Ai Unit 1

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AL3391-ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
UNIT V
INTELLIGENT AGENTS
SYLLABUS
Introduction to AI – Agents and Environments – concept of rationality – nature of
environments – structure of agents. Problem solving agents – search algorithms –
uninformed search strategies.
INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to replicate or enhance human

intellect, such as reasoning and learning from experience.
Artificial intelligence has been used in computer programs for years, but it is now
applied to many other products and services.
For example, some digital cameras can determine what objects are present in an
image using artificial intelligence software.
In addition, experts predict many more innovative uses for artificial intelligence in
the future, including smart electric grids.
AI uses techniques from probability theory, economics, and algorithm design to
solve practical problems.
In addition, the AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology,
and linguistics.
Computer science provides tools for designing and building algorithms, while
mathematics offers tools for modeling and solving the resulting optimization
problems.
To understand the idea behind AI, you should think about what distinguishes human
intelligence from that of other creatures – our ability to learn from experiences and
apply these lessons to new situations.
We can do this because of our advanced brainpower; we have more neurons than
any animal species.
Research in the field is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks
requiring intelligent behavior.
Examples include control, planning and scheduling, the ability to answer diagnostic
and consumer questions, handwriting, natural language processing and perception,
speech recognition, and the ability to move and manipulate objects.
S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

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Topic: 1 : ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Definition
"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which
can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."
Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the
importance of AI and why should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to
learn about AI:
• With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve
real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues,
marketing, traffic issues, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as
Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
• With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk.
• AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.
Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence
such as:
• Proving a theorem
• Playing chess
• Plan some surgical operation
• Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things
by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

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Subfields of Artificial Intelligence

Here, are some important subfields of Artificial Intelligence:
Machine Learning: Machine learning is the art of studying algorithms that learn from
examples and experiences. Machine learning is based on the idea that some patterns in
the data were identified and used for future predictions. The difference from
hardcoding rules is that the machine learns to find such rules.
Deep Learning: Deep learning is a sub-field of machine learning. Deep learning does
not mean the machine learns more in-depth knowledge; it uses different layers to learn
from the data. The depth of the model is represented by the number of layers in the
model. For instance, the Google LeNet model for image recognition counts 22 layers.
Natural Language Processing: A neural network is a group of connected I/O units

where each connection has a weight associated with its computer programs. It helps
you to build predictive models from large databases. This model builds upon the
human nervous system. You can use this model to conduct image understanding,
human learning, computer speech, etc.
Expert Systems: An expert system is an interactive and reliable computer-based

decision-making system that uses facts and heuristics to solve complex decision-
making problems. It is also considered at the highest level of human intelligence. The
main goal of an expert system is to solve the most complex issues in a specific
domain.
Fuzzy Logic: Fuzzy Logic is defined as a many-valued logic form that may have truth
values of variables in any real number between 0 and 1. It is the handle concept of
partial truth. In real life, we may encounter a situation where we can’t decide whether
the statement is true or false.

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Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
• High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less
errors and high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or
information.
• High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making,
because of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
• High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same
action multiple times with high accuracy.
• Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as
defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be
risky.
• Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users
such as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to
show the products as per customer requirement.
• Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a
self-driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial
recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to communicate
with the human in human-language, etc.
Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the disadvantages of AI:
• High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it
requires lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
• Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI,
but still they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for
which they are trained, or programmed.
• No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but
still it does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional
attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper
care is not taken.
• Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people
are getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental
capabilities.

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• No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new
ideas but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and
cannot be creative and imaginative.
Topic: 2 : AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS
What are Agent and Environment?
An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon
that environment through effectors.
• A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
• A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and
various motors and actuators for effectors.
• A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.
Agent Terminology
• Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how
successful an agent is.
• Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence
of percepts.
• Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
• Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.
• Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

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Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having good
sense of judgment.
Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon what
the agent has perceived.
Performing actions with the aim of obtaining useful information is an important
part of rationality.
What is Ideal Rational Agent?

An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected actions to
maximize its performance measure, on the basis of
• Its percept sequence
• Its built-in knowledge base
Rationality of an agent depends on the following

• The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.
• Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
• The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
• The actions that the agent can carry out.
A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means the action
that causes the agent to be most successful in the given percept sequence. The
problem the agent solves is characterized by Performance Measure, Environment,
Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).
The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Agent’s structure can be viewed as −
• Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
• Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
• Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
Simple Reflex Agents

• They choose actions only based on the current percept.
• They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current
precept.
• Their environment is completely observable.

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Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action.
Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not
a part of an agent itself.
An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with
something to sense and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-
feministic.
Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the
point of view of an agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

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1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

• If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at
each point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially
observable.
• A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the
internal state to keep track history of the world.
• An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is
called as unobservable.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
• If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next
state of the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic
environment.
• A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined
completely by an agent.
• In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry
about uncertainty.
3. Episodic vs Sequential:
• In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the
current percept is required for the action.
• However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions
to determine the next best actions.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
• If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then
such an environment is called single agent environment.
• However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an
environment is called a multi-agent environment.
• The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from
single agent environment.
5. Static vs Dynamic:
• If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static
environment.
• Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue
looking at the world while deciding for an action.
• However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at
each action.

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• Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword

puzzles are an example of a static environment.
6. Discrete vs Continuous:
• If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can
be performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete
environment else it is called continuous environment.
• A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of
moves that can be performed.
• A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.
7. Known vs Unknown
• Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an
agent's state of knowledge to perform an action.
• In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent.
While in unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to
perform an action.
• It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an
Unknown environment to be fully observable.
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
• If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's
environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible environment
else it is called inaccessible.
• An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of
an accessible environment.
• Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
Topic: 3 : CONCEPT OF RATIONALITY
Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and
acts in a way to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational
agents to use for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

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For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement

learning algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward
and for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.
Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure.
Rationality can be judged on the basis of following points:
• Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
• Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
• Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
• The sequence of percepts.
PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon.
When we define an AI agent or rational agent, then we can group its properties
under PEAS representation model.
It is made up of four words:
• P: Performance measure
• E: Environment
• A: Actuators
• S: Sensors
Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.
PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:
Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators : Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors : Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.
Figure 2.4 summarizes the PEAS description for the taxi’s task environment.
We discuss each element in more detail in the following paragraphs.

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Properties of task environments
The range of task environments that might arise in AI is obviously vast.

We can, however, identify a fairly small number of dimensions along which task
environments can be categorized.
These dimensions determine, to a large extent, the appropriate agent design and the
applicability of each of the principal families of techniques for agent
implementation. First,

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Topic: 4 : NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTS
The Nature of Environments

Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to keyboard
input, database, computer file systems and character output on a screen.
In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in rich,
unlimited softbots domains.
The simulator has a very detailed, complex environment. The software agent needs
to choose from a long array of actions in real time.
A softbot designed to scan the online preferences of the customer and show
interesting items to the customer works in the real as well as
an artificial environment.
The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment, in which
one real and other artificial agents are tested on equal ground.
This is a very challenging environment as it is highly difficult for a software agent
to perform as well as a human.
Turing Test
The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with Turing
Test.
Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test.
Out of the two persons, one plays the role of the tester.
Each of them sits in different rooms.
The tester is unaware of who is machine and who is a human.
He interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both intelligences, to
which he receives typed responses.
This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine machine’s
response from the human response, then the machine is said to be intelligent.
Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −
• Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly
defined, states of the environment, the environment is discrete (For example,
chess); otherwise it is continuous (For example, driving).

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• Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the

complete state of the environment at each time point from the percepts it is
observable; otherwise it is only partially observable.
• Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is
acting, then it is static; otherwise it is dynamic.
• Single agent / Multiple agents − The environment may contain other agents
which may be of the same or different kind as that of the agent.
• Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent’s sensory apparatus can have access to
the complete state of the environment, then the environment is accessible to
that agent.
• Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is
completely determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then
the environment is deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.
• Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists
of the agent perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just
on the episode itself. Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the
previous episodes. Episodic environments are much simpler because the agent
does not need to think ahead.
Topic: 5 : STRUCTURE OF AGENTS
The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Agent’s structure can be viewed as −
• Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
• Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
• Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
Simple Reflex Agents

• They choose actions only based on the current percept.
• They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current
precept.
• Their environment is completely observable.
Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action.

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Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an internal
state.
Model − knowledge about “how the things happen in the world”.
Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current state
depending on percept history.
Updating the state requires the information about −

• How the world evolves.
• How the agent’s actions affect the world.

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Goal Based Agents

They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is more
flexible than reflex agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is explicitly
modeled, thereby allowing for modifications.
Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

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Utility Based Agents

They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.
Goals are inadequate when −
• There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.
• Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood
of success against the importance of a goal.
Topic: 6 : PROBLEM SOLVING AGENTS
Problem solving agents – search algorithms

Search algorithms are one of the most important areas of Artificial Intelligence.
This topic will explain all about the search algorithms in AI.

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Problem-solving agents:
In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving
methods.
Rational agents or Problem-solving agents in AI mostly used these search
strategies or algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide the best result.
Problem-solving agents are the goal-based agents and use atomic representation. In
this topic, we will learn various problem-solving search algorithms.
Search Algorithm Terminologies:

• Search: Searchingis a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a
given search space. A search problem can have three main factors:
a. Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions,
which a system may have.
b. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
c. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns
whether the goal state is achieved or not.
• Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The
root of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial
state.
• Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
• Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as
a transition model.
• Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
• Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal
node.
• Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.
Properties of Search Algorithms:

Following are the four essential properties of search algorithms to compare the
efficiency of these algorithms:
Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return a

solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

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Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best solution

(lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution for is said to be an
optimal solution.
Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm to
complete its task.
Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point during the
search, as the complexity of the problem.
Types of search algorithms
Based on the search problems we can classify the search algorithms into
uninformed (Blind search) search and informed search (Heuristic search)
algorithms.
Topic: 7 : UNINFORMED SEARCH STRATEGIES
Uninformed/Blind Search:
The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such as closeness,
the location of the goal.

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It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes information about how to

traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and goal nodes.
Uninformed search applies a way in which search tree is searched without any
information about the search space like initial state operators and test for the goal,
so it is also called blind search.
It examines each node of the tree until it achieves the goal node.
It can be divided into five main types:

o Breadth-first search
o Uniform cost search
o Depth-first search
o Iterative deepening depth-first search
o Bidirectional Search
Informed Search
Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge.
In an informed search, problem information is available which can guide the
search. Informed search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than an
uninformed search strategy.
Informed search is also called a Heuristic search.
A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions but
guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.
Informed search can solve much complex problem which could not be solved in
another way.
An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.
1. Greedy Search
2. A* Search
Breadth-first Search:
o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or
graph. This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is called
breadth-first search.
o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all
successor node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.
o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search
algorithm.

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• Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Advantages:
• BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.
• If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide
the minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
Disadvantages:
• It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into
memory to expand the next level.
• BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
Example:
In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS
algorithm from the root node S to goal node K.
BFS search algorithm traverse in layers, so it will follow the path which is shown
by the dotted arrow, and the traversed path will be:
2. Depth-first Search
Depth-first search isa recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data
structure.
It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows
each path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
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The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.
Advantage:
• DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on
the path from root node to the current node.
• It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in
the right path).
Disadvantage:
• There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.
• DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the
infinite loop.
Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will
follow the order as:
Root node--->Left node ----> right node.
It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after
traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal
node is not found.
After backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will terminate as
it found goal node.
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3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit.
Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-first
search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor
nodes further.
Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth
limit.
Advantages:
Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.
Disadvantages:
• Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
• It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
Example:
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Bidirectional Search
It searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both meet to
identify a common state.
The path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the goal
state. Each search is done only up to half of the total path.
Uniform Cost Search

Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path to a node. It always expands the least
cost node. It is identical to Breadth First search if each transition has the same cost.
It explores paths in the increasing order of cost.
Disadvantage
• There can be multiple long paths with the cost ≤ C*. Uniform Cost search must
explore them all.
• Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search
• It performs depth-first search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete depth-first
search to level 2, and continues in such way till the solution is found.

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1

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to replicate or enhance human

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Topic: 1 : ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Subfields of Artificial Intelligence

Natural Language Processing: A neural network is a group of connected I/O units

Expert Systems: An expert system is an interactive and reliable computer-based

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Topic: 2 : AGENTS AND ENVIRONMENTS

What are Agent and Environment?

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

What is Ideal Rational Agent?

Rationality of an agent depends on the following

The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Simple Reflex Agents

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action.

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

• Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword

Topic: 3 : CONCEPT OF RATIONALITY

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement

PEAS for self-driving cars:

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Properties of task environments

The range of task environments that might arise in AI is obviously vast.

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Topic: 4 : NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTS

The Nature of Environments

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

• Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the

Topic: 5 : STRUCTURE OF AGENTS

The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Simple Reflex Agents

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Model Based Reflex Agents

Updating the state requires the information about −

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Goal Based Agents

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Utility Based Agents

Topic: 6 : PROBLEM SOLVING AGENTS

Problem solving agents – search algorithms

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Search Algorithm Terminologies:

Properties of Search Algorithms:

Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to return a

S.PRABU Ass.Prof. AI&DS Department, KVCET

Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best solution