Physics 133: Electricity, Magnetism, and Optics

Capacitance &Dielectrics
University Physics with Modern Physics, 15th Edition by Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman
Department of Physics, College of Science, Bicol University
Chapter 24 / Lecture 4 / CSB4 / September 2023

Key Points for Ch 24:

❑ Capacitors and Capacitance
❑ Capacitors in Series and Parallel
❑ Energy Storage in Capacitors and Electric-Field Energy
❑ Dielectrics
Henric R. Jandoc
❑ Molecular Model of Induced Charge
❑ Gauss’s Law in Dielectrics Professorial Lecturer
A CAPACITOR is a device that stores electric
potential energy and electric charge.

Making a capacitor. Storing energy in a capacitor.

Insulate two conductors Transfer charge from one

from each other. conductor to the other.

Work must be done to move the

charges through the resulting potential
difference between the conductors,
and the work done is stored as
electric potential energy.
 Capacitors in a Vacuum 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Any two conductors separated by an insulator (or a vacuum)

form a CAPACITOR.
Each conductor initially has zero net
charge and electrons are transferred
from one conductor to the other.

Then, the two conductors have

charges with equal magnitude and
opposite sign, and the net charge on
the capacitor as a whole remains zero.

REMINDER:
If a capacitor has charge +Q, the conductor at higher
potential has charge +Q and the conductor at lower
potential has charge -Q
 Capacitors in a Vacuum 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

In circuit diagrams a capacitor is represented by either If we double the magnitude of charge on each
of these symbols: conductor, the charge density at each point
doubles, the electric field at each point doubles,
and the potential difference between conductors
doubles; however, the ratio of charge to
potential difference does not change.
Conductors: vertical lines
Wires: horizontal lines
This ratio is called the capacitance C of the
capacitor:
magnitude of charge
One common way to charge a capacitor is to connect 𝑄 on each conductor

these two wires to opposite terminals of a battery. CAPACITANCE

𝐶= 24.1

So what is the concept behind capacitance?

of a capactior
𝑉𝑎𝑏
potential difference between
two conductors a & b
The electric field at any point in the region between the
conductors is proportional to the magnitude Q.
The SI unit of capacitance is called one farad (1 F), in honor
of the 19th-century English physicist Michael Faraday.
It follows that the potential difference Vab between the
conductors is also proportional to Q. 1 F = 1 Farad = 1 C/V
 Capacitors in a Vacuum 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

The simplest form of capacitor consists of:
▪ two parallel conducting plates, each with area A,
▪ separated by a distance d that is small in
comparison with their dimensions
▪ When the plates are charged, the electric
field is almost completely localized in the
region between the plates.
▪ Charges on the plates are uniformly
distributed over their opposing surfaces.
 Capacitors in a Vacuum 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

By using the principle of superposition of electric The capacitance of a parallel-plate

fields and by using Gauss’s law, we found that the capacitor in a vacuum is then:
electric field for a parallel plate (area) can be
expressed in terms of the surface charge
distribution sigma: 𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴𝐸 24.2 𝐴
𝐶= = = 𝜀0
𝜎 𝑄 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐸𝑑 𝑑
𝐸= =
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐴 The capacitance depends on only the geometry of
the capacitor;
▪ it is directly proportional to the area A of
The field is uniform and the distance between the each plate and
plates is d, so the potential difference (voltage) ▪ inversely proportional to their separation d.
between the two plates is:
In a vacuum, the capacitance C is independent
1 𝑄𝑑 of the charge on the capacitor or the potential
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝑑 = difference between the plates.

𝜀0 𝐴 When matter is present between the plates, its

properties affect the capacitance.
 Capacitors in Series 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Two capacitors are connected in series (one after the

other) by conducting wires between points a and b.
Both capacitors are initially uncharged.

When a constant positive potential difference Vab is

applied between points a and b, the capacitors become
charged.

𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉1 = , 𝑉𝑐𝑏 = 𝑉2 = ,
𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝑄 +
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉 1 1
= + 24.3

in a series connection the magnitude

𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2
of charge on all plates is the same.
 Capacitors in Series 24.1 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

The equivalent capacitance Ceq of the series

combination is defined as:
▪ the capacitance of a single capacitor for
which the charge Q is the same as for
the combination, when the potential
difference V is the same.

The combination can be replaced by an equivalent

capacitor of capacitance Ceq:
24.4

𝑄 1 𝑉 1 1 1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = = +
𝑉 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑄 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 In a series connection the equivalent capacitance
is always less than any individual capacitance.
We can extend this analysis to any number of capacitors
in series:

𝟏 1 1 Where Cn are the The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of

= + +⋯ capacitances of the a series combination equals the sum of the
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝐶1 𝐶2 24.5 individual capacitors reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
Capacitors in Parallel 24.2 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Two capacitors are connected in parallel

between points a and b.

In this case the upper plates of the two capacitors

are connected by conducting wires to form an
equipotential surface, and the lower plates form
another.

Hence in a parallel connection the potential

difference for all individual capacitors is the same
and is equal to Vab = V.

If the individual charges are:

𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉
Then the total charge is:

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑉
 Capacitors in Parallel 24.2 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
The total charge of the combination is:
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑉
And hence,
𝑄
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 24.6
𝑉
The parallel combination is equivalent to a single
capacitor with the same total charge Q = Q1 + Q2
and potential difference V as the combination.
In a parallel connection the equivalent capacitance
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 is always greater than any individual capacitance.

In the same way we can show that for any number

of capacitors in parallel,
The equivalent capacitance of a
parallel combination equals the sum
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ of the individual capacitances.
24.7
 Series 24.2 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
In a series connection the equivalent capacitance
is always less than any individual capacitance.
𝟏 1 1
= + +⋯
𝑪𝒆𝒒 𝐶1 𝐶2
The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of
a series combination equals the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
Parallel
In a parallel connection the equivalent
capacitance is always greater than any
individual capacitance.
𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel
combination equals the sum of the individual
capacitances.
 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS

Many of the most important applications of capacitors depend on

their ability to store energy.

EPE stored in Work needed

a capacitor to charge it
The electric potential energy stored in a charged capacitor is just
equal to the amount of work required to charge it—that is, to
separate opposite charges and place them on different conductors.

When the capacitor is discharged, this stored energy is recovered

as work done by electrical forces.
 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS
We can calculate the potential energy U of a charged The total work W needed to increase the capacitor
capacitor by calculating the work W required to charge q from zero to Q is:
charge it. Suppose that when we are done charging
𝑊
the capacitor, the final charge is Q and the final
potential difference is V. From Eq. (24.1) these 1 𝑄 𝑄2
quantities are related by: 𝑊 = න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 =
0 𝐶 0 2𝐶
𝑄 This is also the total work done by the electric field 24.8
𝑉= on the charge when the capacitor discharges.
𝐶
If we define the potential energy of an uncharged
Let q and v be the charge and potential difference, capacitor to be zero, then W is equal to the
respectively, at an intermediate stage during the potential energy U of the charged capacitor. The
charging process. At this stage the work dW required final stored charge is Q = CV, so we can express U
to transfer an additional element of charge dq is: (which is equal to W) as

𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1 𝑄2 1 2 1
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
𝐶 2 𝐶 2 2 24.9
Potential Energy stored in a capacitor.
 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS

1 2 1 1𝑄 2
𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄𝑉
2 𝐶 2 2
a charged capacitor is the electrical total work W required to charge
analog of a stretched spring with the capacitor is equal to the total
elastic potential energy U = 1/2 kx^2 charge Q multiplied by the
average potential difference V
Q ~ Elongation x during the charging process
1/C ~ force constant k
 Energy Storage 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS

Most practical applications of capacitors take advantage of their

ability to store and release energy.

Energy stored in capacitor is Provides a conducting path Result:

from one capacitor plate to
released when the button is the other through the flash
Flash in
pressed. tube. cameras
In other applications, the energy is released more slowly:

CLASSICAL MECHANICS: ELECTRODYNAMICS:

Springs in vehicle suspensions A capacitor in an electronic circuit can
smoothen out the ride by absorbing smooth out unwanted variations in
the energy from sudden jolts. Energy voltage due to power surges.
is released gradually.
 Electric-Field Energy 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS

We can charge a capacitor by moving electrons We can express the energy density u in terms
directly from one plate to another. This requires of the Electric field by using the definition of
doing work against the electric field between the the capacitance C and potential difference V:
plates.
𝜀0 𝐴
Thus we can think of the energy as being stored in 𝐶= 𝑉 2 = 𝐸2 𝑑2
the field in the region between the plates. 𝑑
The energy per unit volume in the space 1
between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor 𝜀0 𝐴𝐸 2 𝑑 2
with plate area A and separation d is thus:
𝑢= 2
𝑑𝐴𝑑
1 2
𝐶𝑉 1
2
𝑢 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐴𝑑 𝑢 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 24.11

24.10
2
Electric-Field Energy in a Vacuum.
 24.3 ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITORS

1 2 Electric-Field
𝑢 = 𝜀0 𝐸 Energy in a Vacuum.
2 24.11

We think of vacuum as space with no matter in it, but

vacuum can nevertheless have electric fields and therefore
energy.

Thus “empty” space need not be truly empty after all.


Most capacitors have a nonconducting material, or dielectric, between their conducting plates.
A common type of capacitor uses long strips of metal foil for the plates, separated by strips of plastic
sheet such as Mylar.
3 purposes of dielectrics:
▪ it solves the mechanical problem of
maintaining two large metal sheets at a very
small separation without actual contact
▪ increases the maximum possible potential
difference between the capacitor plates
▪ the capacitance of a capacitor of given
dimensions is greater when there is a
dielectric material between the plates than
when there is vacuum.
24.4 DIELECTRICS
DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN
Any insulating material, when subjected to a
sufficiently large electric field, experiences a
partial ionization that permits conduction
through it.
Many dielectric materials can tolerate stronger
electric fields without breakdown than can air.
Thus using a dielectric allows a capacitor to:
▪ sustain a higher potential difference V and
so store greater amounts of charge and
energy.
 24.4 DIELECTRICS

When we insert an uncharged sheet of

When we remove the dielectric, the potential
dielectric, such as glass, paraffin, or
difference returns to its original value V0,
polystyrene, between the plates, experiment
showing that the original charges on the plates have
shows that the potential difference
not changed.
decreases to a smaller value V.
 Dielectric Constant 24.4 DIELECTRICS

The charge Q is the same in both cases, and V is With the dielectric present, the potential
less than V0, so we conclude that the capacitance C difference for a given charge Q is reduced
with the dielectric present is greater than C0. by a factor K.
𝑉0 Potential w/
𝑄 𝑄 𝑉= Dielectric
Original
Capacitance 𝐶0 = Capacitance
w/ Dielectric 𝐶= 𝐾
𝑉0 𝑉 24.13

▪ The dielectric constant K is a pure

When the space between plates is completely filled by number (unitless).
the dielectric, the ratio of C to C0 (equal to the ratio of
V0 to V) is called the dielectric constant of the ▪ Because C is always greater than C0,
material, K: K is always greater than unity.

𝐶 ▪ For vacuum, K = 1 by definition.

𝐾= 24.12
▪ No real dielectric is a perfect insulator.
𝐶0 Leakage current between the charged
plates of a capacitor with a dielectric.
Table of Dielectric Constants 24.4 DIELECTRICS
Induced Charge and Polarization 24.4 DIELECTRICS
When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates while the
charge is kept constant, the potential difference between the plates
decreases by a factor K.

The electric field between the plates must decrease by the same
factor. If E0 is the vacuum value and E is the value with the dielectric,
then
The surface charge density (which causes the
𝐸0 field) must be smaller as well.

𝐸= The surface charge on the conducting plates

𝐾
24.14
does not change, but an induced charge of the
opposite sign appears on each surface of the
dielectric.

Remember: POLARIZATION

▪ The dielectric was originally electrically neutral and is still neutral.

▪ The induced surface charges arise as a result of redistribution
of positive and negative charges within the dielectric material.
Induced Charge and Polarization 24.4 DIELECTRICS
We can derive a relationship between this induced
surface charge and the charge on the plates.

magnitude of the charge per unit area

𝜎𝑖 induced on the surfaces of the dielectric
(the induced surface charge density).

𝜎 magnitude of the surface charge

density on the capacitor plates

(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑖 ) net surface charge on each

side of the capacitor

𝜎𝑛
𝐸= electric field between
the plates
𝜀0
Induced Charge and Polarization 24.4 DIELECTRICS
The product of the
𝜎 Electric Field w/o dielectric and electric
And the electric field
𝐸0 = constants is called the
with the dielectric can
𝜀0 a Dielectric
dielectric permittivity:
be expressed as:
24.15
𝜎
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑖 𝜀 = 𝐾𝜀0 𝐸=
𝐸= Electric Field w/
𝜀
𝜀0 a Dielectric 24.17 24.18

The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with a

Using these expressions in Eq. (24.14) and rearranging
dielectric between plates is then:
the result, we find:
𝐴 𝐴
1 𝐶 = 𝐾𝐶0 = 𝐾𝜀0 = 𝜀 24.19

𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎 1 − 𝑑 𝑑
𝐾 Similarly with Eq. (24.11), the energy density u in an
electric field when a dielectric is present is now:
24.16
Induced surface 1 2
1 2
charge density 𝑢 = 𝐾𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝜀𝐸 24.20
2 2
Induced Charge and Polarization 24.4 DIELECTRICS

1 2 Electric-Field Energy
𝑢 = 𝜀0 𝐸 in a Vacuum.
2
1 2
1 2 Electric-Field Energy
𝑢 = 𝐾𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝜀𝐸 in a Dielectric.
2 2
 24.5 MOLECULAR MODEL OF INDUCED CHARGE

Reading Assignment:

Read this section in

your book.
 24.6 GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRICS
We can extend the analysis of Section 24.4 to reformulate Gauss’s law in a form that is particularly
useful for dielectrics.

The left side is embedded in the conductor

that forms the left capacitor plate, and so
the electric field everywhere on that surface is
zero.

The right side is

embedded in the
dielectric, where
the electric field
close-up view of the left has magnitude E,
capacitor plate and left and E_norm = 0
surface of the dielectric everywhere on the
other four sides.
 24.6 GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRICS
The total charge enclosed, including both the charge on
the capacitor plate and the induced charge on the
dielectric surface is:
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑖 𝐴
Using eq 24.16, we can write Qenc in terms of sigma only.

1 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎 1 − 𝜎𝑖 = 𝜎 − 𝜎 − 𝜎𝑖 =
𝐾 𝐾 𝐾
Hence,
𝜎 − 𝜎𝑖ሶ 𝐴 𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 24.22
𝜀0 𝐾𝜀0 𝜀0
Thus, for any Gaussian surface, whenever the induced charge is proportional
to the electric field in the material, we can rewrite Gauss’s law as:
close-up view of the left
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙−𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 where the charge enclosed is the
total free charge (not bound /
capacitor plate and left
ර𝐾𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 = induced charge) enclosed by the
surface of the dielectric
𝜀0 Gaussian surface
24.23
Reading Assignment:

Understand the solutions to

the sample problems for this
chapter.
SUMMARY
SUMMARY