Week 3 13-18 February 2023: Ethical theories versus practice

Here are four basic ethical theories with examples that we need to understand before
we analyse its relationship with real life examples.

1. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best action is the one that
maximizes overall happiness and reduces overall suffering. Utilitarianism argues that
ethical decisions should be based on their consequences, and that the morality of an
action can be determined by calculating its overall impact on the happiness and well-
being of all affected individuals.

One of the most famous proponents of utilitarianism was English philosopher Jeremy
Bentham, who argued that actions should be evaluated based on their ability to increase
overall happiness, or what he called "utility." Bentham proposed that pleasure and pain
are the only intrinsic goods, and that all other values, such as justice or freedom, can be
reduced to their ability to increase overall happiness.

An example of utilitarian thinking can be seen in the decision of whether to build a new
factory in a location where it would provide jobs and economic benefits, but also cause
environmental harm. A utilitarian might argue that the overall increase in happiness and
well-being that would result from the factory, such as improved employment and
economic growth, would outweigh the negative impact on the environment.

Another example of utilitarianism can be seen in the debate over physician-assisted

suicide, where some argue that allowing individuals to end their lives with dignity, in
cases of terminal illness, would increase overall happiness by reducing their suffering.

While utilitarianism provides a clear framework for making ethical decisions, it can also
be criticized for ignoring individual rights and for failing to account for the unequal
distribution of benefits and harms. For example, utilitarianism might support a policy
that causes harm to a minority, if it leads to a greater overall increase in happiness for
the majority. Utilitarianism can also lead to difficult ethical dilemmas, such as the trade-
off between the happiness of the individual and the happiness of the group.

2. Deontology: This theory, most famously associated with Immanuel Kant, holds that
some actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences.
Deontologists argue that moral obligations, such as the duty to always tell the truth or
to respect the dignity of all rational beings, are absolute and that they should be
followed regardless of specific circumstances. One of the most famous proponents of
deontological ethics was German philosopher Immanuel Kant, who argued that moral
actions should be based on a universal principle, known as the categorical imperative,
which states that one should always act in such a way that the action could be made
into a universal law without contradiction.

For example, if one believes that it is always wrong to lie, then they should hold that it is
always wrong to lie, regardless of the specific circumstances or the potential
consequences. Another example of a deontological theory is the duty ethics of W.D.
Ross, which argues that individuals have moral obligations to fulfill specific duties, such
as the duty to keep promises, the duty to help others in need, and the duty to respect
the rights of others. These duties are considered absolute and should be followed, even
if doing so leads to negative consequences. Deontological ethics can provide a clear
framework for thinking about ethical dilemmas, as they emphasize the importance of
following universal moral principles. However, deontological theories can also be
criticized for being inflexible and for failing to consider the potential consequences of
actions. For example, if a doctor has the duty to always tell the truth to their patients,
they may still face difficult ethical dilemmas if the truth could cause harm or distress. In
such cases, deontologists may argue that the duty to respect the dignity of the patient
overrides the duty to tell the truth, while others may argue that the consequences of
hiding the truth would also be unethical.

3. Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that focuses on the character and habits of the
moral actor, rather than rules or consequences, as the key element of ethical thinking.
Virtue ethics holds that the best way to live a good life and make good ethical decisions
is to cultivate virtuous character traits, such as honesty, compassion, courage, and
fairness.

One of the key concepts in virtue ethics is the idea of eudaimonia, which refers to a
state of human flourishing or happiness. Virtue ethicists argue that eudaimonia can be
achieved by cultivating and practicing virtuous character traits, and that these traits are
necessary for living a fulfilling and meaningful life.

For example, consider the decision of a friend to return money that was mistakenly
given to them. From a virtue ethics perspective, this decision is not just a matter of
following a rule, but a manifestation of the individual's honest and trustworthy
character.

Another example of virtue ethics can be seen in the debate over corporate
responsibility, where virtue ethicists might argue that companies have a moral
obligation to prioritize the well-being of their employees, customers, and the wider
community, as a manifestation of their virtuous character.
While virtue ethics offers a perspective that values personal character and the
development of virtuous habits, it can also be criticized for being too subjective and for
ignoring the importance of rules and consequences in ethical decision making. For
example, virtue ethics may lead to difficult ethical dilemmas when personal character
conflicts with broader social responsibilities, such as the responsibility to follow laws or
regulations.

4. Care ethics, also known as feminist ethics or relational ethics, is a philosophical

approach to ethics that emphasizes the importance of caring relationships, personal
responsibility, and interdependence. Care ethics holds that moral considerations are
rooted in personal relationships, and that ethical decisions should be based on the
responsibility to care for and support those in need.

One of the key concepts in care ethics is the idea of "caring labor," which refers to the
emotional and physical work that is necessary to maintain relationships, such as
nurturing and supporting family members, friends, and other individuals in need. Care
ethics argues that this type of labor is often undervalued and neglected in traditional
ethical theories, which focus primarily on individual rights and obligations.

For example, consider the decision of a parent to stay home to care for a sick child.
From a care ethical perspective, the parent's decision to prioritize their relationship with
their child and their responsibility to care for their well-being is considered a moral
choice, even if it involves sacrificing personal goals or financial stability.

Another example of care ethics can be seen in the debate over the allocation of
healthcare resources, where care ethicists might argue that decisions should be based
on the responsibility to care for the most vulnerable and in-need individuals, rather than
on cost or efficiency considerations.

While care ethics offers a perspective that values personal relationships and
interdependence, it can also be criticized for being too subjective and for ignoring the
larger social and political context in which ethical decisions are made. For example, care
ethics may lead to difficult ethical dilemmas when personal relationships conflict with
broader social responsibilities, such as the responsibility to address systemic inequality
or injustice.

These are just a few of the many ethical theories that have been developed, and each
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some individuals and organizations may find that
a particular theory speaks to them, while others may prefer to draw on a combination of
different theories in making ethical decisions.
Ultimately, ethical theories serve as a starting point for thinking about ethical problems,
but the specific circumstances and consequences of each situation will also play a crucial
role in determining the right course of action.

The relationship between ethical theories and real life?

Ethical theories provide a framework for thinking about and analyzing moral problems and
questions. In real life, individuals and organizations face ethical dilemmas and decisions on a
regular basis, and these theories can be useful in helping to consider the various options and
determine the right course of action.
For example, utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues the best course of action is the one
that maximizes overall happiness and reduces overall suffering. In real life, this might be used
to analyze a decision such as whether to build a new factory in a location where it would
provide jobs and economic benefits, but also cause environmental harm.
Similarly, deontological theories, such as Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative, focus on the
inherent value of actions and the moral duty to always respect the dignity of rational beings.
This might be applied in real life to questions such as whether it is ever justifiable to tell a lie or
break a promise.
While ethical theories can provide guidance and structure for thinking about ethical problems,
they are not a substitute for careful consideration of the specific circumstances and
consequences of each individual case. Additionally, different ethical theories may sometimes
come into conflict, and individuals and organizations may need to weigh the competing
considerations and decide based on their own values and principles.