GULU UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND HUMANITIES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE EDUCATION-BIOLOGICAL

NAME: KASINGABALYA ANDREW

REG. NUMBER: 23/U/0035/GBE

STUDENT NUMBER: 2301000035

COURSE NAME: GENETICS AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BIO 1102

CREDIT UNIT: 4CU

YEAR OF STUDY: YEAR I

SEMISTER: I

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023/2024

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 6TH OCTOBER, 2023

LECTURER’S NAME: ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR RICHARD ECHODU

QUESTION

Describe the structure of DNA and how its structures influence its functioning
The DNA is the genetic material in almost all organisms that is it carries the genetic
instructions for development, functioning, growth and reproduction of organisms and viruses
In eukaryotic cells, it’s mostly found in the nucleus and hence assuming the name nucleic.
The DNA found in the nucleus is called the nuclear DNA. Some DNA is found in the
mitochondria and hence called the mitochondrial DNA and in the chloroplast and hence
chloroplast DNA. In prokaryotic cells, the DNA is found in the cytoplasm.
The DNA is called and acid because of its phosphate groups which lose (donate) in neutral
medium.
The DNA is double stranded, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds, twisted
around one another to form a spiral shape known as the double helix. This double helix
structure was first discovered by James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin. These
strands run in opposite direction and are antiparallel. They have a backbone made of
alternating sugar and phosphate groups (sugar-phosphate backbone).
Each strand is a polynucleotide made up of several units of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is
basically made up of three building blocks that is;
1. Phosphate group (phosphoric acid). This has a negative charge.

2. Deoxyribose, a pentose (5 carbon atom) sugar which is found outside the double helix.

3. Nitrogenous (organic bases), these are found inside of the double helix and form
hydrogen-bonded pairs that hold the DNA strands together. These consist of the small,
single ringed pyrimidine which include thymine(T) and cytosine(C), and big double
ringed purines which are adenine(A) and guanine(G)
The phospate group, deoxyribose and the nitrogen bases combine through condenstation to
form a nucleotide. The phosphate cobines with the deoxyribose at carbon atom 5 and the
nitrogen base combines with the deoxyribose at carbon atom 1. Several nucleotides combine
forming polynuceotide chains (strand). The two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds
between the nitrogen bases in which purines combine with pyrimidines following the
complementary base paring rule where adenine combines with thymine while guanine
combines with cytosine. The hydrogen bonds are due to the high electonegativity of oxygen
and nitrogen atoms thereby creating interactions between these atoms and hydrogen atoms.
The nucleotides are joined together by strong electromagnetic attractions called
phopshodiesther bonds connecting the 5’(five prime) carbon of one nucleotide top the
3’(three prime) carbon of the other nucleotide. This occurs through a condesation reaction.

Purines can only bond with pyrimidines because;

-the distance between the two strands of DNA is constant. Two purines together would be too
big to fit in that distance, and two pyrimidines together would be too small.
-bonding between purines and pyrimidines is very specific. Not only can a purine not bond
with anything but a pyrimidine, but specific purines have to bond with specific pyrimidines.
This is because the structure of each is such that it can only bond with the corresponding one.
Sugar-phosphate backbone; has a negative charge that allows DNA to easily dissolve in
water and is also used by proteins that bind the DNA which often have positive charges thus
easily binding to the negatively charged phosphate groups. The DNA binding proteins are
important in processes of replication and transcription and other processes.
The sugar-phosphate backbone also holds the DNA together.

*DNA contains thymine instead of uracil (a pyrimidine that can pair with adenine and has a
hydrogen atom on carbon atom number 5 which is substituted by a methyl group in
thymine) because (1)thymine has greater resistance to photochemical mutation, making the
genetic message more stable. This is necessary for holding all of the information needed for
life to function. (2)thymine contains a methyl group which makes the DNA invisible to
nucleases which would breakdown the DNA. Viruses, bacteria and other invaders can’t
destroy the DNA using the nucleases. (3)uracil can pair with itself leading to mutation of the
genetic material. The methyl group in thymine restricts its paring to only adenine improving
greatly the efficiency of DNA replication by reducing the rate of mismatches and thus
mutations. (4)cytosine can deaminate to produce uracil. If uracil was a component of DNA,
the repair systems would not distinguish between the original uracil and that from the
deamination of cytosine. Using thymine instead makes it easier as any uracil inside the DNA
must come from cytosine and so it can be replaced by a new cytosine. (5)Ultraviolet light
causes thymine dimers to accumulate in the DNA, therefore if uracil was present, these uracil
dimers would not be recognised by nucleotide excision repair.

In summary, the DNA structure influences its functioning

 DNA is a double stranded molecule. This enables semi-conservative replication to

take place in which each individual strand will act as a template resulting in the
formation of an identical DNA molecule.
 It has a-helix structure making it very compact thus occupying little space in the
nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 It is a very large molecule hence storing lots of information.
 The sugar-phosphate backbone provides stability by protecting the internal bases.
 Between each complementary pair of bases there are weak hydrogen bonds. These
can easily be broken down during the processes of replication and transcription
 The specific base sequence enables the storage of information. Proteins are
synthesised following the transcription and translation of this base sequence.
Reference list

Molecular Biology of the Cell, by Bruce Alberts, Johnson A, Lewis J et al., 4th edition 2002