ordinary conversations, and intimate self-disclosure. This

theorization of DPT, though different, argues that power and control are not exclusive to

instances involving conflict, though still integral aspects in relationships. In this theory, people

are deemed to be logical, goal-oriented beings who create opinions about their position in a

relationship and then use those insights to exert power over other people.

Based on these assumptions, DPT has three main propositions:

P1. Increases in relative authority are related to increases in relative resources.

P2. Increases in relative resources produce increases in relative power.

P3. Increases in relative authority produce increases in relative power.

These propositions, although can be read as quantitative, will be adjusted to this study’s

nature in the conceptual framework accordingly.

Integrated Theoretical Framework

Semiotics, as the overall anchor to this study, provides the groundwork on how to analyze

visual images and cinematic language. In this analysis of film language, the study will dissect

sex roles in the way they are communicated visually or linguistically. Power will be examined

with the same line of thinking, i.e., how power manifests itself through visual images, character

dialogue, narration, sound, etc. The following section will discuss how these three theoretical

anchors will be applied to the study conceptually.

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 Conceptual Framework

Semiotics is applied as an overall anchor for studying images of heterosexual and

homosexual relations between characters in this study’s chosen film, Maynila sa mga Kuko ng

Liqanag (1975). This theory provides the basis for how to analyze visual images and visual

language before moving on to the focus of this study, gendered film depictions. Critiquing the

narrative form as well as deconstructing the film needs an anchor like semiotics to provide a

more concrete framework. From analyzing the spoken dialogue, to the setting, the lighting,

theses are film elements that can demystify the storytelling and visuals of this film to analyze

issues of power, gender, and sexuality.

In breaking down (a) heterosexual and (b) queer romance in this film, sex-role theory will

be used to examine what role, “the mediating concept linking individual to society” (Edwards, p.

387) the female lead character, Ligaya, possesses with the male protagonist, Julio, and how this

role can transform when Julio involves himself with the queer side characters. Overall, this

theory will help delineate how heterosexual and homosexual romance can possess both

similarities and differences, especially regarding the other’s “role” in the larger society of 1970s

Manila.

DPT, on the other hand, will be used to see how power operates in its main concepts

including its main concepts, power, control attempts, control, authority, resources, and relativity.

Another core component include the factors that cause individuals to feel powerful relative to

others. For instance, Julio’s male privilege, socioeconomic disposition, freedom, et cetera. In

contrast to Liagaya’s nearly ful absence throughout the film, her imprisonment, and her lack of

control. Lastly, the queer characters, especially seen in the red light districts of Manila and their

marginalization, othering, especially since these queer characters only made an appearance set in

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sex hostels. Another aspect of this theory include the communication processes that result from

experiences of power can be applied conceptually in especially how Julio communicates with

Ligaya versus with the queer characters in the sex hostels or streets. Being the central figure to

the film that has been involved with both men and women, how does he, the cisgender man, hold

the power, especially in the way he communicates relative to either Ligaya or queer individuals.

The last core concept of FPT included the outcomes for both the relationship and the individuals

within. This can be examined through the key points and development of Julio’s relationship

with Ligaya and the queer characters. Within many instances where power is tested, how does

this shape the relationships Julio possesses relative to these two parties? Or, how does this shape

the two parties, the woman, and the queer individual? This dynamic is especially apparent with

Julio’s eventual reunion with Ligaya, full of sincerity, while Julio’s encounters with queer men

are rather focused on mere sex and sexual experimentation.

Analytical Framework

These theories will be applied analytically by drawing the main elements of film analysis

and examining the depictions of heterosexual and queer romance guided by the following

indicators, supplemented by relevant literature discussed previously.

The following is a table displaying the concepts and indicators for the study’s main

theoretical anchors.

Table 1. Concepts and Indicators of Theoretical Anchors

Semiotics
Concept Indicator
La langue Dialogue in between two or more characters
Parole Internal monologue, individual character dialogue

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Mise-en-scène Shot size, camera placement, sound, editing, lighting, blocking,
depth, color, setting, framing, staging positions (Welsch, 1997)
Sex-role Theory
Sex roles Socio-economic disposition, sexuality, narrative framing of male va,
female characters,

Gendered expectations Accepted gender expression, i.e., how male and female characters are
expected to dress, expected occupations, e.g., office jobs or hard
labor for men vs. the woman’s housekeeper role
Gender norms Gendered social values, e.g., men attached to authority, professional
success vs. women attached to physical attractiveness as well as
empathy, obedience, and motherhood
Dyadic Power Theory
Power, control attempts, Dialogue, i.e., problem-solving exchanges, ordinary conversations,
and control and intimate self-disclosure, narrative and visual focalization of the
dominant character/s

Authority Institutional and individual power, i.e., the perceived legitimacy and
integrity

Resources Monetary, social, educational, and other pertinent resources and

privileges, e.g., access to stable incomes, access to powerful social
groups, access to education, access to safe environments

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