J Relig Health (2017) 56:2076–2081

DOI 10.1007/s10943-013-9720-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Masturbation: Scientific Evidence and Islam’s View

Sayed Shahabuddin Hoseini

Published online: 23 April 2013

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Masturbation is the stimulation of sexual organs usually to the point of orgasm
with an essential autoerotic component. Due to the high prevalence of this sexual behavior,
it was and still is a matter of debate if masturbation is a normal action without any side
effects and even if it is advantageous or it is associated with side effects necessitating
public education how to avoid it. In addition, it is a common question if masturbation is
religiously lawful or not. In this study, I assess the results of scientific studies about this
sexual behavior and also shed some light on the Islam’s view about it.

Keywords Masturbation
Body
Psyche
Islam

Introduction

Human beings have several basic needs that must be adequately fulfilled in order for them to
lead a healthy physical, social, and spiritual life. In addition to the individual’s need to eat,
drink, and sleep in order to survive, the need for sex impels people to get married and ensure
the continued existence of their future generations. However, there are many deviations from
normal sexual behavior, which require scientific assessment. Masturbation, one such devi-
ation, is the sexual stimulation of genitalia usually to the point of orgasm, with an essential
autoerotic component. In the first part of this manuscript, I have assessed the results of
scientific studies on the biological and psychological effects of masturbation. In the second
part, I have addressed the view of Islam on the topic; I conclude the article with a review.

Biological Aspects

Several studies have shown that masturbation leads to poor physical health. A growing
body of evidence shows that excessive cardiovascular reactivity to stress can lead to
S. S. Hoseini (&)
Karl-Wiechert-Allee 15, 30625 Hannover, Germany
e-mail: shahab337@yahoo.com

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hypertension in the long term (Matthews et al. 2003, 1993). Brody et al. have reported that
penile–vaginal intercourse (PVI) improves blood pressure reactivity to stress. Masturba-
tion, on the other hand, not only aggravates the reactivity of blood pressure to stress, but
also reduces the beneficial effects of PVI (Brody 2006; Brody and Costa 2009).
Masturbation also has several effects on the prostate. A study of more than 2,700 male
individuals has shown that masturbation is associated with increased blood prostate-specific
antigen, and a swollen and tender prostate (Corona et al. 2010). Drabick et al. conducted a
study on United Nations peacekeeping forces that showed that masturbation can exacerbate
prostatodynia (pain in the prostate gland) while PVI can alleviate its symptoms (Drabick et al.
1997). Besides, an increase in prostate cancer risk was reported in men who masturbated
frequently in the third, fourth, and fifth decades of their lives (Dimitropoulou et al. 2009).
A recent case report on a 40-year-old man revealed that compulsive masturbation led to
chronic penile lymphedema (Calabro et al. 2012). These data collectively show that
masturbation results in impaired sexual function (Costa 2012). Having pointed out some of
the harmful effects of masturbation, experts suggest that recommendations for prevention
and treatment of sexual disorders should include PVI specifically and discourage mas-
turbation as a therapeutic modality (Brody 2010).
A report on a 30-year-old married man showed that masturbation and not vaginal
intercourse was responsible for urticaria. The authors attributed the urticaria to abnormal
pressure during masturbation unlike in vaginal intercourse (Ghiya et al. 2008).

Psychological Aspects

Masturbation has a broad range of effects on the human psyche. Several authors have
reported that a higher incidence of masturbation, irrespective of decreased PVI frequency,
brings about depressive symptoms (Frohlich and Meston 2002; Husted and Edwards 1976;
Cyranowski et al. 2004). Brody and Costa (2009) investigated the effects of a number of
sexual behaviors and various satisfaction measures of a large Swedish population. In
contrast with PVI, masturbation was inversely associated with satisfaction with their sex
life, mental health, and relationships. Further, the investigation also found an inverse
relation between anal and oral sex and some of the satisfaction parameters (Brody and
Costa 2009). The results of yet another study indicate an inverse relationship between
masturbation frequency and love (Costa and Brody 2007). The investigations did not have
any social desirability bias.
A sample of healthy Portuguese women was chosen to assess the relationships between
various sexual behaviors and the use of immature psychological defense mechanisms.
Immature psychological defense mechanisms are unconscious processes that aim to
counter acute distress resulting from emotional conflicts, by distorting reality testing or
impairing awareness. These immature mechanisms are associated with poorer mental
health and various psychological disorders (Brody 2010; Bowins 2004; Brody et al. 2012).
The results of this study demonstrate that in contrast to those who engage in PVI, women
who masturbate or are masturbated during intercourse make greater use of immature
psychological defense mechanisms, including passive aggression, denial, and autistic
fantasy (Brody and Costa 2008). Following the results of the Portuguese study, the authors
attempted to conduct the same study on a larger Scottish sample. Consistent with the
Portuguese study, the findings of their next study indicated that the frequency of clitoral
masturbation, anal sex, oral sex and the use of vibrators were associated with a greater use
of immature psychological defense mechanisms (Costa and Brody 2010).

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Anxious attachment is a relationship difficulty wherein individuals crave excessively for

emotional support, closeness, and reassurance from their partners. Such persons are
obsessed with the idea of being abandoned by their partners, are hypervigilant to rela-
tionship-threatening cues, and are very prone to separation-triggered distress. They are also
as such prone to several sexual problems and disorders (Costa and Brody 2011; Campbell
and Marshall 2011). Costa and Brody (2011) have found that anxious attachment is closely
associated with masturbation, vibrator use, and anal sex.
It is important to note that the majority of research studies cited in this paper are
correlational and thus cannot prove causation. There are some experimental studies though
that indeed demonstrate causality of significant health differences, beneficial or otherwise,
that result from PVI and masturbation, with only PVI noted as being superior (Brody and
Kruger 2006; Brody 2010).

Islam and Masturbation

In this section, I intend to represent the viewpoint of Islam about masturbation through the
Quran and Hadiths. Hadiths, according to the Sunni point of view, are sayings ascribed
exclusively to Prophet Muhammad, while according to the Shia doctrine, they are the
sayings of Prophet Muhammad and the pure members of his House. This paper makes
references to both Sunni and Shia resources.
Throughout the Quran, there are several verses on marriage and sexual issues. While
describing the attributes of believers, the Quran says (23: 5–7): ‘‘And they who guard their
private parts, except from their wives or those their right hands possess, for indeed, they
will not be blamed; but whoever seeks beyond that [in sexual gratification], then those are
the transgressors.’’ The last sentence emphasizes that any sexual gratification outside the
ambit of the framework mentioned in the foregoing verse is considered a transgression of
God’s law (Rizvi 1990). Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq when once asked about the Quran viewpoint
on masturbation recited the verse above and mentioned masturbation as one of its exam-
ples. The Imam also labeled masturbation an indecent act (Al Amoli 1971).
Since masturbation is unlawful in Islam, there are several recommendations to thwart this
act. First, Islam encourages people to marry, and for those who cannot do so, fasting is one of
the recommendations (Rizvi 1990; Khan 1979). It has been shown that fasting reduces the
level of sexual hormones and diminishes sexual power (Ghadiri Sufi and Khameneh 2005;
Mesbahzadeh et al. 2005). A cold shower can play a preventive role when one feels the urge
to masturbate. Additionally, praying and asking God for help can empower one’s will
(Makarem Shirazi 1971). Other recommendations include maintaining a healthy social life.
Physical exercise plays an important role in channelizing the body’s energies constructively,
increasing social interactions, and improving psychological status (Makarem Shirazi 1971).
Setting goals of abstinence and a commitment to reach those goals through a structured,
systematic process can help suppress the urge to masturbate. Also, avoidance of artificial
stimulators, such as watching pornographic movies, erotic photos, and so on, is highly
recommended as they are provocative (Makarem Shirazi 1971; Rizvi 1975).

Conclusions

In this article, I have tried to describe the effects of masturbation on the body and the
psyche based on well-designed studies. Masturbation can increase the risk of developing

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high blood pressure, bring about prostatic and penile pathology, and has systemic adverse
effects. From a psychological point of view, masturbation leads to depression, dissatis-
faction in sexual relationships and life in general, and greater use of immature psycho-
logical defense mechanisms. Masturbation can also neutralize some of the beneficial
effects of PVI. A question may arise as to why masturbation has adverse effects while PVI
is beneficial when the outcome of the two processes is the same, that is, an orgasm. The
answer is that the biology and psychology of these two sexual behaviors are not the same.
There are several biological and psychological differences between masturbation and PVI
in terms of prolactin and oxytocin release, innervations of clitoris and vagina, and psy-
chological complexity (Brody and Kruger 2006; Komisaruk and Whipple 1998; Brody
2010).
Having enumerated the damaging effects of masturbation, I have quoted verses from the
Quran and some Hadiths forbidding this act and have cited several practical methods
recommended by religious scholars that can help suppress the urge to masturbate.
Some authors say that masturbation is normal since it is very common; however, from
both a practical and logical point of view, the high prevalence of a phenomenon does not
prove its usefulness, for example, just because many people drink and smoke, it does not
necessarily stop them from suffering the consequences thereof (WHO 2011a, b). Thus,
while evaluating a hypothesis in the field of experimental research, it is advisable to use
well-designed experiments and representative respondent groups.
Furthermore, as extensively discussed and referenced by Brody and Costa, researchers
should be specific in examining different sexual behaviors. For example, pure PVI should
be distinguished from PVI using condoms and concomitant clitoral masturbation. There-
fore, ‘‘it is imperative that researchers and educators differentiate between different sexual
behaviors (and orgasm sources), lest results be muddled, inferences be misleading, and
health recommendations be counterproductive.’’ (Brody and Costa 2012) Besides, several
of the most commonly used parameters of sexual behavior clearly lack specificity, which
limits their usefulness for scientists and decision makers of health policies (Costa 2012;
Brody 2010).
In any paper, it is very important to give a proper reference of the study on which a
claim in the paper is based. In a viewpoint paper about masturbation, its author made a
conclusion without providing a reference for it. His claim in the paper was ‘‘In the age of
cell phones, the shared intimacy of telephone sex between separated partners might not
only forestall the impulse to have secondary partners, but even help maintain a primary
relationship’’ (Shelton 2010).
It is worth noting here that the results of a well-designed study with a quantifiable
scoring system for making a comparative assessment of the effects of masturbation, PVI,
and other sexual behaviors on both the body and the psyche would be very beneficial, not
only for the scientific community but also for health policy makers and people in general.
Finally, it should be noted that in Islam, any sexual relationship, including PVI, outside
the framework of the abovementioned verse is unlawful. In fact, several studies have
shown that premarital sex is associated with negative outcomes. Rapidly formed sexual
relationships are associated with quick formation of cohabitation units that have a lower
quality and higher disruption rate in comparison to marital unions; the former therefore
leads to poorer marital outcomes (Sassler et al. 2012; Sassler 2004). Moreover, cohabiting
couples are more negative, less cohesive, and have poor problem-solving and communi-
cation abilities (Cohan and Kleinbaum 2004). In this context, it should also be noted that
adolescent sex and premarital sex are associated with higher risk of marital breakup (Paik
2011; Willoughby et al. 2012). To conclude, the aforementioned data establish the harmful

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effects of masturbation and premarital relationships while endorsing postmarital

relationships.

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