THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is defined as the process by

which food is broken down into simple
chemical substances that can be
absorbed and used as nutrients by the
body. Most of the substances in the
diet cannot be utilized as such. These
substances must be broken down into
smaller particles so that they can be
absorbed into blood and distributed to
various parts of the body for utilization.
A normal young healthy adult
consumes about 1kg of solid diet and
about 1-2 liter of liquid diet everyday.
All these food materials are subjected
to digestive process before being
absorbed into blood and distributed to
the tissues of body.
 Digestive system plays the following roles:-
1) Digestion or consumption of food
substances
2) Breaking them into small particles
3) Transport of small particles to different
areas of the digestive tract.
4) Secretion of necessary enzymes and other
substances for digestive processes
5) Digestion of food particles.
6) Absorption of the digestive products
(nutrients)
7) Removal of unwanted substances from the
body.
 PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The digestive system is made up of
gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or
alimentary canal and the accessory
organs which help in the process of
digestion and absorption. GI tract is a
tubular structure extending from the
month up to the anus with a length of
about 30 feet. It is opened to the
external environment on both ends.
Parts of GI Tract
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Eoesophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
Accessory organs of the digestive system
1. Teeth 5. Liver
2. Tongue 6. Gall bladder
3. Salivary glands
4. Exocrine part of pancreas
WALL OF GIT
In general the wall of the GIT is formed by four
layers. These layers from inside out are:
• 1) Mucus layer
• 2) Submucus layer
• 3) Muscular layer
• 4) Serous or fibrous layer
Mucous Layer
• The inner most layer of the wall of digestive
tract is known as mucus layer. It is also called
gastro intestinal mucosa or mocus membrane.
It faces the cavity of the stomach. The
mucosa has 3 layers of structure.
• i)Epithelial lining
• ii) Lamina propria
• iii) Mucularis mucosa

• i)Epithelial Lining:- It is the layer in contact

with contents of GIT. The type of cells in this
layer varies in different parts of GIT. The
inner surface of month, surface of tongue,
inner surface of pharynx and esophagus
have stratified squamous epithelial cells.
However mucus membrane lining the other
parts such as stomach, small intestinal and
large intestine has columnar epithelial cells.
• ii) Lamina Propria: This is formed
by connective tissues which
contains fibroblasts,
macrophages, lymphocytes and
eosinophils.
• iii) Muscularis Mucosa: This
consists of a thin layer of smooth
muscle fibers. It is absent in
mouth and pharynx. It is present
from oesophagus on wards.
• 2) Sub mucous layer:
• The is also present from
oesophagus onwards and it is
absent in mouth and pharynx.
This layer contains loose collagen
fibers, elastic fibers, reticular
fibers and few cells of connective
tissue. Blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerve plexus are
present in this layer.
• 3) Muscular Layer: The lips, cheeks and
wall of pharynx have skeletal muscle
fibres. The oesophagus has both skeletal
and smooth muscle fibres. Wall of the
stomach and intestine is formed by
smooth muscle fibres. The smooth
muscle fibers in stomach are arranged in
three layers.
• i)Middle oblique layer
ii)Middle circular layer
• III)Outer longitudinal layer
• The muscular coat of intestine has got only
two layers of smooth muscle fibres called:
• 1) Inner circular layer
• 2) Outer longitudinal layer
• In between the circular and longitudinal
muscle fiber. Averbach’s nerve plexas is
present (also called myenteric plexus. It is the
major nerve supply to the GIT and controls
GIT motility). The smooth muscle fibres
present in inner circular layer of anal canal
constitute internal anal sphincter. The
external anal sphincter us formed by skeletal
muscle fibres.
• 4) Serous or Fibrous Layer: The outer
most layer of the wall. GIT is either
serous or fibrous in nature. The
serous layer is formed by connective
tissue and mesoepithelia cells. This
is also called serosa or serous
membrane. This covers stomach
small intestine, large intestine.
• The fibrous layer is otherwise called
fibrosa. It is formed by connective
tissue. It covers the pharynx and
oesophagus.
 NERVE SUPPLY
• The alimentary canal and its related
accessory organs are supplied by serves
from both divisions of the autonomic
nervous system i.e both parasympathetic
and sympathetic parts. Their actions are
generally antagonistic to each other and at
any particular time one has a greater
influence than the other, according to body
requirements, at that time. When digestion is
required, this is normally through increased
activity of the parasympathetic system.
• 1) The Parasympathetic Supply:- One pair
of cranial nerves the vagus nerves, supplies
most of the alimentary canal and the
accessory organs. The effects of
parasympathetic stimulation on the
digestive system are:
• (a)Increased muscular activity especially
peristalsis through increased activity of the
myenteric plexus.
• (b)Increased glandular secretion, through
increased activity of the submucosal plexus.
2) The Sympathetic Supply:- This is provided
by numerous nerves that emerge from the
spinal cord in the thoracic and lumbar
regions. These form plexuses (ganglia) in
the thorax, abdomen and pelvis, from which
nerves pass to the organs of the alimentary
tract. The effects of sympathetic
stimulation on the digestive system are:-
• (a) Decreased muscular activity, especially
peristalsis because there is reduced
stimulation of the myenteric plexus.
• (b)Decreased glandular secretion as there is
less stimulation of the submucosal plexus.
 ORGANS OF DIGESTION
• 1) MOUTH
• It is also known as the oral cavity
or buceal cavity. It is formed by
cheeks, lips and palate. It
encloses the teeth, tongue and
salivary glands. The mouth opens
anteriorly to the exterior through
the lips and posteriorly through
“faces” into the pharynx.
 FUNCTIONS OF MOUTH
• Primary function of the mouth is eating and
it has some other important functions also:-
• 1) Ingestion of food materials
• 2) Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva
• 3) Appreciation of taste of food (tongue)
• 4) Transfer of food (bolus) to the oesophagus
by swallowing.
• 5) Role in speech
• 6) Social functions such as smiling and other
expressions.
Tongue
It is made up of voluntary muscle
and is attached by its based to the
hyoid bone (horse shaped bone
that serves as a structural anchor
in the mid neck located in the
anterior midline of the neck
between the chin and the thyroid
cartilage).
and by a fold of its mucous
membrane covering called the
“trenulum to the floor of the mouth.
The superior surface consists of
stratified squamous epithelium
with numerous “papillae” (title
projections) many of these
contain sensory receptors
(specialized nerve endings) for the
sense of taste in the taste buds.
 FUNCTIONS OF THE TONGUE
The tongue plays an important part in
• Chewing (mastication)
• Swallowing (deglutition)
• Speech
• Taste
• Nerve endings of the sense of taste
are present in the papillae and widely
distributed in the epithelium of the
tongue.
Teeth
The teeth are embedded in the
alveoli or sockets of the alveolar
ridges of the mandible and the
th
maxilla. Babies are born 15 two
sets or dentitions, the temporary or
deciduous teeth and the permanent
teeth. At birth the teeth of both
dentitions are present in immature
form, in the mandible of the maxilla.
• There are 20 temporary teeth, 10
in each jaw. The begin to empty at
about 6 months of age and
should all be present by 24
months.
• The permanent teeth begin to
replace the deciduous (temporary)
th
teeth in the 6 year of age and
this dentition consisting of 32
teeth is usually complete by age
• STRUCTURE OF TEETH
• The shapes of teeth vary but the
structure is the same.
• (a) The crown:- The part that
protrudes from the gum
• (b) The root:- The part embedded in
the bone
• (c) The neck:- The slightly narrowed
region where the crown merges with
the root.
Functions
• 4 parts: Incisors, Canine,
premolar and molar.
• Incisors and Canine are the
cutting teeth and are used for
biting off pieces of food. The
premolar and molar with broad,
flat surfaces are used for
grinding or chewing food.
• SALIVARY GLANDS
• Salivary glands release their
secretions into ducts that lead to the
mouth. Saliva is secreted by 3 pairs of
major (larger) salivary glands and
some (small) salivary glands.
• Major Salivary glands
• (1) Parotid glands
• (2) Submaxillary or submandibular
glands
• (3) Sublingual glands
• Minor Salivary glands
• 1) Lingual mucus glands
• 2) Lingual Serous glands
• 3) Buccal glands
• 4) Labial glands
• 5) Palatal glands
CLASSIFICATION OF SALIVARY GLANDS
• Salivary glands are classified into 3 types
based on the type of secretion.
• 1) Serous glands
• 2) Mucus glands
• 3) Mixed glands
• Structure and duct system of salivary glands
• Salivary glands are formed by acini or
alveoli. Each acinus is formed by a small
group of cells which surround a central
globular cavity. Central cavity of each acinus
is continuous with the lumen of the duct.
The fine duct draining each acinus is called
“intercalated duct”. Many intercalated ducts
join together to form intralobular ducts. Few
intralobular ducts join to form interlobular
ducts which unite to structure and duct
system is called (racemose type). (racemose
– a bunch of grapes).
Properties of Saliva
• 1) Volume: 1000ml to 1500ml of saliva is
secreted per day and it is a approximately
about 1mL/minute.
• 2) Reaction: Mixed saliva from all the glands
is slightly acidic with Ph of 6.35 to 6,85.
• 3) Specific gravity: It ranges between 1.002
and 1.012.
• 4) Tonicity: Saliva is hypotonic to plasma.
Composition of Saliva
• Mixed saliva contains 99.5% water and 0.5%
solids
 Functions of Saliva
• Saliva is an essential digestive juice.
• (1)Preparation of food for swallowing
• (2)Appreciation of taste
• (3)Digestive functions:- 3 digestive enzymes
(a) Amylase (b) maltase (c) Lingual lipase.
• (4)Cleansing and protective functions
• (5)Role in Speech
• (6)Excretory function
• (7)Regulation of body temperature
• (8)Regulation of water balance
• Nerve supply of Salivary
glands
• Salivary glands are
supplied by both
sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
of autonomic nervous
system.
 PHARYNX
• The pharynx is divided into 3 parts
• 1) Nasopharynx – important in respiration
• 2) Oropharynx and laryngopharynx - are
passages common to both respiratory and
the digestive systems.
• Food passes from the oral cavity into the
pharynx then to the oesophagus below,
with which it is continuous. The walls of
the pharynx consist of 3 layers of tissue.
• The lining membrane (mucosa) is
stratified squamous epithelium,
continuous with the lining of the
mouth at one end and the
oesophagus at the other. Stratified
epithelial tissue provides a lining well
suited to the wear and tear of
swallowing ingested food.
• The middle layer consists of
connective tissue which becomes
thinner towards the lower end
• The outer layer consists of a number
of involuntary muscles that are
involved in swallowing. When food
reaches the pharynx, swallowing is no
longer under voluntary control.
• Blood Supply
• The blood supply to the pharynx is by
several branches of the facial arteries
venous drainage is into the facial
veins and the internal jugular veins.
• Nerve Supply
• Thais is from the pharyngeal
plexus consists of
parasympathetic and
sympathetic nerves.
Parasympathetic supply is
mainly by the glossopharyngeal
and vagus nerves and
sympathetic from the cervical
• STOMACH
• The stomach is a hollow organ
situated just below the diaphragm
on the left side in the abdominal
cavity. Volume of empty stomach
is 50mL. Under normal conditions,,
it can expand to accommodate IL
to 1.5L of solids and liquids.
However, it is capable of
expanding still further up to 4L.
• Parts of the stomach
• In humans the stomach has 4
parts
• 1) Cardiac region
• 2) Fundus
• 3) Body or Corpus
• 4) Pyloric region
 Functions of the Stomach
- Temporary storage allowing time for
the digestive enzymes (pepsm) to act.
- Chemical digestion:-Pepsins break
proteins into polypeptides
- Mechanical breakdown:- The 3
smooth muscle layers enable the
stomach to act as churn, gastric juice
in added and the contents are
liquefied to chime. Gastric motility
and secretion are increased by
- Limited absorption:- Water, alcohol and
some lipid soluble drugs
- Non specific defence against microbes:
Provided by the hydrochloric acid in
gastric juice. Vomiting may occur in
response to ingestion of gastric irritants e.
g. microbes or chemicals.
- Preparation of iron for absorption:- The
acid environment of the stomach
solubilises non salts essential for iron
absorption in the small intestine.
- Production and Secretion of intrinsic factor
needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in the
terminal ileum.
- Regulation of the passage of gastric
contents into the duodenum. When the
chyme is sufficiently acidified and liquefied,
the pylorus forces small sets of gastric
contents through the pyloric sphincter to the
duodenum. The sphincter is normally closed,
preventing backflow of chyme into the
stomach.
- Secretion of the hormone (gastrin)
• PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
ABSORPTION AND METABOLISM
• Digestion is the process of
gradual breakdown of foods that
we eat in a soluble from suitable
for absorption. E.g meat even
when cooked is chemically too
complex to be absorbed from the
alimentary canal. So it is first
digested before absorption.
• Digestion releases its constituents:
glucose, amino acids, mineral salts,
fat and vitamins which are ready for
absorption.
• The activities of the digestive system
can be grouped into 5 main parts.
• 1) Ingestion: taking of food into the
alimentary canal i.e. eating and
drinking.
• 2) Propulsion: This mixes and moves
the contents along the alimentary
• (a)Mechanical digestion: breakdown of food
e.g. mastication (chewing)
• (b)Chemical digestion – breakdown of food
into small molecules by enzymes produced
by digestive glands
4) Absorption: The process by which digested
food substances pass through the walls of
alimentary canal into the blood and lymph
capillaries to use by body cells.
5) Elimination:- Undigested and unabsorbed
substances are excreted from the alimentary
canal as faeces by the process of
defaecation.
• Mechanism of digestion
• Mechanical Digestion:-
• (i) Mastigation or chewing:- The teeth are
designed for chewing the anterior teeth (incisors)
provide a strong cutting action and the posterior
teeth (molars) provide a grinding action.
• - Chewing aids the digestion of food because
digestive enzymes act only on the surfaces of
food particles therefore, the rate of digestion is
dependent on the total surface area exposed to
the digestive secretions. In addition grinding the
food to a very fine particulate consistency
increases the ease with which food is empted
from the stomach into the small intestine then
into all succeeding segments of the gut.
ii) Swallowing (deglution)
• Swallowing is a complicated mechanism,
principally because the pharynx serves
respiration and swallowing functions. The
pharynx is converted for only a few seconds
at a time into a tract for swallowing of food.
• The tongue helps in mixing of saliva with the
food. Saliva moistens and lubricates the food
which changes into semisolid form called
“bolus”. The bolus is then swallowed through
oesophagus to the stomach peristaltic
movement of alimentary canal also helps in
swallowing.
• iii) Churning in stomach:-
• The wall of the stomach undergoes
periodic movement as well as
contraction producing churning
movement called peristalsis which
results in breakdown of complex
food into simple form.
• The bolus after mixing with gastric
juice turns into fine soluble form
known as chime.
• Chemical digestion
• It involves the breaking of covalent
chemical bonds in organic molecules
by digestive enzymes.
• Carbohydrates are broken down into
monosacchorides, proteins are broken
down into amino acids and fats are
broken down into fatty acids and
glycerol.
• Ingested carbohydrates consist
primarily of polysaccharides such as
starches (rice, bread) disacchandes)
 (table sugar) and lactose (milk
sugar) and monosaccharides,
such as glucose and fructose
(found primary fruits).
• During the process of digestion
polysaccharides are broken down
into smaller chains and finally
into disaccharides and
monosaccharides.
Disaaccharides are broken down
Digestion of carbohydrates in the
mouth
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the
oral cavity with the partial digestion of
starches by salivary amylase. About
30% of starch is hydrolysed here by this
enzyme amylase (optimum pH 6.8) into
a dissacharide (maltose) lysozyme
present in saliva acts as an
antibacterial agent that prevents
infections.
Digestion of carbohydrate in stomach
and intestine
A minor amount of digestion occurs
in the stomach through the action of
gastric amylase and gelatinase
carbohydrate digestion is continued
in the intestine by pancreatic amylase.
A series of dissacharides enzymes
that are released by intestinal
epithelium digest disaccharides into
monosaccharides.
• Absorption
• Absorption is the process by which the
end products of digestion pass through the
intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
• It is carried out by passive, active or
facilitated transport mechanisms. Water
moves by osmosis: small fat soluble
substances e.g. fatty acids and glycerol are
able to diffuse through cell membranes
while others are generally transported
inside the villi by other mechanisms.
• (i) Passive Transport
• Small amounts of
monosaccharides like glucose,
amino acids and some
electrolytes like chloride and
some electrolytes like chloride
ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion. The passage of
these substances into the blood
depends upon the concentration
• (ii) Active Transport
• Active transport occurs against
the concentration gradient and
hence require energy. Various
nutrients like amino acids,
monosaccharides like glucose
electrolytes like Na+ are
absorbed into the blood by this
mechanism.
• Some substances like glucose and amino
acids are absorbed with the help of carrier
proteins. This mechanism is called
facilitated transport.
• Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble
cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are
first incorporated into small droplets called
micelles” which move into the intestinal
mucosa. They are reformed into very small
protein coated fat globules called the
“Chylomicrons” which are transported into
the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
These lymph vessels ultimately release the
absorbed substances into the blood stream.
The absorbed substances finally reach the
tissues which utilize them for their
activities. This process is called
assimilation.
• Defaecation
• The digestive wastes solidified into
coherent faeces in the rectum initiate
aneural reflex causing an urge or desire for
its removal.
• The egestion of faeces to the outside
through the anal opening (defaecation) is a
voluntary process and is carried out by a
• The small intestine
• Small intestine is the part of GI
tract extending between the
pyloric sphincter of stomach and
ilececal valve which opens into
large intestine. It is called small
intestine because of its small
diameter compared to that of
large intestine. Its length is about
300cm.
• The functional importance of
small intestine is that most of the
absorption of digested food
products takes place here. The
small intestine consists of 3
portions:
• 1) Proximal part known as
duodenum
• 2) Middle part known as jejunum
• 3) Distal part known as ileum
• 1) Duodenum:- It is about 25cm long and
curves around the head of the pancreas.
Secretions from the gall bladder and
pancreas merge in a common structure
(the hepatopancreatic ampulla) and enter
the duodenum at the duodenal papilla. The
duodenal papilla is guarded by a ring of
smooth muscle the hepaattopancreatic
sphincter (of oddi)
• 2) Jejenum:- It is the middle section of the
small intestine and is about 2 metres long.
• 3) Ileum:- This terminal section is
about 3 metres long and ends at the
ileocaecal valve, which controls the
flow of material from the ileum to the
caecum, the first part of the large
intestine and prevents back flow.
• About 1500ml of intestinal juice are
secreted daily by the glands of the
small intestine. It is slightly basic
(alkaline) and consists off water,
mucus and mineral salts.
• Functions of the small intestine
• 1) Secretion of intestinal juice which is increased
by parasympathetic stimulation.
• 2) Onward movement of its contents by peristalsis
which is increased by parasympathetic stimulation.
• 3) Completion of chemical digestion of
carbohydrates, protein and fats in the enterocytes
of the villi
• 4) Protection against infection by microbes that
have survived the antimicrobial action of the
hydrochloric acid in the stomach by both solitary
and aggregated lymph follicles.
• 5) Secretion of the hormones cholecystokinin
(CCK) and secretion.
• 6) Absorption of nutrients.
• The presence of villi and micro
villi in small intestinal mucosa
increases the surface area of the
mucosa. This helps the absorptive
functions of the intestine.
Digested products are absorbed
mostly in small intestine. From
the lumen of the intestine, these
substances pass through the
lacteal of villi, cross the mucosa
and enter the blood directly or
• Absorption of nutrients from the
small intestine through the
enterocytes occurs by several
processes including osmosis
diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
active transport.
• Water moves by osmosis, small fat
soluble substances e.g. fatty acids
and glycerol are able to diffuse
through cell membrane while others
are generally transported inside the
• Monosaccaride and amino acids
pass into the blood capillaries in
the villi. Fatty acids and glycerol
enter the cacteals and are
transported along lymphatic
vessels to the thoracic duct where
they enter the circulation. A small
number of proteins are absorbed
unchanged e.g. antibodies present
in breast milk and oral vaccines e.
Other nutrients such as vitamins,
minerals salts and water are also
absorbed from the small
intestine into the blood
capillaries. Fat soluble vitamins
are absorbed into the lacteals
along with the fatty acids and
glycerol vitamin B12 combines
with intrinsic factor in the
stomach and is actively absorbed
The surface area through which absorption
takes place in the small intestine is greatly
increased by the circular folds of mucous
membrane and by the very large number of
villi and micovilli present. It has been
calculated that the surface area of the
small intestine is about 5 times that of the
whole body surface. large amounts of
fluids enter the alimentary tract each day
of this only about 1500ml is not absorbed
by the small intestine and passes into
large intestine.
 LARGE INTESTINE
• The large intestine is also known as colon.
It extends from the lleocecal valve upto
anus. It consists of seven portions.
• 1) Caecum with appendix
• 2) Ascending colon
• 3) Transverse colon
• 4) Descending colon
• 5) Sigmoid colon or pelvic colon
• 6) Rectum
• 7) Anal canal
• The wall of the intestine
• The wall of large intestine 5 formed by four
layers:
• 1. Serous layer:- This is formed by peritoneum.
• 2. Muscular Layer: The smooth muscles of
large intestine are distributed in two layers (the
outer longitudinal layer and inner circular layer).
The longitudinal muscle fibres of large intestine
are arranged in the form of three long bands
called ‘teniacoli’. The length of the tenia coli is
less when compared to the length of the large
intestine. Because of this, the large intestine is
made into series of pouches called “haustra”.
3) Submucous Layer:- This is not well
developed in large intestine.
4) Mucus Layer:- The villi and crypts of
Leiberkuhn present in mucosa of small
intestine are absent in the mucus
membrane of large intestine. Only mucus
secreting glands are present in the mucosa
of large intestine.
• Secretions of large intestine
• The large intestinal juice is a watery fluid is
the pH of 8.0.
Composition
• The large intestinal juice contains 99.5% of
water and 0.5% of solids.
• Organic substances:- These are albumin,
globulin, mucin, urea and debris of
epithelial cells.
• Inorganic substances: These are sodium,
potassium, chloride and bicarbonate. The
concentration of bicarbonate is high in
large intestinal juice.
• Functions of Large Intestinal Secretion
• 1) Neutralization of Acids: Strong acids
formed by bacterial action in large intestine
are neutralized by the alkaline nature of large
intestinal juice. The alkalinity of this juice is
mainly due to the presence of large quantity
of bicarbonate.
• 2) Lubrication Activity:- The mucin present
in secretion of large intestine lubricates the
mucosa of large intestine and the bowel
contents so that the movement of bowel is
facilitated. The mucin also protects the
mucus membrane of large intestine by
preventing the damage caused by
 FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE
• 1) Absorptive Functions: Large
intestine plays an important role in
the absorption of various substances.
It absorbs water, electrolytes organic
substances like glucose, alcohol and
some drugs like anaethestic agents,
sedatives and steroids.
• 2) Secretory function:- It secretes
mucin and inorganic substances like
chlorides and bicarbonates.
• 3) Synthetic Function:- The bacterial flora
of large intestine synthesizes folic acid,
vitamin B12 and vitamin K.
• 4) Formation of faeces: After absorption
of nutrients, water and other substances,
the unwanted substances form faeces
which is excreted out.
• 5) Excretory Function: Large intestine
excretes heavy metals like mercury, lead,
bismuth and arsenenic through faeces.
• Accessory Organs of digestion
• Pancreas
• The pancreas is a pale grey gland weighing
about 60 grams. It is about 12- 15cm long
and is situated in the epigastric and left
hypochondriac regions of the abdominal
cavity. It consists of abroad head in body and
a narrow tail. The head lies in the curve of the
duodenum, the body behind the stomach and
the tail lies in front of the left kidney and just
reaches the spleen. The abdominal aorta and
the interior vena cava lie behind the gland.
• The pancreas is both an exocrine and
endocrine gland.
• The Exocrine Pancreas:-
• This consists of a large number of lobules
made up of small acini, the walls of which
consists of secretory cells. Each lobule is
drained by a tiny duct and these unite
eventually to form the pancreatic duct
which extends along the whole length of
the gland and opens into the duodenum.
Just before entering the duodenum the
pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct
to form the (hepatopancreatic ampulla).
• The duodenal opening of the ampulla is
controlled by the hepatopancreatic
sphincter (of oddi) at the duodenal papilla.
• The function of the exocrine pancreas is to
produce pancreatic juice containing
enzymes some in the form of inactive
precursors that digest carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. As in the alimentary tract
parasympathetic stimulation increases the
secretion of pancreatic juice and
sympathetic stimulation depresses it.
• The Endocrine Pancreas
• Distributed throughout the
gland are groups of specialized
cells called the pancreas of
langerhans. The islets have of
ducts so the hormones diffuse
directly into the blood. The
endocrine pancreas secretes the
hormones insulin and glucagon
which are principally concorred
• Blood Supply
• The splenic and mesenteric
arteries supply the pancreas
and venous drainage is by
veins of the same names
that join other veins to form
portal vein.
• LIVER
• The liver is the largest gland in the
body, weighing between land 2.3kg. It is
situated in the upper part of the
abdominal cavity occupying the greater
part of the right hypochondriac region,
part of the epigastric region and
extending into the left hypochondriac
region. Its upper and anterior surfaces
are smooth and curved to fit the under
surface of the diaphragm. Its posterior
surface is irregular in outline.
• Blood Supply
• The hepatic artery and the
portal vein take blood to the
liver. Venous return is by a
variable number of hepatic
veins that leave the posterior
surface and immediately enter
the interior vena ccava just
below the diaphragm.
• Functions of the liver
• Metabolic function: Liver is the organ
where maximum metabolic reactions
such as metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins and many hormones are
carried out.
• Storage function:- Many substances
like glycogen, amino acids, iron, folic
acid and vitamins A, B12 and D are
stored in liver.
Synthetic function: Liver
produces glucose by
glucoeogenesis. It synthesizes
all the plasma proteins and
other proteins (except
immunoglobulins) such as
clotting factors, complement
factors and hormone – binding
proteins. It also synthesizes
Secretion of bile: Liver secretes bile
which contains bile salts, bile
pigments, cholesterol, fatty acids
and lecithin. The functions of bile
are mainly due to bile salts. Bile
salts are required for digestion
and absorption of fats in the
intestine. Bile helps to carry away
waste products and breakdown
fats, which are excreted through
• Excretory function: Liver excretes
cholesterol, bile pigments, heavy
metals (lead, arsenic and bismuth)
toxins, bacteria and virus (fellow
fever) through bile.
• Heat production: Enermous
amount of heat is produced in the
liver because of metabolic
reactions. Liver is the organ where
maximum heat is produced.
• Haemopoietic function: In foetus
(hepatic stage) live produces the blood
cells. It stores vitamin B12 necessary
for erythropoiesis and iron necessary
for synthesis of haemoglobin liver
produces thrombopoietin that
promotes production of thrombocytes.
• Hemolytic function: The senile RBCs
after a lifespan of 120 days are
destroyed by reticuloendothelial cells
(Kupffer cells) of liver.
• Gall Bladder
• The gall bladder is a pear
shaped sac attached to the
posterior surface of the liver by
connective tissue. It has a
fundus or expended end, a body
or main part and a neck which
is continous with the cystic
duct.
• STRUCTURE
• The wall of the gall bladder has the same
layers of tissue as those of the basic
structure of the alimentary canal, with some
modifications.
• (a)Pentoneum: This covers only the inferior
surface because the upper surface of the
gall bladder is in direct contact with the
liver and held in place by the visceral
peritoneum that covers the liver.
• (b) Muscle Layer:- There is an additional
layer of oblique muscle fibres.
• (c) Mucous Membrane: This displays
small rugae when the bladder is empty
that disappears when it is distended
with bile.
Blood Supply:
• The cystic artery, a branch of the hepatic
artery, supplies the gall bladder. Blood is
drained away by the cystic vein that joins
the portal vein.
• Functions of the gall bladder
• 1. Reservoir for bile
• 2. Concentration of the bile by up to 10.0-15 fold
by absorption of water through the walls of the gall
bladder.
• 3. Release of stored bile
• When the muscle wall of the gall bladder contracts,
bile passes through the bile ducts to the
duodenum, concentration is stimulated by the
hormone cholecytoiskinin (CCK) secreted by the
duodenum and the presence of fat and acid chyme
in the dueddenum. Relaxation of the
hepatopancreatic sphincter (of oddi) is caused by
CCK and it is a response to contraction off the gall
• Billiary Tract
• Bile ducts:
• The right and left hepatic ducts join to form the
common hepatic duct just outside the portal
fissure. The hepatic duct passes downwards for
about 3cm where it is joined by the cystic duct
from the gall bladder. The cystic and hepatic
ducts merge forming the common bile duct which
passes downwards behind the head of the
pancreas. This is joined by the man pancreatic
duct at the hepatopanccreatic ampulla. It opens
into the duodenum, at the duodenal papilla, which
is controlled by the hepatopancreatic sphincter (of
oddi). The common bile duct is about 7.5cm long
and has a diameter of about 6mm.
• Structure
• The walls of the bile ducts have the
same layers of tissue as those of the
basic structure of the alimentary
canal. In the cystic duct twice.
• (1) Once on its way into the gall
bladder
• (2) When it is expelled from the gall
bladder into the common bile duct
and then on to the duodenum.
• BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)
• The total heat produced or the
energy spend by the body under
conditions to perform minimum
possible work is known as basal
metabolism. The lowest level of
energy production consonant
with life is the basal metabolic
rate (BMR).
• Factors influencing Basal Metabolic
Rate
• (a) Surface area:-The BMR is directly
related to the surface area of the
subject. Larger the surface the greater
the BMR would be.
• (b) Age: BMR is inversely proportional
to age. Children have larger BMR than
adults.
• (c) Sex: Males have higher BMR than
females. The BMR of females decline
• (d) Climate:- The BMR is lower in warm
climates
• (e) Habit: People who are used to heavy
exercise or hard physical work have a
higher BMR than those involved in
sedentary work.
• (f) State of Nutrition: The BMR is
decreased in starvation and
undernourishment.
• (g) Pregnancy: The BMR is not changed
during pregnancy. The higher values of
BMR in late pregnancy is due to the BMR
• (h) Disease: The BMR is increased in
infectious and febrile disease. The increase
is usually proportional to the rise of the
temperature. The BMR is also increased in
increased activity of cells and therefore it
increases in leukemia, cardiac failure,
hypertension, polycythemia, dyspnea and
some types of annaemia.
• (i) Effects of Hormones:- BMR is increased
in hyperthyroidism and decreased in
hypothyroidism and decreased in
hypothyroidism.
• (j)Drugs:- Caffine and benzidme increase
the BMR.
• (k)Emotion: The BMR is increased in
emotional stress.
• (l) Diet: The BMR of strict vegetations is
11% lower than that of meat eaters.
• In achieving an accurate measurement
the individual is advised not to take
anything by mouth for the past 12 hours
and are complete mental and physical
relaxation.
• SIGNIFICANCE OF BMR
• It is very effective in the determination of
diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders. In
hyperthyroidism 10% of the normal develops. In
severe hypothyroidism the BMR may be
decreased to 40 to 50 per cent below normal.
• It aids to known the BMR to have an idea of
the total amount of food or calorie required to
maintain body weight or calorie.
• The BMR is below normal in starvation, under
nutrition, hypothalamic disorders, Addison’s
disease and lipoid nephrosis.
• BMR is above normal in fever, diabetes
inspidus, leukemia and polycythemia.
• Body mass index
• Body mass index is a measure of
body fat based on height and
weight that applies to adult men
and women. It is defined as a
persons weight in kilograms
divided by the square of the
person’s height in meters (kg/m2)
for example an adult who weights
70kg and whose height is 1.75 will
•= 70kg_____
• 1.75 x 1.75
• = 70__
• 3.0625
• = 22.857
• ~ 22.9 (approximately)
For adults over 20 years old, BMI falls into one of
the following categories
Nutrition Status Table
BMI Nutritional Status

Below 18.5 Under weight

18.5 – 24.9 Normal weight

25.0 – 29.9 Pre- Obesity

30.0 – 34. 9 Obesity class I

35.0 – 39.9 Obesity Class 2

Above 40 Obesity Class 3

• The BMI ranges are based on the effect
excessive body fat has on disease and
death and are reasonably well related to
adiposity. BMI was developed as a risk
indicator of disease. As BMI increases, so
does risk of some diseases.
• Some common conditions related to
overweight and obesity include:
Cardiovascular diseases, high blood
pressure, osteoarthritis, some cancers and
diabetes.
• Digestive System Process And Regulation
• Obtaining nutrition and energy from food
is amulti step process.. in normal
individuals the first step is ingestion, the act
of taking in food. Followed by digestion,
absorption and elimination. The brain is the
control centre for the sensation of hunger
and satiety (satisfaction when food is eaten)
. The functions of the digestive system are
regulated through neural and hormonal
responses.
• Digestive System Processes
• Ingestion
• The large molecules found in intact food cannot
pass through the cell membranes. Food needs to be
broken into smaller particles so that animals can get
access to the nutrients and organic molecules.
Ingestion involves taking in food through the mouth.
In vertebrates the teeth, saliva and tongue play
important roles in mastication (preparing the food
into bolus). While the food is being mechanically
broken down, the enzymes in saliva begin to
chemically process the food as well. The combined
action of these processes modifies the food from
large particles to a soft mass that can be swallowed
and can travel the length of the oesophagus.
• Digestion and Absorption
• Digestion is the mechanical and chemical
breakdown of food into small organic
fragments. It is important to break down
macromolecules into smaller fragments that are
suitable size for absorption across the digestive
epithelium. Large complex molecules of
proteins, polysaccharides and lipids must be
reduced to simpler particles such as simple
sugar before they can be absorbed by the
digestive epithelial cells. Different organs play
significant roles in the digestive process. The
human diet needs carbohydrates, protein and fat
as well as vitamins and in organic components
for nutritional balance. How each of these
components is digested is discussed in the
following sections.
• Carbohydrates Please Read up the
digestive
• Proteins processes of these
nutrients
• Lipids
• Vitamins
•
• Defaecation
• The final step in digestion is the
elimination of undigested food
content and waste products. The
undigested food material enters
the colon where most of the
water is reabsorbed. The colon is
also home to the microflora
called “flora” that aids in the
digestion process.
• The semi solid waste is moved
through the colon by peristaltic
movements of the muscle and is
stored in the rectum. As the rectum
expands in response to storage of
feacal matter (from faeces) it
triggers the neural signals required to
set up the urge to eliminate.
• The solid waste is eliminated
through the anus using peristaltic
movements of the rectum.