Measurement Lab

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Title – Fundamentals of measurements and Calibration process by using Strain Gauges.
Apparatus: Foil/Wired type Strain Gauge, Load cell, Wheatstone bridge Circuit, measuring
weights, cantilever beam
INTRODUCTION
Strain
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain
(ε) is defined as the fractional change in length.
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is
sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured
strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as micro strain (µε), which is ε × 10 -6.

Types of Strain Gauges

Strain gauges of all types are essentially devices that sense the change in length, magnify it and
indicate it in some form. They can be classified into broadly three groups on the basis of the
physical employed for the magnification of change in length.
1. Mechanical Strain Gauges
2. Optical Strain Gauges
3. Electrical Strain Gauges

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1. Mechanical Strain Gauges

•These mechanical devices are generally
known as extensometers and are used to
measure strain under static or gradually
varying loading conditions.
•An extensometer is usually provided with two
knife edges which are clamped firmly in
contact with the test component at a specific
distance or gauge length apart.
•When the test component is strained, the two
knife edges undergo a small relative
displacement.
•This is amplified through a mechanical
linkage and the magnified displacement or
strain is displayed on a calibrated scale
Advantage and disadvantage of Mechanical Strain Gauges
Advantages
1. Self-contained magnification system.
2. No auxiliary equipment required.
Disadvantages
1. Owing to high inertia of the gauge, it is unsuitable for dynamic measurements and varying
strain.
2. Slow response (due to high inertia)
3. Non-availability of adequate surface area on the test specimen and clearance above it to
accommodate the gauge together with its mounting fixture.

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2. Optical Strain Gauges

•Optical gauges a combination of mechanical
and optical levers are used to amplify the
relative displacement between the knife
edges.
•So that it rotates while undergoing
displacement. The principle of the signal
mirror system is illustrated in Figure.
•The pivoting knife edge carries a mirror A.
The reflection of an illuminated scale B in
this mirror is viewed through the observing
telescope.
•Any deformation of the structure to which
this gauge is fixed, rotates the mirror A and
thereby brings different portion of the scale
into view.
•A schematic diagram of the Tuckerman
optical gauge and the autocollimator used
with it is given in Figure.
•The autocollimator carries both the source
of a parallel beam of light to measure the
deflection of the reflected ray.
•The sensitivity of the Tuckerman gauge is
2 micro strain. The gauge is available with a
wide range of gauge lengths, starting from 6
mm. It can reliably measure both static and
dynamic strains.
3. Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge
Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or displacement
produced due to a force into its corresponding change in resistance (R) or electrical signal. A
strain gauge is basically used to measure the strain in a work piece. If a metal piece is subjected

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to a tensile stress, the metal length will increase and thus will increase the electrical resistance of
the material. Similarly, if the metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length will decrease,
but the width will increase.
Structure of Strain Gauge
The majority of strain gauges are of foil type available in different shape and size.
They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material.
They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil
changes in a defined way.

Working of Strain Gauge

The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit. The change in resistance is
proportional to applied strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.

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The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic called the gauge factor,
defined as unit change in resistance per unit change in length.

• K = the gauge factor

• R = the initial resistance in ohms (without
strain)
• ∆R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
• L = the initial length in meters (without
strain)
•∆L = the change in initial length in meters

R= ρ L/A

ρ = the resistivity of the material (Ohms*m)

L = the length of the conductor (m)
A = the cross-sectional area of the conductor
(m2)

What’s the Wheatstone Bridge?

• Wheatstone bridge is an electric circuit suitable for detection of minute resistance changes,
therefore used to measure resistance changes of a strain gage
• The bridge is configured by combining four resistors as shown in Figure.
• Initially R1=R2=R3=R4, in this condition no output voltage is there, e=0
• When one of the Resistances is replaced by strain Gauge attached to the object whose strain is
to be measured and load is applied, then there is small change in the resistance of gauge, hence
some output voltage is there which can be related to strain as

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From this, strain can be easily determined using the relation

Half Bridge Configuration

Full Bridge Configuration

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Bending Beam

Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages
1. It has high accuracy and good stability.
2. Easy to fabricate and install.
3. Input is directly proportional to output.
4. They can withstand high temperature.
5. It consume very less power.
6. Good repeatability.
7. Rugged construction.
8. Its output is very high.
Disadvantages
1. It is non-linear.
2. It needs to be calibrated.
Applications
1. Residual stress
2. Vibration measurement
3. Torque measurement
4. Bending and deflection measurement
5. Compression and tension measurement
6. Strain measurement

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Experimental Setup:

 (Strain Gauge Used in Bridge Circuit)

 (Strain Gauge used with Load Cell)

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Measuring Strain with a Strain-Indicator/digital weight indicator

1. First install a strain gauge
2. Connect the wires from the strain gauge to the strain indicator.
3. Apply loading conditions
4. Read strain from strain indicator/digital weight indicator.
Observations
1. Young’s Modulus of the material, E =
2. Distance of load cell from the weight, x =
3. Width of beam, b =
4. Thickness of beam, t =
Observation Table:
Sr No. Actual Weight (Kg) Strain Measured Weight (Kg) Error
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations
 = E  
Where
Stress
E = Young’s Modulus
Strain
For a cantilever beam with a point load at its end,

M/I=/y
M is the moment applied, (P*x) where ‘x’ is the distance between the point of loading
and the mid-section at which strain gage is fixed.
P Is power applied in the test specimen, M*g where M is Mass & g is gravitational
force

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I is the moment of inertia I = bt3/12 about the neutral axis.

where b = beam width, t = beam thickness
 is the value of stress at a point which is at a distance of y from the neutral axis

y y = t / 2 because the strain gage is fixed to the surface of the beam.

The formula for strain is:

Where,

E=Young’s Modulus
= Strain
m = mass or weight
b = beam width

t = beam thickness

x = distance between the point of loading and the mid-section at which strain
gage isfixed

Material Gauge Factor Young’s Poisson's

modulus Ratio
Aluminium 1.668 69(GPa) 0.334
Copper 1.71 123 0.355
Steel 1.53 204 0.265
Magnesium 1.70 109 0.35
Bronzes 1.68 123 0.34

Remarks & Conclusion:

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