BBA1733 MIS UNIT I

Subject Code BBA1733

Subject Name MIS
Chapter Title UNIT I

____________________________
Dr. Wangchuk Chungyalpa
Asst. Prof (Sl. Gd.)
Department of Management

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Table of Content
1.0 Information systems in organizations ..................................................................................................... 6
1.1 What Is an Information System?......................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1 Technology ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2 People .......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.3 Process ......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Input, Processing, Output & Feedback: Information System Components ............................................ 8
1.2.1 IPOS .............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.2.2 IPOS in Action ............................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Information Systems Resources: Networks, Hardware, Software, Data & People ................................ 9
1.3.1 Understanding Data ................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Hardware and Peripherals ......................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3 Software ..................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.4 Networks .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Information Systems Jobs & Career Options ........................................................................................ 12
1.4.1 Careers in IT & IS ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.4.1.1 Data Entry and Computer Support ..................................................................................... 12
1.4.1.2 Computer Support Specialist .............................................................................................. 13
1.4.1.3 Systems Analyst and Database Admin .................................................................................... 13
1.4.1.4 Network Admin and Hardware Engineer ................................................................................ 14
1.4.1.5 Computer Hardware Engineer ................................................................................................ 14
1.4.1.6 Info Security, Web Developer & Network Architect ............................................................... 14
1.5 Business Strategies: Market Advantages Provided by Information Systems ....................................... 15
1.5.1 Process and Re-engineering ....................................................................................................... 15
1.5.2 TQM and Competitive Advantage.............................................................................................. 16
1.6 Computer System Components: Computer Parts & Functions ............................................................ 17
1.6.1 Desktop or Laptop? .................................................................................................................... 17
1.6.2 Motherboard.............................................................................................................................. 18
1.6.3 Central Processing Unit .............................................................................................................. 18
1.6.4 Memory, Cache, RAM, ROM ...................................................................................................... 19
1.6.4 Video and Sound Cards .............................................................................................................. 20

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1.6.5 Network Connections ................................................................................................................ 21

1.6.6 Optical Drives ............................................................................................................................. 22
1.6.7 Peripherals ................................................................................................................................. 22
1.7 Computer Memory and Processing Devices: Functions & Characteristics ........................................... 23
1.7.1 Complex Computers................................................................................................................... 23
1.7.1.1 Central Processing Unit ....................................................................................................... 23
1.7.1.2 Memory............................................................................................................................... 24
1.8 External and Internal Storage Devices: Optical, Magnetic & Semiconductor Storage ......................... 26
1.8.1 Magnetic Storage ....................................................................................................................... 26
1.8.2 Optical Storage ........................................................................................................................... 27
1.8.3 Semiconductor ........................................................................................................................... 28
1.8.4 Cloud .......................................................................................................................................... 29
1.9 Computer Input Devices: Keyboards, Mice, Audio & Video ................................................................. 29
1.9.1 What Is an Input Device? ........................................................................................................... 29
1.9.1.1 Keyboards ........................................................................................................................... 30
1.9.1.2 Mice, Meese, Mouses, Mices, Mouse? ............................................................................... 31
1.9.1.3 Audio Input ......................................................................................................................... 31
1.9.1.4 Video Input.......................................................................................................................... 32
1.10 Computer Output Devices: Monitors, Speakers, & Printers ............................................................... 33
1.10.1 Output Devices......................................................................................................................... 33
1.10.1.1 Monitors............................................................................................................................ 33
1.10.1.2 Printers .............................................................................................................................. 34
1.10.1.3 Speakers & eBooks ............................................................................................................ 35
1.11 ASCII and Unicode to Represent Characters in Binary Code .............................................................. 36
1.11.1 ASCII ......................................................................................................................................... 36
1.11.1.1 Bits .................................................................................................................................... 37
1.11.1.2 Bytes.................................................................................................................................. 37
1.11.1.3 Translation ............................................................................................................................ 38
1.12 What Is an Optical Drive? - Definition, Types & Function................................................................... 38
1.12.1 Optical Disk Drive Defined ....................................................................................................... 38
1.12.1.1 Components ...................................................................................................................... 39
1.12.1.2 Different Types of Discs .................................................................................................... 41

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1.12.2 How an Optical Drive Works .................................................................................................... 42

1.12.3 No More Optical Drives? .......................................................................................................... 43
1.13 What Is a Hard Drive? - Types, Function & Definition ........................................................................ 44
1.13.1 Definition of a Hard Drive ........................................................................................................ 44
1.13.2 Hard Disk Drives (HDD) ............................................................................................................ 44
1.13.3 Solid-State Drives (SSD)............................................................................................................ 45
1.13.4 Capacity and Performance ....................................................................................................... 45
1.13.5 External Hard Drives ................................................................................................................ 46
1.13.6 Data Back-Up............................................................................................................................ 46
1.14 What Is a Client-Server Network? - Definition, Advantages & Disadvantages ................................... 46
1.14.1 What Is a Client-Server Network? ............................................................................................ 46
1.14.2 How Does It Work? .................................................................................................................. 47
1.14.3 What Are the Advantages of a Client-Server Network? .......................................................... 47
1.14.3 What are the Disadvantages of a Client-Server Network? ...................................................... 47
1.15 System Bus in Computers: Definition & Concept ............................................................................... 48
1.15.1 Computer System & System Bus Definitions ........................................................................... 48
1.15.2 How the System Bus Works ..................................................................................................... 49
1.16 Touchscreen Technology: Definition & Concept ................................................................................ 51
1.16.1 What Is Touchscreen Technology? .......................................................................................... 51
1.16.2 The Technology Behind It ........................................................................................................ 51
1.16.3 Multi-Touch Gestures .............................................................................................................. 52
1.16.4 Adoption of the Technology .................................................................................................... 53
1.17 What is a Graphical User Interface (GUI)? - Definition, Components & Examples............................. 53
1.17.1 What Is a GUI?.......................................................................................................................... 53
1.17.2 History of the GUI .................................................................................................................... 54
1.17.3 GUI Components ...................................................................................................................... 54
1.18 What is a Mainframe System? ............................................................................................................ 55
1.18.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................. 55
1.18.2 Development of Mainframes ................................................................................................... 55
1.18.3 Mainframe Capabilities ............................................................................................................ 56
1.18.4 Present-Day Use of Mainframes .............................................................................................. 56
1.18.5 Supercomputers and Servers ................................................................................................... 56

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1.19 What Is a Modem? - Definition & Explanation ................................................................................... 57

1.19.1 What Is a Modem? ................................................................................................................... 57
1.19.2 Data Representation ................................................................................................................ 57
1.19.3 Rapid Communication .............................................................................................................. 58

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1.0 Information systems in organizations

1.1 What Is an Information System?

Information systems are an integral part of businesses. But what, exactly, is an information
system? In this lesson, we'll define information systems and then examine the three main
components of an information system.
Information Systems
Caselet
Suneeta is the CIO, or Chief Information Officer, of Hats Crazy, LLC. She's in charge of the
entire information system's department of her company. That means she has to see to it that
technology runs smoothly, is used correctly, and aligns with the company's goals. That's a lot!
Suneeta wants to understand better what components go into information systems.
First, though, Suneeta needs to understand exactly what the term information systems means.
There are many definitions, but most include the idea that information systems is at the
intersection of technology, people and processes within an organization. That is, it combines the
components of people, technology and process to achieve a goal. To help Suneeta understand
what these three components are, let's look closer at each one.

1.1.1 Technology

As the CIO of her company, much of Suneeta's job involves dealing with technology. In terms of
information systems, technology is hardware, software, data and network communication.
Hardware is the physical piece of technology, like a computer, tablet or phone. If you can take a
hammer to a piece of technology, it's probably hardware.
Software, on the other hand, is a program that runs within hardware. For example, Suneeta has
a special software that allows her to see which employees are logged onto their computers at
any given time. Suneeta's favorite game on her phone, her spreadsheet app and her Internet
browser are all examples of software.
Data is the collection of information into what's called a database. As we mentioned, Suneeta
can see which employees are logged on at any given time. That's pretty useful information if
she wants to know what people are doing right this moment. But if she collects that information
over time, she can see which employees are using their computers the most. Further data that
can be even more useful to Suneeta's company includes sales information, such as who has

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bought what products and what their average customer is like. For example, perhaps the
average Hats Crazy customer is in their thirties, married and lives a busy lifestyle. Knowing that
could help the company by telling them that they need to market their hats in a certain way
and/or provide a quick and easy check-out process for the busy customers.
Finally, network communication involves the tools that allow people to communicate
electronically, such as via email. This is done through software just like data is often collected
and stored through software, but it is in an integral part of a company's function, so it should be
considered on its own as an element of technology. All of the different types of technology share
one major thing. They involve the use of nonhuman tools to make human work easier, more
efficient and more effective.

1.1.2 People

Some days, Suneeta thinks that if all she had to do was manage technology, her job would be a
piece of cake. But that's not the only component in information systems, and it's not the only
part of Suneeta's department. In fact, perhaps the most central key of information systems
are people, including help desk workers, programmers, the CIO and other key players in the
information systems department. These people have different functions. For example,
Suneeta's job as CIO is very different from the job of a help desk worker who is tasked with
fixing problems for employees at Hats Crazy. And the help desk workers job is very different
than that of a programmer, who designs software and websites for the company.
Still, people in information systems have one thing in common: they are both the reason for the
information system and the key to how it integrates within the organization. For example,
without Suneeta and her department, the technology and processes, which we'll look at in a
moment, wouldn't do much for the company. The people make things work.

1.1.3 Process

As we've seen, technology and people are a major part of information systems, but there's one
final component that Suneeta needs to understand. A process is a series of steps undertaken
to achieve a goal. There are many processes in Suneeta's department, as there are many
information systems. For example, they have one process for dealing with technical issues from
customers who call in. They have a separate process for designing and implementing a new
website. Still other processes might involve assigning technology for employees to use,
changing a technology supplier or keeping databases up to date. The one thing that the
processes and information systems have in common is that they should align with company
goals. For example, Hats Galore might have a goal of making more money through sales.

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Suneeta's department might then implement an information systems process to help make the
sales process more smoothly. The point is, that the information systems process is there to help
the company achieve its overall goals.

1.2 Input, Processing, Output & Feedback: Information

System Components

What are the components that really make an information system work? In this lesson, we'll
explore IPOS (input, process, output and storage) and how this system works.

1.2.1 IPOS

Information systems require a constant cycle. We'll get to the specifics of what equipment they
need later, but the functionality requires four basic steps: input, process, output and storage.
It also requires significant feedback during and after use of the system. These steps, if
remembered, will help you understand what should be taken out of an information
system. IPOS is a simple acronym to learn, and is the ground work of all the components,
internal and external, tangible and intangible, of the information system.
Input is anything we wish to embed in a system for some type of use. A variety of sources are
used to input: keyboard, scanner, microphone, mouse, even another computer. What we input
has a purpose - but until it is processed and generated in some form of output, it doesn't do us
much good.
Processing takes place in the internal parts of the computer. It is the act of taking inputted data
and converting it to something usable. What we typically see on the screen in today's computer
world (known as what you see is what you get or WYSIWYG) is the result of our input being
processed by some program so we can have usable output: an English paper, an edited
photograph, this video you're watching.
Output, or processed information in a usable format, comes in many different forms: monitor or
printer for visual work, a speaker for audio. Sometimes our output is short-term, such as printing
a photo, and sometimes what we work on needs to be kept around for a while. That's where
storage comes in.
Storage is the term used to indicate we will be saving data for a period of time. We store for
many reasons: for future reference; to prevent full loss of data; because we forget to purge. But,
storage is vital. There are several mediums on which we can keep output and processed data: a
hard disk, a USB drive, a CD.

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1.2.2 IPOS in Action

Types of storage mediums

Let's take a trip to a favorite restaurant. The overall system means that a patron is entering the
doors, being seated (and served a tasty meal), then departing as a happy customer. The bottom
line is a meal that pleases the customer because all of the criteria were met. There are multiple
inputs in this transaction and we will step through them.
The first input: greetings would be exchanged and the patron places their order. Let's say you're
ready for a steak. At this point we go into the process mode: the chefs will do their thing back in
the kitchen. Output: the dinner will be presented nicely to Mr. Smith. For storage, your order is
kept for the evening and tied with the computer system that may be used for ordering, trend
analysis and other things. In feedback: in this case, you (the patron) provide feedback to the
server about the quality of the food and service. Was the steak cooked to your liking? Do you
have the correct side dishes and condiments? Is the taste satisfactory?
Now, take that back to the information system. Many restaurants use a point-of-order
information system that accepts input at a computer screen and flows through an entire
process. During the input step, the server jots down your order and then inputs it into the order
system. The order is then processed (along with other patrons') by using that order system.
Orders are output either on printed tickets or monitors for the kitchen staff (and of course, on
your final bill). Servers, kitchen staff and managers may provide feedback to the system
administrator regarding functionality, ease of use, repetitive tasks and so on. And finally,
storage: the information that is stored can be used as previously mentioned for inventory control
and sales trends. It can also be used for income and expense reports, staffing needs and so on.

1.3 Information Systems Resources: Networks, Hardware,

Software, Data & People

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What are the resources an information system needs? Discover how networks, hardware,
software, data and people work together to create usable information.

1.3.1 Understanding Data

We've established that an information system is the combining of users, technology and
processes to complete a specific goal. A stakeholder isn't only a user but is someone who has
any type of interest in a particular process. These people utilize hardware and software, typically
in a network format, to process raw data into usable information.
Data is one piece of a record. Individually, some of your data might be your first name, middle
name, last name, address, city, state, zip, phone number and occupation. When put together,
we see a record. Consider a global business with nearly 100,000 employees. If we were to put
each bit of data on index cards and toss it in a room, we'd have a lot of cards, but could you
interpret and use that data? Probably not. What we would have is a great start to a bonfire. But
if each person's data was compiled as a record and those records processed into an employee
list, we would now have usable information, or a collection of related records.
The old way would have been handwritten or typed index cards filed in many boxes
alphabetically. The list would have then been typed and photocopied for distribution.
Technology has made that process just a little faster. We now use keyboards, scanners and
microphones to input data into a system. The system unit contains components, which house
the software that processes the data into information.

1.3.2 Hardware and Peripherals

The components of the system you can physically touch - the system unit (tower, desktop,
laptop), internal devices and peripheral devices (keyboards and monitors) - are called hardware.
It is important to remember that basic definition: Hardware are the parts of the computer that are
tangible and can be touched.
Specifics of peripheral devices are provided in many other ways, but think of them as hardware
that surrounds the system unit. Hint: Your peripheral vision is what lets you see out of the sides,
or corners, of your eyes. These peripheral devices may be connected by wired or wireless
technology to the system unit. Peripherals communicate with the interior components of the
system unit via installed software. Software itself is intangible and can't be touched physically.
Hardware allows you to physically interact with your computer.
Examples of Computer Hardware

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1.3.3 Software

That particular type of software is the operating system software. Software, as a general term, is
the set of instructions written to direct the computer to execute specific tasks. Operating system
software is typically written for a specific type of computer. The operating system, or just system
software, instructs the hardware to get moving when the power is turned on or the mouse is
moved, deactivating a sleep mode. It interprets instructions from applications software to utilize
peripherals and/or storage devices. An example is Microsoft Windows 7 for a PC-based
computer or Mac OS X for a Macintosh.
Microsoft is semi-unique in that it produces not only operating system software, but application
software as well. Application software, or productivity software, is the set of instructions installed
in a computing device that lets us do something. There are thousands of software programs out
there, but a few examples you may be familiar with are iTunes, Microsoft Word and Adobe
Reader. Both application and system software are sold to individual users; however, there are
versions that can be used in a network environment.

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1.3.4 Networks

A computer network is a grouping of computer stations connected in some manner that allows
for sharing of resources. You may have a wireless network at home that lets you share Internet
connection, printers or even storage devices. This same concept can be created, many times
larger, using wired technology in businesses ranging in size and physical location.

1.4 Information Systems Jobs & Career Options

In this lesson, we'll give an overview of some of the careers in the information systems and
technology fields. You have options, so let's explore them.

1.4.1 Careers in IT & IS

1.4.1.1 Data Entry and Computer Support

If your keyboarding skills are good, a job you would qualify for right now is a data entry operator.
As an employee in this position, you would spend the majority of your day sitting, looking at a
computer screen and inputting data from hand-written information sheets. There isn't a whole lot
of person-to-person interaction in this job - you must have some self-direction and be able to
work effectively alone.
How fast can you type? 45 words a minute? Okay, that converts to 13,500 keystrokes per hour.
How'd I know that? You take your typing speed and multiply it by 300 to get keystrokes per
hour. Employers would prefer 15,000 keystrokes per hour, or at least 50 wpm. What was that?
Yes, that's error free; so if you are still keying and hitting backspace, you should work on that.
This could be a good way to earn some money while you're in school. A data entry operator
earns from minimum wage to around $16 an hour. This equates to a maximum yearly salary of
$33,000. You wouldn't have to have a college education for this job, but it will be very beneficial.
Now a position that has a lot more interaction is the computer support specialist. In this job you
would earn more money. Some college is helpful, but a degree isn't necessarily required. The
median salary is just over $46,000 a year.
A support specialist provides assistance to users having trouble with proper hardware use,
software installation or application software problems. Think of that phone call you've made to
get help with fixing a problem on your computer or to find out how to use a specific function in
some software. This means they are on the phone pretty much an entire shift, sit around all day
long and look at a computer screen. While much on the job training is provided, depending on

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the specific job, knowledge of computer processes, application software and basic hardware
components will be key in being hired.
Computer support specialists help users with computer issues
1.4.1.2 Computer Support Specialist

Other job titles for this position include technical support specialist, help desk technician or IT
support professional. This position may help an organization's internal user or may work for a
company who provides this type of service to the general public.
The remaining positions we'll talk about typically require a minimum of a bachelor's degree.
While this isn't always the case, a degreed individual typically stands a better chance at landing
a job.

1.4.1.3 Systems Analyst and Database Admin

Systems analysts must regularly attend meetings

Systems Analyst Meeting
Two important jobs that may work with developers and programmers are the systems analyst
and the database administrator. As a systems analyst you would work with stakeholders to
review an existing information system for improvement. You would also work with managers to
develop a scope of the project and a budget so they can make a system that is effective and
within set parameters.
A systems analyst has a median salary of $78,000. You would spend a lot of time in meetings
and would have to have excellent communication skills. You'd formulate questions for different
types of stakeholders and have to accurately hear what they are saying in order to convert that
information into ideas for a new system to be presented. You wouldn't necessarily be a
programmer or a software developer, but those skill sets may be helpful.
The database administrator earns around $73,000 and is a logical progression from a data entry
operator with much experience. As a database administrator, you would create and maintain
databases, or a collection of related records, and queries, or requests for a specific set of
information derived from a database, and reports that can be generated from that database.
Today's databases can be very simple or they can be very complex. As a database
administrator you would need to be proficient in several query languages in order to be a
frontrunner for an open position. Additionally, you would set user permissions and be
responsible for the security of the database. Good communication skills are important and
above average critical thinking abilities are needed.

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1.4.1.4 Network Admin and Hardware Engineer

Network admins are responsible for computer networks in organizations

Computer Network
Another career we can look at that requires excellent critical thinking skills is the network
administrator. A network administrator, or computer systems administrator, is responsible for the
function and maintenance of an organization's network. They lay out, install, upgrade and
maintain wiring and shared peripherals, servers and workstations and routers and switches.
You've probably used a computer at school or work. These are usually incorporated into a
network so you can use shared printers or access the Internet. The network administrator lays
all that computer hardware and wiring out. The NA also sets up user IDs and passwords and
grant permissions for usage levels.
This person may be fully responsible or they may supervise a variety of managers and
technicians; all of this earning an income around $69,000. A good chunk of the day is spent
standing or walking around, and a familiarity with tools is necessary. It helps a network
administrator to have people skills, but their knowledge of hardware and network standards is
the most important skill set.

1.4.1.5 Computer Hardware Engineer

Or are you like the kind of person who tries to find ways to improve things, or create new stuff?
Then a computer hardware engineer might be the field you are searching.
A computer hardware engineer will make almost $100,000 a year designing new hardware and
peripherals and is responsible for keeping technology alive and growing. You would need to
have excellent analytical, logical and design skills. A factor to consider is how you like to work.
Do you prefer to work alone, in small groups of people who are similar to you in personality or in
a large group with many voices and different personalities? Stereotypically, an engineer is a
person who prefers to work by themselves or in teams of very like-minded people.

1.4.1.6 Info Security, Web Developer & Network Architect

Hardware engineers design computer hardware

Computer Hardware Engineer
Do you have time for the last three? Information security analyst, web developer and computer
network architect have primarily the same educational requirements and a salary potential of
$76,000.

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A security analyst is responsible for protecting an organization's networks from outside access.
Did you now some systems analysts are former hackers now using their skills to search for
weak spots? A hacker is an individual who works to break through a computer system's security
protocol. Some do it just to see if they can, for fun. More devious hackers do it in order to gain
personal information of users, a business' proprietary secrets or for simple theft. As an analyst
you would use skills like these for finding the areas of a system that may have vulnerabilities.
You might actually work with a web developer to make sure any access to a company's intranet
is secure.
A web developer works with an organization to establish the kind of web presence they desire.
They would be the ones who create, or supervise the creators, of a website. Why is this so
important? Think about your favorite online shopping place. Why do you like the store? Is it easy
to shop, then buy? Developing teams spend a lot of time to hear positive answers to those
questions.
The security analyst and web developer will spend the majority of their day at a computer. The
web developer will spend a lot of time with the marketing and management departments of their
organization and will need excellent communication skills.
A computer network architect will typically work with a very large organization to create the
internal network for them. They will need critical thinking skills and will spend time both at a
computer and walking around.

1.5 Business Strategies: Market Advantages Provided by

Information Systems

What business strategies might an information system use? We'll take a look at the concepts of
business process modeling, process re-engineering, total quality management and competitive
advantage and see how they relate to information systems.

1.5.1 Process and Re-engineering

I think we all recognize computers are a normal and vital part of doing business. We might place
an order online or work where we use a computer all day. So how do these information systems
work to help the organization? An organization is more than just its information system. Each
occupation within the organization plays a role in its success. Processes are the way tasks, or
jobs, are completed.

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If we make chocolate chip cookies, we don't want to add the chips in the first step, where we
blend the shortening with the sugar. This would mush the chocolate chips, completely changing
the taste and texture of the cookie. Enter process re-engineering, or the redesign of workflows
and processes. If we recognize that adding chips at the beginning of the process just doesn't
work, we would try re-engineering to make the cookies taste the best with the most efficient
process. Let's walk through the making of the cookies. Put dry ingredients in one bowl,
shortening and brown sugar in another and in a third, stir the eggs, milk and vanilla together.
Blend the shortening and brown sugar well, then add the wet ingredients, mix them together and
then add the dry stuff. Once everything is combined, use a spoon to stir in the chocolate chips.
You then drop the dough on cookie sheets, bake for a few and hello, awesome and efficiently
prepared chocolate chip cookies!
The precursor to process re-engineering is business process modeling, when analysts and
managers review a business' systems, or processes, in an attempt to improve them. They'll look
at how a process is affecting time and money for the company. They'll also review activities that
may be replicated in different departments. The analysis team will break down three types of
processes: management, or the governance of a system; operational activities, or departments
that must exist to keep the business going, such as sales, purchasing and manufacturing; and
support activities. These are processes required so the operational activities can continue. They
include accounting, human resources and information technology departments.
Let's look at an operational activity. The current production of chocolate chip cookies has
consumer feedback citing overly brown bottoms. A review of the process shows the cookies
remain on the metal baking trays when removed from the oven and are allowed to cool on the
trays. All the ingredients, the order they're added in and the other processes have been
confirmed as correct. Can you re-engineer the last step(s) of baking the cookies so the bottoms
aren't overly cooked? A couple of possible ideas are to use a stone baking sheet or to remove
the cookies from the baking sheets as soon as they are out of the oven and place them on
brown craft paper.

1.5.2 TQM and Competitive Advantage

When all processes are combined, we can look at a term called Total Quality Management
(TQM), or just Quality Management. This is a concept aimed at securing customer satisfaction
by the entire company working toward the goal of continuous improvement. If we go back to the
cookie re-engineering scenario, TQM would be part of this. We would be constantly looking for a
way to make this a more efficient process. Another important part of TQM is that each employee

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who participates in a given task, such as processing a check or doing the same manufacturing
job, must do it in exactly the same way as another employee. This contributes to improved
quality.
Why does a company use TQM? It's one way to give them a competitive advantage, or
something about a company that sets it apart from its competitors. The 'something' can be cost.
Do you choose a pair of jeans over another because they cost less? Or maybe because they
are different and unique enough that they stood out to you? A third area of competitive
advantage can be technological. How does that relate to picking a pair of jeans? Let's say the
store you wish to buy jeans from doesn't exist anywhere near where you live. The company may
have created a competitive advantage by setting up a website so you can purchase those jeans.
An example of a corporate acquisition simply to gain a technological competitive advantage
happened just at the turn of the 21st century. A prominent snack producer had an excellent
distribution system. A certain cereal manufacturer knew this would give them a competitive
advantage for efficient delivery of products. The benefit to the snack company that was acquired
came from the order and payment system of the cereal company. This cereal manufacturer was
one of the first to utilize electronic data interchange (EDI), which is the use of networks and the
Internet to place orders, invoice customers and receive payments. Since the acquisition was
complete, the snack company's computer system was rolled over to the same one the cereal
company used, something that many businesses do now on a daily basis.

1.6 Computer System Components: Computer Parts &

Functions

Are you ready to buy a computer? Let's take a trip through the components of a computer for
some advice. We'll learn about the motherboard, memory, storage, connectivity and peripherals.

1.6.1 Desktop or Laptop?

How about we go shopping for a new computer system for you? First we'll have to figure out if a
desktop or a laptop is going to be best for you. One thing that I'll use in terminology is the
system unit. This is the case that contains all of the components needed for your computer to
work. The two constructions available to you are the desktop (or tower) or a laptop.
Laptops are for the user who prefers portability. This unit is common for someone like you - a
college student, consumers who travel frequently and business people who find themselves
working in places other than their office.

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The desktop, or tower, is intended for a user who doesn't need a computer that is portable.
They are larger in design and often have more features and computing power.
Now that you know for sure what the differences between the two are, which system seems like
it would be best for your situation? Let's talk about the details of how computers we're looking at
are put together. Many of the components I'll show you will have more than one choice for you.
Your budget is going to be what drives many of the decisions that you make.

1.6.2 Motherboard

Now, the first thing is the motherboard. It's the basis of your computer. It's the first component
installed in the system unit, and it holds all of the circuitry that ties the functions of the computer
components together.
You can think of it like your car (which has many computer systems of its own). If you have a
frame and tires, you've got a car (or you've got a system unit), but it won't take you very far!
Now, add your engine - the motherboard - where all the systems tie in one way or another, and
you've got the start of a working vehicle.

1.6.3 Central Processing Unit

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The motherboard and circuitry need to have power. There is a power box included with your
system unit, and you'll see a cord coming out of the back of your computer for that. The central
processing unit, or the brains of the computer, sits on the motherboard and does actually have
its own cooling fan. The processors now are so fast they need to be cooled down. All the
instructions you give the computer - like a click of a mouse - go through the CPU, which
processes in billions of cycles per second. Commonly installed processors have quad-cores, or
four separate processors in one component. There are six-core and eight-core available, and
the more advanced the technology the higher the cost. That's one of the choices you might
need to make.

1.6.4 Memory, Cache, RAM, ROM

Next to the CPU sits the cache, or the temporary memory where things you are working on sit
for quick interpretation by the CPU. The RAM chip is also near this location. Random-access
memory is volatile, or temporary, memory. Whenever you turn on a program, its instructions are
stored in RAM while the machine is on. Once you shut the machine down, both the cache and
the RAM are completely cleared out. RAM storage is common at eight, ten or twelve gigabytes.
ROM, or read-only memory, is located here as well. This is a permanent, or non-volatile,
memory. As soon as you turn on your computer, the start-up instructions that are stored in ROM
begin to execute. Even when you turn it off, the instructions stored in ROM remain. So if you
have a machine that runs Windows, as soon as you hit the power-up button, you'll get a short
screen that might give you a message from the manufacturer. Then in the background you'll just

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see black and the Windows logo come through, and it will say 'Starting Windows.' What's going
on there is that as soon as you hit the power button, your ROM is kicking in and starting up all
those instructions for systems checks.
The part attached to the motherboard you're most likely to recognize is the hard drive. The hard
drive doesn't sit directly on the motherboard, but it is connected to the circuitry by electrical wire.
The hard drive stores software you've put in there like Firefox, WordPad or a music player. It
also stores the data files those programs have created and used. Hard drive storage commonly
begins at one terabyte now and goes up to two and a half terabytes.
The hard drive stores all the software programs you load onto your computer.

1.6.4 Video and Sound Cards

Let's take a peek at the video card, or the graphics card. This card is used to process images so
you can see them on your computer. As a standard computer user, the video card included with
the system you are looking at will suffice. If you are a gamer, or really into working with photos
or digital art, you may be looking for higher-end cards. These cards are more expensive, but

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typically have their own CPU for better and faster processing of images. Many video cards now
allow for more than one monitor to be hooked up to the system.
The sound card on the motherboard lets us hear from an internal speaker. We can also plug in
peripheral devices such as speakers, microphones or headphones. You should think about
where you will be using your computer. If you're going to end up needing to use headphones
most of the time, or speakers that are included with your system, the stock sound card will work
just fine for you. If you want something that jams, you may need to upgrade.

1.6.5 Network Connections

A part of the system unit most of us take for granted these days is the wireless local area
network card, or the WLAN card. This is the card you actually don't see signs of from the
outside of your unit, but it is what lets us connect to our wireless internet.
Another way to connect to a network is by hardwire, or plugging a jack into the network interface
card (NIC).

This looks like a telephone receptacle, but is slightly larger.

Wireless LAN cards help you connect your computer to the internet.

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1.6.6 Optical Drives

Near the NIC on a laptop, you'll usually find some sort of optical drive. Optical drives are read
and written with a laser. You will see an optical drive on the front of a desktop unit. The most
common optical drives in use currently are the DVD (or digital video disc) and the CD (or
compact disc). The drive is connected to the motherboard for power by electrical wiring. While
shopping for a new unit, people find the optical drive installed is perfectly usable for both media
and general use for playing movies or music and burning, or saving, data. A Blu-ray drive is
available to you. It is a little bit higher in cost, but if the extra quality is important to you, it is
something that's out there.

1.6.7 Peripherals

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Today's system utilizes a variety of peripheral devices. Those are the things that sit around the
system unit. These devices are usually connected to the system by USB ports. Universal Serial
Bus technology is one which allows for speedy transmission of data via a cable and specific
type of input head. Peripherals which may be familiar to you are monitors, printers, keyboard,
mouse and speakers.
Choosing peripherals you want with a new computer system depends on what you desire. If
you're looking for a new printer, do you want a laser printer or an inkjet printer? That decision
may be made because of how much money you have to spend upfront. The keyboard and
mouse included with the system - are those good enough or do you need something that's
multi-media or ergonomic? There are a lot of different questions to consider when you actually
look at your budget for a new system.

1.7 Computer Memory and Processing Devices: Functions &

Characteristics

Have you ever wondered how your computer operates - specifically, where it stores all the
information it needs to run? This lesson will answer that question by explaining the general
functions of the central processing unit (CPU), random-access memory (RAM) and read-only
memory (ROM).

1.7.1 Complex Computers

Computers have many complex pieces. On the motherboard you will find many things, including
the central processing unit, random-access memory and read-only memory. The most vital
piece is the CPU.

The CPU analyzes every instruction we input and

performs logarithmic calculations.

1.7.1.1 Central Processing Unit

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The CPU is the brains of the computer. The central processing unit has to think through every
instruction generated by your use of the computer. These instructions include having
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performing the logarithmic calculations to interpret these
instructions. The processing is done at a speed that is nearly impossible for our brains to
comprehend, let alone actually perform.
The speeds are referred to with the term hertz (not the car rental, by the way). The speeds are
actually in the millions (mega) or billions (giga) of machine cycles per second! Think of it as
revolutions per minute in an engine but a heck of a lot faster!
1.7.1.2 Memory

RAM
The path of thinking includes volatile and non-volatile memory, or temporary and permanent
memory, respectively. Random-access memory (RAM) is volatile, or temporary, memory. It
wakes up when you turn on your computer and holds the information you are working on. Think
of those different windows being open in the programs you're using; those sit in RAM when
you're working on them. They're right there up front for easy access and processing.

The system bus sends and receives data.

An even more up-front memory is called the cache. It's simply another form of working memory.
Because it is volatile, it will empty when the computer is shut off. The cache is located on or
near the CPU. It holds instructions that are repetitive for program use. Because of its proximity

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to the CPU, the cache doesn't have to take the long way to work: the system bus. The bus is
an electronic line that sends and receives data.
As soon as the machine is shut down, both RAM and the cache are cleared out. RAM is located
in slots on the motherboard and is measured in storage capacity of megabytes (or just over 1
million bytes) or gigabytes (over 1 billion bytes). The more RAM that's installed on a computer,
combined with a CPU that has a high processing speed, the stronger the computing power will
be. For today's basic user and personal computer shopper, some RAM acronyms may be
confusing. In-depth analyses of each are not necessary, but note the progression of today's
technology.
Regular RAM was the original. SRAM, or static RAM, is constant and doesn't refresh, kind of
like the humming of an electric line. In SDRAM, or synchronous dynamic RAM, the refresh
signal comes when the user is processing some input. We wouldn't even notice the wait. You
could think of this like the crew of a rowing team; they all work in unison. DRAM, or dynamic
RAM, refreshes frequently, like when you need refreshing from being on the beach all day. And
finally, DDR1, DDR2, and DDR3 RAM is the progression for double-data-rate RAM. The
process is synchronous, as is the SDRAM, but it has stricter control of signals. DDR3 RAM is
the current consumer-purchasable version of RAM.
ROM

ROM stores the data needed to boot up your

computer.

If RAM is temporary, then what's permanent? Permanent memory does not disappear when the
machine is powered off as RAM does. Read-only memory, or ROM, is used to begin the start-
up process for your computer. As soon as you press the power on button, system checks are
performed and the operating system start-up instructions that are stored in ROM execute. You
may notice this on a Windows machine; it now keeps a black background, you see the Windows
logo fly in and it says 'starting Windows.' All those system checks that were stored in ROM are

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going on at that time. This allows your operating system to fully execute and lets you then fire
up the software you want to work with. Because ROM is permanent, it does not disappear when
the machine is powered off as RAM does.

1.8 External and Internal Storage Devices: Optical, Magnetic

& Semiconductor Storage

Let's explore the capacity of internal and external storage devices. We'll learn how optical,
magnetic and semiconductor storage works, as well as identify some examples of storage
devices.
What Type of Storage Do You Use?
What type of storage do you use for saving your computer work? The hard drive only? A USB
drive? Do you watch movies on DVD or Blu-ray? There are many different storage methods for
computers and other technology. We'll describe each of the categories of devices they fall
under, the general mechanics of each and their physical characteristics.

1.8.1 Magnetic Storage

There are three main categories of storage devices: optical, magnetic and semiconductor. The
earliest of these was the magnetic device. Computer systems began with magnetic storage in
the form of tapes (yes, just like a cassette or video tape). These graduated to the hard disk drive
and then to a floppy disk. All magnetic media use the same general process of a read/write
head magnetizing material. On a hard drive, the materials are magnetized on a glass or
aluminum disk. Early storage was small. It would take many tapes to back up a mainframe
system - a large system with few programs and many users - and many floppies were needed
to back up significant work on a personal computer because of the low storage capacity. In the
stone age of personal computers, all programs, and the work accomplished using them, were
stored on 5 1/4-inch floppy disks. The storage capacity of that floppy was typically only for text
and was 360 kilobytes (KB). Consider a two-page, text-only, double-spaced document is about
15 kilobytes. There was a significant period of time where the 3 1/2-inch floppy disk dominated
the market. The 3 1/2-inch floppy held 1.44 megabytes (MB) of data, or roughly 750 text-only
pages (750 pages is about a ream and a half of paper).

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Floppy disks were an improvement on earlier

magnetic storage devices.

Magnetic media transitions were made to larger capacity portable disks such as the ZIP drive.
These started with 100 MB sizes and moved to 250 and 500 MB. Part of the trouble with the ZIP
drive was the speed with which they developed - it was so fast that the manufacturer neglected
to keep backward compatibility going. In other words, the drive hardware for the 250-MB ZIP
wouldn't work for the 100 MB disk, and the 250 disk couldn't be used in the 100. We've moved
light years beyond that to improved internally-mounted hard drives, which can hold at least a
terabyte of information. Think of a terabyte as enough different music to listen to while working a
full-time job for an entire year! And these same hard drives have become portable and
lightweight enough to carry around with us, giving us the ability to bring software and data files
everywhere we go.
The original magnetic media became cumbersome. Not all machines had ZIP drives installed,
and frequently, a document or database large in size took up several floppies. I remember
backing up an accounting system on a personal computer in the early 1990s. It took more than
a dozen floppies to back up one company's data!

1.8.2 Optical Storage

About that time, optical devices were starting to be marketed. An optical storage device is
written and read with a laser. It is strong and can handle temperature fluctuations much better
than magnetic media. Because the floppy was so inexpensive at this time, it took several years
before the optical drives became affordable to the general and small business consumer.

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Optical storage devices read data using a laser.

The disks used for storage (like CDs, DVDs and Blu-rays) were more expensive than floppies
but held a lot of data. A compact disc (CD) can hold 700 MB of data, or roughly a little over an
hour of music. It actually took until CD players became common in homes and cars for the
playing of music for CDs to come down in price enough for more use by consumers. Digital
video discs (DVDs) began being issued for consumer-released movies. A single-sided DVD
holds 4.7 gigabytes (GB) of data, so a normal, not overly-computerized two-hour movie will fit.

1.8.3 Semiconductor

The third device, a semiconductor, has been around for a very long time. The chip, made
primarily of silicon, receives a charge to hold the data. Some uses of semiconductor technology
that may surprise you are flash drives (also known as thumb drives or plug 'n play), personal
digital assistants, mp3 players, cell phones and digital cameras.
When considering storage capacity, we have to remember there are several construction
methods utilizing semiconductor technology. RAM chips have a different make-up than flash
drives, so the storage is different, but they're both made with semiconductors. RAM is still
measured in gigabyte storage, but a flash drive can now hold more than a terabyte of data. The
current semiconductor has a great record. A flash drive utilizes Universal Serial Bus (USB)
technology, which allows for high-speed data transfer through a connection that can be used for
many different types of devices. All of your current storage devices - CD, DVD, flash drives,
hard drives - are extremely portable, with the flash drive leading the group. Portability is even
becoming a dinosaur term when it comes to storage device functionality.

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Flash drives can hold considerably more data

than RAM cards.

1.8.4 Cloud

A short sidebar here: The Internet became more accessible to businesses and consumers in the
early 1990s. The leaps and bounds are for another discussion, but the place we are at now with
the Internet gives us one more easily accessible and affordable storage device: cloud storage.
This storage is the user utilizing an Internet connection to store data files out there somewhere.
As users, we consider cloud storage intangible. I mean, we can't see where the files are stored.
However, there is definitely a tangible place your uploaded files go to. Someone is housing a
server and magnetic storage that you are utilizing to back your work and play files up to. There
are many free and paid places available. Most free storage sizes give you 2 GB to 10 GB
storage, with the option to purchase more. You might be asking if cloud storage and cloud
computing are the same. The answer is yes and no. While cloud computing does typically store
files, they can be saved locally. Cloud computing refers to using an Internet-based application
software to complete a given task (like word processing, a presentation or bookkeeping). Cloud
storage is considered a back-up file storage place for work done on programs installed on your
computer.

1.9 Computer Input Devices: Keyboards, Mice, Audio & Video

What input devices do you use on a daily basis? We'll take a look at the common keyboard and
mouse devices as well as other methods of input like audio and video.

1.9.1 What Is an Input Device?

Input devices are the way we're able to get data into a computer. There are several methods to
input data and generically, they are keyboards, mice, audio and video. Most people just accept

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whatever comes with their machine, but we'll do a little shopping trip to discover what might be
most useful for you.
1.9.1.1 Keyboards

A keyboard is a keyboard, right? I mean, you type on them to write a paper or enter data on a
form for online shopping, so is there really anything else to think about? There can be.
We have some unique keyboards available to use: laser projected (though these are typically
used for smaller devices like smart phones), foldable, create-your-own (used by gamers) or
ergonomic. Keyboards can also be connected to your computer by a wire, or by using wireless
technology.
Most keyboards are laid out in the QWERTY style - if you look at the top row of your keyboard,
left side, you'll see Q W E R T Y. This layout evolved to actually slow the typist down. Yes, I said
slow them down. Typewriters (first manual, then electric) are machines that used a striking arm
to hit an inked ribbon on a piece of paper. The typists were getting so fast the typewriter arms
were getting twisted up with each other. The typist had to stop, untangle the arms and then
return to work. This significantly slowed down their speeds. By creating a QWERTY keyboard,
the speeds balanced out, thereby increasing their overall productivity.
The standard keyboard that comes with a computer is perfectly functional. The question is in
how it affects your hands and forearms. Take a second here and do a quick study with me.
Push your keyboard out of the way, or out of reach. Set your hands on the work surface. Just
plop them down - don't pay attention to where they are going. Now look down at them. Notice
the angle your elbows are at as well as your wrists. This is an example of ergonomics, or the
study of physical work habits and how they affect the muscle and skeleton of the employee.
Your elbows are probably slightly away from your sides and bent at about a 45 degree angle.
Your wrists are probably not bent and your fingers are pretty straight.

The ergonomic keyboard is one of many types

available for consumers.

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Now, pull the keyboard back to its normal position and place your fingers on the home row - for
those of you still huntin' and peckin', the left pinky finger will be on the A with the remaining left
fingers on the S, D and F. Your right index finger will be on the J, with the remaining three
fingers on the K, L and semi-colon. Unless you are using a split, curved or naturals keyboard, all
ergonomic in design, you will find the angles of your wrist and forearm significantly different than
when you just rested them on your desk. Using an ergonomic keyboard takes a while to get
used to and will temporarily reduce your typing speeds, but they are much better for you and will
help to prevent carpal tunnel and other repetitive motion syndromes.
1.9.1.2 Mice, Meese, Mouses, Mices, Mouse?

Computer mice are also available in ergonomic styles, though we have a tendency to worry less
about the mouse than the keyboard. They can be wired or wireless, with or without a scrolling
wheel.
A mouse is used to input instructions or data by sending a signal to the computer, based on
hovering the cursor and selecting with the left mouse button. The left mouse acts as a 'do this'
or 'enter' button. The right mouse button can be selected and will often pop up a window of
choices. The scrolling wheel is used to move the view of the screen up or down. By moving your
mouse to a location in a document, on a digital photo or over a choice of music, you can click
the left mouse button to place the cursor.
A standard mouse is a rounded square in physical appearance and is typically split into three
regions: a left button, a right button and a top base. Some examples of ergonomics are the track
ball and optical ergo. Like with an ergonomic keyboard, the more you use a mouse, the better
the ergonomic mouse will feel to your wrist. If you have existing tightness, you may even find
relief by switching to an ergonomic mouse. Just give yourself some time to adjust to it.

The scrolling wheel on the mouse allows you to

move the page up or down.

1.9.1.3 Audio Input

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You might be thinking, 'What do you mean, audio input?' By definition, it is the entry of data by
some type of audio device. Examples of audio input devices would include microphones or even
mp3 players.
When we say microphone, we're not saying you are singing to your computer, though you
certainly could be, or playing drums, piano or guitar. In my case, I am using a high quality
microphone to record the audio for this lesson. My French brother-in-law uses a headset with a
microphone when he plays online games with his friends from home. It's still input, even though
it is not being recorded.
1.9.1.4 Video Input

Video is another source of input. Besides a video camera, an example might be a touchscreen.
Video input is the use of visual-based technology to enter data into a computer. This is
becoming more available to consumer users.
Can you think of others besides consumers who use touchscreen? No? Think of your last trip to
a restaurant. Most fast food chains, and even sit-down restaurants, use touchscreen
technology. Many retail establishments are also using a combination of bar-code scanners and
touchscreen monitors for their sales. You may have used this if you've gone through a self-
checkout at a grocery store or created a pet tag at a kiosk.

Touchscreen technology is becoming a more

common way to input information.

A relatively new way of video input is the screen capture. Specialized software is installed on
your computer and can be used to capture what is on your screen. This may be a challenge to
picture in your mind, so let me explain the process we use to create these videos. The instructor
records the audio to the lesson using screen capture software and a high quality microphone.
The audio is stored on track one of the file. They may also use a tablet input device, which is a
digitized surface, and a stylus pen to send input signals to the monitor or even a presentation
software package. The tablet or the presentation will be active on the monitor when we record,

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and this video part saves to track two. As we progress through the audio recording, we will
make notes to the video production team as examples or suggestions to make this fun and
exciting for you! It remains a mystery to me how they do such an awesome job, but this gives
you a fun example to see how all the different inputs are used just through this one process.

1.10 Computer Output Devices: Monitors, Speakers, &

Printers

So you've entered information into your computer. How do you get it back out? Here's a look at
output devices such as monitors, speakers, printers and eBooks.

1.10.1 Output Devices

We need to head to the computer store one more time. We've picked out your system unit and
input devices. Now we've really got to figure out what's important for your output devices, or
how we are going to see and hear the data and information created and stored in your
computer.
1.10.1.1 Monitors

You know, none of these are really easy choices. If it's just you working on the system, the
decisions might be simple, but if you have to consider others' opinions, not so much. Let's start
with the monitor. We use this to view the work we're doing at the time or to view a finished
product. We may also use it to view videos or photos we've taken or found online.
Monitors come in many sizes and descriptions. To make the best decision, you should ask
yourself what you'll be doing the most with your computer. Are you just writing papers or
creating presentations? Are you surfing the Internet? Are you playing games once in a while?
Are they games that are not intensive in graphics? Are you making and editing videos for fun -
or for a profession?
If you can keep it simple, the standard monitor is for you. If you're playing games with intensive
graphics, making videos or working with digital photographs or art, you may want a high-
definition monitor. If you're going to use a computer as your home entertainment system, you
can find one that is TV-ready as well.

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The type of monitor you choose should depend

on what you will use it for.

The size of the monitor you use truly depends on your preference. Things to consider are your
eyesight, who else will be using it and the distance the monitor will be sitting away from you
(assuming you go with a desktop unit, not a laptop). There are monitor sizes ranging from 7
inches as a supplementary peripheral, but normal monitors range from a 17-inch diagonal to a
monster 55-inch diagonal! You could comfortably surf from the couch in the living room with a
monitor this size.
Monitors are created with LCD (liquid crystal display) or LED (light-emitting diode). LCDs
have layers of glass, polarized film and liquid crystals. You get electrical impulses sent through,
and this causes the color to be shown and image to be displayed. LED monitors take the LCD
one step further. They put a diode on the back that forces light through the layers for a sharper
picture and better colors. It is said that LED monitors will last longer than LCD monitors.
Have you decided which one you want to go with? Don't forget, you've also got touchscreen
monitors available should you have a use for them. The most practical use of a touchscreen
monitor for consumer and professional use would be to someone with a physical disability.
1.10.1.2 Printers

The next difficult decision to make will be the printer that will work best for you. Printers are
used to create a tangible product to look at away from a monitor. For consumer use there are
two kinds to choose from: the inkjet and the laser printer.
The inkjet printer uses a liquid ink that's sprayed through a print head onto a piece of paper.
How? Simply put, the printer interprets the signal from the computer and converts it to
instructions that go through the print head. Inkjet printers are typically inexpensive to purchase,
although the replacement ink can be costly and add up.

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Laser printers use heat technology and specialized powder called toner or another medium (I've
seen it with wax - it looked like crayons) that's heat-sealed onto a piece of paper. Laser printers
are somewhat expensive, though they've come down in cost as the technology has increased.
Both types are often available as mono-color (or black-only printer), full-color or an all-in-one
printer. An all-in-one printer typically has a printer, a copier and a scanner. Some still have a fax
feature as well.

Inkjet and laser are the two types of printers sold

in stores.

You should ask yourself how much you'll be printing and how often. If you don't print too much,
the inkjet printer may be for you. One disadvantage, though, to not printing often with an inkjet
printer is that the print head can actually plug up, dry out and then not work. If you print
frequently or in large quantities, you may find yourself purchasing ink quite often. Ink varies in
price but ranges between $9 and $25 for about 250 sheets of text-only in black ink. The toner
for laser printers seems prohibitive but usually will print up to 5000 sheets of paper per
cartridge. These toners are between $80-$100 a unit.
An example of typical usage: several years ago I bought a mono-laser printer (actually, it was
an all-in-one) for about $170. It was used to create syllabi for seven different classes and hand-
outs for most of those classes, for my daughter to write papers for her high school classes and
for my son (who discovered SpongeBob on the Internet and printed out hundreds of coloring
sheets), and I prepared at least 60 tax returns in that season. The one toner cartridge lasted
more than a year.
If you've made your decision on printers, we will look at the last two common output methods:
speakers and eBooks.
1.10.1.3 Speakers & eBooks

Speakers are used to emit audio signals that may come from music files or other audio files.
Many pre-constructed computers come with external speakers. All come with internal speakers.

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Usually, the external speakers included are more than good enough for sound quality, whether
you're watching YouTube videos or playing a movie in your DVD player. There are people who
prefer a little more bump in their audio output, however. Speakers are available in surround-
sound systems that rival a home system. How loud you want your system to be is up to you.
The higher-quality the sound system, the more expensive it will be.
The opposite of loud is quiet, which is what an eBook typically is. This electronic, portable and
specific-file-type data storage device allows us to bring and read large quantities of books,
magazines and even documents with us wherever we go. Some eBooks also have speakers
and music players built in to them as well. eBooks range from that full-color screen, music-
playing device to a basic, monochrome screen where the only function is to read.

An eBook reader allows you to hold a large

number of books in your hand.

1.11 ASCII and Unicode to Represent Characters in Binary

Code

A computer can think at speeds of over a billion machine cycles per second. However, no
spoken language is a computer's native tongue. Learn how a computer translates analog to
digital signals in this lesson.

1.11.1 ASCII

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The bits, or binary digits, are 0 and 1

ASCII, pronounced 'ask-e,' is an acronym for the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. ASCII is a code created in the 1960s for programming consistency.
1.11.1.1 Bits

There are 128 characters, including upper-case, lower-case, and special characters, in the
ASCII basic coding. ASCII breaks down into a base-2 system. This is a binary code; remember,
'bi' equals 2. Binary digits, or bits, are either 0 or 1, and if you want to visualize this, they're
either 'on' or 'off.' This is what your computer can actually understand.
This particular system has eight bits that are strung together representing one character. So
eight bits is equal to one character is equal to one byte. For example, 01001100 is an L. It is
also one byte. It would be very difficult for us to use binary language to communicate. For
instance, my name is Lori. In binary language that would be 01001100 01101111 01110010
01101001. I would run out of space on forms!
1.11.1.2 Bytes

Let me give you a comparison on bytes. Now remember, again, eight bits is equal to one byte.
A two page double-spaced document is about 1,000 characters and about 15 kilobytes. 1,084
bytes is a kilobyte. The rest of these references are approximate. 1,024,000 bytes is a
megabyte; over one billion bytes is a gigabyte; just over one trillion bytes is a terabyte; eight
quadrillion bytes (that's fifteen zeros) is a petabyte. And a new term for you to impress your
friends and relatives with is the yottabyte. That would be 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176
bytes!
So you can visualize a little better, here is a capacity comparison: an old 3.5 inch floppy
disk holds 1.44 megabytes - that's about 750 pages. A compact disc holds 700 megabytes, or
about an hour's worth of songs. And a single-sided DVD holds 4.7 gigabytes, or just a regular
old movie. All of these storage and byte references can be considered as received from an

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analog input method. In other words, what we put into the computer can't actually be processed
by the computer. That's where the ASCII comes back in.

The storage capacity of common mediums

1.11.1.3 Translation

The binary language will take what we put in (the analog) and convert it to a digital language the
computer can understand and process. It then translates the digital language the computer
generates back to the analog response we can see and understand.

1.12 What Is an Optical Drive? - Definition, Types & Function

An optical drive in a computer system allows you to use CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs to listen
to music or watch a movie. Most drives also allow you to write data to a disc, so you can create
your own music CDs or create a backup copy of important data.

1.12.1 Optical Disk Drive Defined

An optical disk drive (ODD) uses a laser light to read data from or write data to an optical disc.
These include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. This allows you to play music or watch movies
using pre-recorded discs. Computer software also often comes on one of these discs, so you
need an optical drive to install software. Most modern drives allow you to write to an empty disc,
so you can create your own music CDs or create a backup copy of important data.

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DVD disc, one of several types of optical discs

used in computer systems

1.12.1.1 Components

An optical disk drive uses a laser to read and write data. A laser in this context means an
electromagnetic wave with a very specific wavelength within or near the visible light spectrum.
Different types of discs require different wavelengths. For compact discs, or CDs, a wavelength
of 780 nanometers (nm) is used, which is in the infrared range. For digital video discs, or DVDs,
a wavelength of 650 nm (red) is used, while for Blu-ray discs a wavelength of 405 nm (violet) is
used.
An optical drive that can work with multiple types of discs will therefore contain multiple lasers.
The mechanism to read and write data consists of a laser, a lens to guide the laser beam, and
photodiodes to detect the light reflection from the disc.
The optical mechanisms for reading CDs and DVDs are quite similar, so the same lens can be
used for both types of discs. The mechanism for reading Blu-ray discs, however, is quite
different. An optical drive that works with all types of discs will therefore have two separate
lenses: one for CD/DVD and one for Blu-ray.

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An optical disc drive with separate lenses for

CD/DVD and for Blu-ray discs

In addition to the lens, an optical drive has a rotational mechanism to spin the disc. Optical
drives were originally designed to work at a constant linear velocity (CLV) - this means that the
disc spins at varying speeds depending on where the laser beam is reading, so the spiral
groove of the disc passes by the laser at a constant speed. This means that a disc spins at
around 200 rotations per minute (rpm) when the laser is reading near the outer rim of the disc
and at around 500 rpm when reading near the inner rim.
This constant speed is very important for music CDs and movie discs, since you want to listen
to music or watch a movie at the regular speed. For other applications, however, such as
reading or writing other types of data, working at this speed is not needed. Modern optical drives
can often spin much faster, which results in higher transfer speeds. When you see an optical
drive reported as a 4x drive, for example, this means it can spin at four times the base speed
(i.e., between 800 and 2,000 rpm).
An optical drive also needs a loading mechanism. Two general types are in use:
1. A tray-loading mechanism, where the disc is placed onto a motorized tray, which moves
in and out of the computer case.
2. A slot-loading mechanism, where the disc is slid into a slot and motorized rollers are
used to move the disc in and out.
Tray-loading mechanisms for optical drives in desktop computers tend to be rather bulky.

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Typical tray-loading optical drive for desktop

computers

For laptops, the tray-loading mechanism is much smaller.

Typical tray-loading optical drive for laptop

computers

1.12.1.2 Different Types of Discs

The earliest optical disc used in computer systems was the CD. This allowed you to play regular
music CDs on your computer. Specifically for use in computers, however, CD-ROMs were
developed. These are like regular CDs but contain read-only media, such as data files or
software. The CD-ROM became a widely used method to distribute software. Since the optical
drives were used only for CDs, it was often called a CD-ROM drive. The maximum storage
capacity of a typical CD-ROM is around 700 MB.
The next type of optical disc that came on the market was the DVD. Intended initially for movies,
they were quickly adopted in computer systems as well. The standard capacity of a DVD is 4.7
GB. More recently, Blu-ray discs came on the market and have a standard capacity of 25 GB.
Both DVD and Blu-ray also exist in a double layer (DL) format, which effectively doubles their
capacity.

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In order to write data to a disc, a recordable blank disc is needed. Data is recorded by
selectively heating parts of an organic dye layer with the laser, which changes the reflectivity of
the dye. For regular recordable discs, this is a permanent process and data can only be written
once. However, there are also rewritable discs. In this case, the laser is used to melt a
crystalline alloy in the recording layer of the disc. The substance can be melted back into
crystalline form, making it possible to write multiple times to the disc. Writing data to an optical
disc is also referred to as 'burning.'
It gets a little confusing with all the different read/write options. For example, for CDs, there are
CD-R and CD-RW. For DVDs, there are DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW. As you
probably guessed, the 'R' stands for 'read' and the 'W' stands for 'write.' The + and - versions
are the result of slightly different standards developed by different manufacturers. This has
resulted in minor incompatibility issues between certain discs and certain optical drives. While
this was very frustrating at the time these types of discs came on the market, most modern
optical drives are able to read almost any type of disc.

1.12.2 How an Optical Drive Works

Let's take a closer look inside an optical disc. This diagram uses a CD as an example, but the
same general principle applies to other types of optical discs. A polycarbonate disc layer
contains the actual data (A). Data is represented as tiny indentations in this layer, known as
'pits,' while the areas between pits are known as 'lands.' Light from the laser (E) shines through
this layer and is reflected back by a shiny layer (B). A layer of lacquer (C) protects the shiny
layer and prevents oxidation. Artwork is printed on top of the disc (D).

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Diagram of layers inside a CD

A sensor located next to the laser converts the reflected laser signal back into digital data. The
sensor records the changes from pits to lands (or vice versa) as a one and no change as a zero.
This turns the indentations on the disc into binary data. DVDs and Blu-ray discs work in a very
similar manner - the biggest difference is that the pits are much smaller, making it possible to
store much more data on a single disc. Physical damage to an optical disc can result in data
loss, since the pits may no longer be read correctly.

1.12.3 No More Optical Drives?

Most computer systems come with at least one optical drive. However, the popularity of optical
discs has been declining for some time. Instead of music CDs, people buy their digital music
online. Instead of buying movie DVDs, people stream movies to their computer or TV using
online services. A lot of software is now available through online download. Finally, if you need
to store large amounts of data, you probably end up using an external hard drive, which can
store much more data than any optical disc. Optical discs are not going away for now, but their
importance continues to decline as online services are taking over their roles. Some computer
systems no longer have an optical disc drive built-in. This is especially the case for very thin and
lightweight laptops where space and weight are at a premium.

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1.13 What Is a Hard Drive? - Types, Function & Definition

There are several different types of hard drives for storing software and data files: hard disk
drives, solid-state drives and external drives. Learn about how they work and how to select the
right drive for a particular computer system in this lesson.

1.13.1 Definition of a Hard Drive

You may have experienced this scenario: you turn on your computer and you get a black screen
with the message 'Imminent Hard Disk Failure.' Or, you've dropped your laptop on the floor,
your screen goes black, and your computer won't turn back on again. More often than not, the
problem is your hard drive. If your hard drive has crashed, you may have lost all your
documents, photos, music, etc. It can be one of the more frustrating experiences for any
computer user. Read on to learn how your hard drive works and some simple steps you can
take to avoid losing all your files if it crashes.
The hard drive of a computer is a device that stores all the software installed on a computer, as
well as all the data files created and used by this software. This includes any documents you
have created and downloaded, such as photos and music. The hard drive is a form of
permanent storage, rather than temporary memory such as random-access memory (RAM).
This means that when you turn off the computer, the files remain safely stored on the drive so
you can use them again the next time you start your computer.
There are two general types of hard drives: hard disk drives (HDD), which use one or more
rotating discs and rely on magnetic storage, and solid-state drives (SSD), which have no
moving mechanical parts, but use flash memory like the kind found in USB flash drives. If you
have a regular desktop computer, you most likely have a hard disk drive. Solid-state drives are
more typical for high-end, expensive laptops.
Every computer has at least one internal hard drive to store software and data. If you are using
a Windows operating system, this drive is typically called the C drive. If you are using a Mac, it
is just called the hard drive. If you need extra storage capacity, you can install additional internal
hard drives or connect separate external hard drives.

1.13.2 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Hard disk drives have been the dominant type of storage since the early days of computers. A
hard disk drive consists of a rigid disc made with non-magnetic material, which is coated with a
thin layer of magnetic material. Data is stored by magnetizing this thin film. The disk spins at a

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high speed and a magnetic head mounted on a moving arm is used to read and write data. A
typical hard disk drive operates at a speed of 7,200 rpm (rotations per minute), so you will often
see this number as part of the technical specifications of a computer. The spinning of the disk is
also the source of the humming noise of a computer, although most modern hard disk drives are
fairly quiet.
In general, hard disk drives are very robust and can be used for many years without problems.
However, hard disk drives can fail and one of the most common reasons is a head crash. This
occurs when the magnetic head scratches the magnetic film. This typically happens as a result
of a physical shock, like dropping a computer while it's on. When your hard drives experience
mechanical failure you can often hear a grinding or scratching sound. Such a crash results in
data loss since the magnetic film gets damaged. It is, therefore, always a good idea to have a
backup copy of the important files on your hard drive.

1.13.3 Solid-State Drives (SSD)

Solid-state drives are a relatively new alternative to more traditional hard disk drives. Solid-state
drives do not have moving parts, and data is stored electrically instead of magnetically. Most
solid-state drives use flash memory, which is also used in memory cards for digital cameras and
USB flash drives. Since there are no moving parts, solid-state drives are much less vulnerable
to damage from physical shock. The major downside of solid-state drives is that they are a lot
more expensive than hard disk drives, although prices are gradually coming down.
Despite the cost, solid-state drives are quickly becoming the preferred type of hard drive for
certain types of computers because they are very damage proof and smaller than regular hard
disk drives. For example, the MacBook Air now comes standard with a solid-state drive using
flash memory.

1.13.4 Capacity and Performance

The most important characteristic of a hard drive is how much data the hard drive can store,
referred to as the storage capacity. A typical internal hard drive for a new desktop computer or
laptop has a storage capacity of several hundred gigabytes (GB) up to one terabyte (TB). How
large is a terabyte? Consider that a typical song in an MP3 format is in the order of five to ten
megabytes (MB). You could store approximately 150,000 songs on a one TB drive.
Other characteristics are important, too, however. These include the access time, or the time it
takes to access a particular piece of data (measured in milliseconds, or ms), and the data
transfer rate, or how fast data can be read or written (measured in megabits per seconds, or

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Mbits/s). Solid-state drives perform better than hard disk drives with respect to these two
characteristics: they have shorter access times and higher data transfer rates.

1.13.5 External Hard Drives

In order to increase storage capacity for a particular computer, you can add additional internal
hard drives. This is not always practical so it is often easier to connect a separate external hard
drive. This is just like an internal hard drive, but is protected by a metal or plastic casing and has
an outlet to connect a computer. USB connections are common, but other types of interfaces
are also available. In addition to providing additional storage capacity, external drives are also
widely used to create a backup copy of the critical files of a computer's internal hard drive.

1.13.6 Data Back-Up

All hard drives will fail at some point. Typically, a hard drive will last for many years, and you
may decide to replace your entire computer before the hard drive breaks down or gets
damaged. However, imagine the scenario where you have a new laptop and you save all your
important files on its hard drive: data files for your job, assignments for school, family pictures,
tax returns, everything. One day you are working on your laptop and by accident you push it
from your desk on the floor. You hear some strange noises and when you try to re-start your
computer nothing happens.
If you had a serious hard drive failure, you may have lost all of your data. Data recovery may be
possible, but this is typically very expensive, so you need to create a backup copy of your
important files on a regular basis. A one TB external hard drive with a USB connection costs
around $100, so that is a small price to pay for some peace of mind.

1.14 What Is a Client-Server Network? - Definition,

Advantages & Disadvantages

A client-server network is a central computer, also known as a server, which hosts data and
other forms of resources. Clients such as laptops and desktop computers contact the server and
request to use data or share its other resources with it.

1.14.1 What Is a Client-Server Network?

A client-server network is designed for end-users, called clients, to access resources such as
files, songs, video collections, or some other service from a central computer called a server. A
server's sole purpose is to do what its name implies - serve its clients! You may have been

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using this configuration and not even have known it. Have you ever played Xbox Live or used
the PlayStation Network? Your Xbox One is the client, and when it logs into the network, it
contacts the Xbox Live servers to retrieve gaming resources like updates, video, and game
demos.

1.14.2 How Does It Work?

Imagine a customer sitting at a restaurant. He is waiting for the server to come by and take his
order. The same rules apply in a client-server network; the client, which can be a laptop,
desktop, a smartphone, or pretty much any computerized device, can make a request from the
server.
The client uses the network as a way to connect with and speak to the server. Just as the
customer speaks to his server, the client uses the network to send and receive communications
about its order, or request. The server will take the request and make sure that the request is
valid. If everything checks out okay, then the server will fetch the request and serve the client.
The server can make a request from the client as well. It may want to check up on the status of
the client, or ask if it has received any security patches, or if it still needs resources from the
server. If not, the server will close the connection in order to free up network traffic.
Can you imagine a server standing next to a customer who just stares at the menu without
ordering anything? After 15 minutes, it would be a good idea for the server to leave and check
on other customers. In both cases, the server moves on to other clients as needed.

1.14.3 What Are the Advantages of a Client-Server Network?

The biggest advantage to using this setup is central management of the server. Only one server
is used to host the resources that all the clients request and use. This is especially good for
server administrators, because they only have to be in one place and can solve all the problems
in one place, as well. Having to manually update several hundred servers would take much
more time. One centrally managed server is the key to ease of management, and it is cost
effective, too.
Another advantage of using one physical server is that the configuration is simple to set up and
takes less time to troubleshoot. For instance, if there were a site with multiple servers providing
redundant services, and it was having issues, it could take an extreme amount of work to
effectively troubleshoot why services are being hindered. In a single server role, all
troubleshooting takes place at one physical server, so it takes much less time.

1.14.3 What are the Disadvantages of a Client-Server Network?

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The major drawback to the client-server model is that since all the resources are located on one
server, this creates a single point of failure (SPF). An SPF means that if anything should
happen to the server - such as a fried computer chip, a crashed hard drive that is not
recoverable, or a major power outage that destroys the motherboard - then all the resources
that were once hosted on that server will no longer be available.
For some businesses and organizations, this is not ideal. What if the online retail giant Amazon
had a server crash, with all of their services being hosted on that one server? They would most
likely lose millions of dollars in revenue until that server came back up or was replaced. Much
information would need to be recovered.
Another disadvantage is that if a hacker compromises the server, he basically has the 'keys to
the kingdom' because all the resources are located on it. If he is able to own the server, he has
the ability to do anything he wants, such as steal information and disrupt services.

1.15 System Bus in Computers: Definition & Concept

A computer bus transfers data between components of a computer system. In this lesson, we'll
talk about how a system bus works, what it's useful for, and what aspects of it make for a good
overall performance of a computer.

1.15.1 Computer System & System Bus Definitions

Before we describe what a computer system bus is, let's describe what a computer system is. In
very simple terms, a computer system is made up of three things:
1. First, there is the CPU (or central processing unit). It's like a railway's grand central
station where decisions are made, and just about everything that wants to go anywhere
must get routed through it at some point.
2. Second, computers have lots of destinations for the data to go (and stay) so it can be
used later, which we call its addressable memory. These are kind of like houses with
physical addresses, where the pieces of data live when they're not being processed by
the CPU.
3. Third, there are devices that do stuff with data instead of just storing it (called input and
output devices) so we can see or hear what's going on, or interact with the data in
some way.
Okay, now that we have a basic idea of a computer system, here's what a system bus is.
A system bus is kind of like all the train tracks that connect the CPU (the grand central station)

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with the computer memory (the houses of addressable data) and with the neat devices that let
us interact (like the mouse, keyboard, screen, and audio system).
In early computer systems, all the data traveled across actual cables, which got pretty messy.
Large bundles of wires were organized using bus bars, which is where the term 'bus' comes
from. Nowadays, most of those wires are typically gold-plated traces (or tiny flat wires) on the
computer's motherboard , a large flat surface that all the electronic stuff gets mounted to. The
most critical connection of any computer system is the system bus.
Cables are still used in present-day computer systems, in particular to connect external devices.
The most common type of connection is a Universal Serial Bus (or USB), which you can
probably recognize. Many peripheral devices, such as printers and scanners, use a USB
connection.

1.15.2 How the System Bus Works

The system bus is a little bit more complicated than a single train track, but not too much. Think
of it as three rails per track, kind of like mass transit trains use. That's because each track has to
carry three different things: data, address, and control.
1. The data are the actual digital pieces of information that need to get somewhere or do
something.
2. The address information describes where the data is located and where it needs to go
during a particular operation.
3. The control part is like the instructions because data doesn't know what to do with itself
(think 'Lego Movie'), so this manages the flow of address and data information. That
includes which direction for the transfer of information and exactly how data needs to be
routed through the computer system.
Because of these three different types of information, the system bus actually consists of three
buses.

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Think of the system bus like an internal mass transportation system inside your computer,
bussing data from place to place.
Here's an example. Say you want to listen to a song which is on your disk drive. That song is
stored as data on that device. Somehow, that data has to get to a device in your computer that
knows how to turn it into sound and then play that on your speakers. So, we specify the address
of the MP3 file on the disk and the address of the sound card using the address bus. We also
use the control bus to tell the song on the disk how to talk to the sound card. Now, all the traffic
can get underway on the data bus, allowing the song to play until it's over. All of this is managed
by the grand central station in the computer (the brains or CPU), but the system bus makes the
actual transfers happen.
We should explain a few more things to really get an idea of what a system bus is like. One
thing about it is the bus width. That's the number of bits that a computer bus can transfer
simultaneously. Another thing is the bus speed, which keeps the computer operations running
smoothly and quickly. A very fast system bus is needed so that it doesn't slow down the
computer's operations. In order to improve speed, several alternatives have been developed to
the single system bus design shown earlier.
Another big thing is that modern CPUs often have some memory right on the CPU chip itself,
and that's called cache memory. This memory is really fast to access. When we talk about the
bus for this memory, we call it the internal or back-side bus to distinguish it from the main bus,
which is often called the 'front-side bus,' or FSB. Technically speaking, the front-side bus is only
one part of the system bus, but the terms are often used interchangeably.
The speed of the front-side bus is an important measure of the performance of a computer. A
very fast CPU and lots of main memory doesn't result in a very fast computer unless the front-

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side bus is also very fast. So, when buying a computer, you will often see the FSB speed
reported as part of the technical specifications. This speed is reported in megahertz (MHz). A
present-day CPU typically has a speed of several hundred MHz, which is plenty to keep your
computer running smoothly.

1.16 Touchscreen Technology: Definition & Concept

Touchscreen technology makes it possible to interact with a computer system using direct touch
of the electronic display instead of using a traditional keyboard and mouse. Learn more about
touchscreen technology in this lesson.

1.16.1 What Is Touchscreen Technology?

Traditional input devices for computer systems include keyboards and mice. In recent years,
touchscreen technology has become widely used as a way to interact with computer systems,
particular for mobile devices.
A touchscreen is an electronic visual display that a user can control by touching the screen
with one or more fingers. A touchscreen allows for a much more direct interaction with what is
displayed compared to a device like a mouse. Touchscreens have become very common on
tablet computers, smart phones and other mobile devices. Increasingly, regular laptop and
desktop computers use touchscreen displays so users can use both touch as well as more
traditional ways of input.

1.16.2 The Technology Behind It

The idea of using a touchscreen goes back to the early days of computing in the 1960s. Most
systems remained very experimental until the 1990s, when a number of commercial systems
became successful.
The first major technology that became successful is resistive touchscreen technology. This
uses a panel that consists of several layers, including two thin, electrically charged layers
separated by a thin space. By pressing on the panel, these two layers touch and the location of
the connection is recorded as the input. Resistive touchscreens are relatively cheap and very
resistant to liquids. The major downsides are that you need to actually press down with a certain
amount of pressure and they have relatively poor contrast. As a result, resistive touchscreens
did not become widely used for computer systems but instead were developed as part as other
electronic systems. For example, the display screens used in restaurants to enter orders and
control panels in factories are often made of resistive touchscreens.

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The second major technology used in touchscreens is capacitive sensing. A capacitive

touchscreen uses a layer of insulating material, such as glass, coated with a transparent
conductor. The human body is also an electrical conductor, so touching the screen with your
finger results in a change in the electrostatic field of the screen. A number of different
approaches can be used to record the location of the touch. One of the most common ways is to
use a fine grid of capacitors, which record the change in the electrostatic field. These capacitors
are organized by rows and columns, and they function independently of each other. This makes
it possible to record multiple touches at the same time, known as multi-touch technology.

1.16.3 Multi-Touch Gestures

At a basic level, touchscreen technology works similar to a computer mouse. Instead of moving
your pointer with a mouse and then clicking on a location, you press on the location with your
finger. However, multi-touch technology makes it possible to interact with the computer display
in many different ways. Tasks like scrolling up and down a webpage, selecting text and drag-
and-drop have become quite different using touchscreen technology. This figure shows a
number of the most common single and multi-touch gestures.

Common single and multi-touch gestures

For a number of these gestures, there is no equivalent when using a mouse. For example, the
pinch close and pinch open gestures are used to reduce or enlarge something on the screen,
respectively. Using a mouse or keyboard, this would typically require a special function in the
software. Other gestures, for which there is an equivalent, have become much more intuitive,
such as scrolling. Many people who are relatively new to computers, especially kids, find using
a touchscreen much more intuitive than using traditional inputs.
While touchscreens are changing the way users interact with computer systems, keyboards
have not completely gone away. Most touchscreen devices have a built-in digital keyboard that

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works just like a regular keyboard. It may take a little getting used to, but many users are able to
type pretty quickly after a bit of practice.

1.16.4 Adoption of the Technology

The adoption of touchscreen technology has drastically changed the computer industry. Sales
of mobile computing devices, such as tablet computers and smartphones, have exceeded the
sales of the more traditional desktop and laptop computers. The popularity of touchscreen
devices has substantial consequences for the software as well. For example, the operating
system of a touchscreen device is quite different than for a regular computer, and so is most of
the software.
The popularity of mobile touchscreen devices has also changed the nature of computer
networks. Many computer users now expect to be able to move between their smartphone,
tablet computer and regular computer and have access to some of the same information. This
means much of a user's information is stored in the cloud, instead of on the device itself.

1.17 What is a Graphical User Interface (GUI)? - Definition,

Components & Examples

If you use a computer or smart phone, you have used a GUI. In this lesson we will find out what
a GUI is, quickly trace its history, and cover its key components. We'll also take a look at some
current examples.

1.17.1 What Is a GUI?

What's a GUI? If you're reading this, chances are you're looking at one! GUI stands for graphical
user interface. A GUI, which some folks pronounce as 'gooey', is exactly what it sounds like... a
graphical way to do stuff. Simply put, a graphical user interface is a way to communicate what
you want to a computer application (or computer operating system) using graphical symbols
rather than typing the instructions in. GUIs let you work with picture-like items (icons and arrows
for example) to tell the computer what you want from it. And, rather than a keyboard (which can
leave you guessing what to type next), you get to scoot around a blocky thing on your desk
called a mouse, which makes the arrows and icons scoot around on the screen. Much easier!
You may not have even heard of the opposite of a GUI, which is a command-line interface or
CLI. Yep, years ago us geezers used to hunch over keyboards and laboriously type in cryptic,
difficult-to-memorize phrases just to do stuff. We also hoped the computer wouldn't reply with
something obtuse like 'SYNTAX ERROR', 'INVALID PIP FORMAT' or some other unhelpful

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reply. Command-line interfaces still exist today. In fact, without them, many important computer
tasks would be downright difficult. However, for most daily needs and casual users, the GUI is a
nice thing to have.

1.17.2 History of the GUI

Years ago, before the Apple Macintosh operating system or the Windows operating system, the
only way to tell a computer what you wanted was to type text commands into the command-line
interface. Believe me, it was more like trying to solve a crossword puzzle with no squares - or
hints! Thick user manuals with long lists of parameters and command-line switches (don't ask!)
were your best friend. On the screen - if you even had one - you saw an empty black screen
with a flashing block of phosphor. That was it. If you had a keyboard and not just punchcards,
you memorized long commands and hoped you didn't type them in wrong.
Then some fellas at Xerox in Palo Alto around 1981, thought up a neat way to get around all
that memorizing and typing, using graphic icons and arrows. Smart folks! Eventually this trickled
down from big computers (which had been running UNIX, another CLI system). Personal
computers really needed an easy interface for casual users. But at the time, even personal
computers looked like UNIX. Most old PCs ran an operating system called CP/M, a simple
command-line interface that sort of evolved into the amazing graphic computer desktops you
see today.
Even today you can see its legacy. For example, there are still word processing shortcuts in
modern programs from the infamous WordStar for CP/M, which had the strangest keyboard
combinations you will ever see. The rest, as they say, is history.

1.17.3 GUI Components

The main pieces of a GUI are:

• A graphic pointer of some kind
• A set of icons symbolizing various things
• Rectangular frames that hold text (called windows and dialogs)
• Drop-down menus that are like signposts leading to things you want to do
• Scroll bars that allow you to scoot content around (so you can see things that won't fit
otherwise)
• An input device or two (the mouse is the current fav, but there are many others, like
joysticks, paddle controllers, keyboards, and an assortment of bizarre wannabes)
The main idea is to present self-explanatory (or at least guessable!) picture-like doodads, so
that simply moving them around and clicking will result in user joy. Of course, text characters

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will probably always be involved at some point (for example, doing a web search or writing that
blog article would be super hard using just icons!).
Unless you've been living in the jungle for the last 30 years like our primate friends, you've
probably heard of Microsoft Windows and Apple Mac OS X, both of which are operating
systems that come with their own GUIs. There are several others, too, although not so famous.
Some other GUIs currently used include Chrome OS, GNOME, and KDE, which are GUIs for
Linux (an operating system that is a lot like UNIX), and Android (which is for mobile devices like
cell phones).

1.18 What is a Mainframe System?

A mainframe computer is a very large computer capable of handling and processing very large
amounts of data quickly. They are used by large institutions, such as government agencies and
large corporations.

1.18.1 Definition

The term mainframe computer is used to distinguish very large computers used by institutions
to serve multiple users from personal computers used by individuals. Mainframe computers are
capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data very quickly - much more data
than a typical individual needs to work with on his or her own computer.

1.18.2 Development of Mainframes

Mainframe computers were developed in the 1950s, have continued to evolve and are still in
use today. Mainframe computers are designed to handle very high volumes of input and output
and are optimized for computational speed. The speed of mainframes is expressed in million
instructions per second (or MIPS). Before the development of powerful personal computers,
many agencies relied heavily on mainframes for most of their computing needs. For example,
this photograph shows one of the computer rooms at NASA back in 1962.
Mainframes acquired their name because of their size, typically as large as a six-foot-tall closet.
They also required specialized heating, ventilation and cooling, as well as a dedicated power
supply. In practice, this meant a separate room had to be dedicated to house the mainframe
computer systems. One of the characteristics of early mainframes is that they did not have the
typical interactive interface we are used to with personal computers. Early mainframes accepted
all kinds of different inputs, and later versions typically had a dedicated terminal, similar to a
modern display monitor with a keyboard.

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1.18.3 Mainframe Capabilities

Mainframe systems can be used by a large number of users. This means that, in a large
organization, individual employees can sit at their desk using a personal computer, but they can
send requests to the mainframe computer for processing large amounts of data. A typical
mainframe system can support hundreds of users at the same time. As for the actual
hardware components inside a mainframe computer, they are similar in type to what personal
computers use: motherboard, central processing unit and memory. The individual components
are just a lot more powerful and a lot more expensive.

1.18.4 Present-Day Use of Mainframes

With the technological advances in personal computers, the need for mainframe computing has
substantially reduced over the years. The computing power of a typical desktop computer today
is greater than that of a mainframe system back in the 1980s. However, mainframe systems
continue to be widely used for reliable transaction processing.
Consider all the transactions that a bank with 1,000 branches across the country needs to
process every day. A single desktop computer wouldn't be able to handle this volume of
transactions, and it also would not be very secure. So, somewhere in a room with no windows
and restricted access sits a mainframe computer crunching all these transactions while creating
multiple back-ups along the way for security purposes.
Now, think of different types of industries and their services: airline reservations, electronic
commerce, inventory control, shipping, etc. They all need reliable and fast processing of
transactions. Not all transaction processing needs to be conducted on mainframes, but it
remains one of the market segments in which mainframe computing is very important.
The current mainframe market is dominated by IBM. This company pioneered the early
mainframes back in the 1950s and currently holds more than 90% of market share of the
mainframe market. What does a modern mainframe look like? This photograph shows a recent
model IBM mainframe. The processing power of this type of system is many times that of a
regular personal computer. It also costs a lot more; a high-end unit can easily cost $100,000 or
more. The photograph also does not give you a good feeling for size. The model shown here is
about 80 inches high and weighs more than 3,000 pounds.

1.18.5 Supercomputers and Servers

You may have heard of the term supercomputer before. A supercomputer is a computer
designed for a very specific task, typically involving complex scientific calculations. It operates at

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the frontline of current processing capacity and is typically custom built by a specific research
lab. A mainframe computer, on the other hand, is a much more standard form of computer
designed to process a very large number of transactions securely. So, a mainframe is widely
used for day-to-day processing of data in large organizations, but it is not considered a
supercomputer.
Another related term is server. A server refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a
particular service, such as storing a database or hosting a website. The term 'server' is related
to how a computer is being used and is not limited to a single type of hardware system. Many
smaller servers are actually slightly modified personal computers; however, a mainframe can be
used as a very large server. So, the term 'mainframe' is related to the size of the computer (both
in terms of physical size and processing power). Many large servers do consist of mainframe
computers, but mainframes are used for many other purposes as well.

1.19 What Is a Modem? - Definition & Explanation

Continuous developments in computer technology allow us to stay connected to the world using
a modem. A modem is a device that allows the user to send and receive data. This lesson will
give you a basic understanding of a modem.

1.19.1 What Is a Modem?

We have all wondered how it is possible to send an email from one computer to another in
seconds. We marvel at how our computer lets us video chat from our bedroom with a friend in
another house on the other side of the world. The way we can access the internet and view
endless possibilities of information is amazing. Our modem is the gateway to our exploration of
the internet. It makes telecommunications possible.
The name modem means modulator demodulator. A modem connects our computer to a
standard phone line or to our cable, which allows us to send data or receive data. A modem is a
conversion device that converts signals from one device into signals another device can read.
For example, a modem may covert the digital data of a computer into an analog signal that can
be read and carried by a telephone line. The modulator part of the modem converts digital
signals to analog signals, and the demodulator part converts analog signals to digital signals.

1.19.2 Data Representation

Data can be images, text, numbers, sound, or video. In order for our computer to interpret what
we put into it, the computer must decipher the data first. To the computer, data is represented

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by 0s and 1s. Either the signal is a 1 for 'On' or a 0 for 'Off.' A 0 or 1 is called a bit or binary
digit. Eight bits make a byte. The computer uses ASCII code to represent all character
data. ASCII stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
The computer sees the following when we press a key on our keyboard:

Data ASCII Code Binary Number

A 65 01000001

9 57 00111001

? 129 10000001

1.19.3 Rapid Communication

The simplest way to explain how the modem works is by using an example. Jasmine lives in
Mississippi, and her sister Olivia lives in Texas. Olivia is planning a dessert party and hoped she
could include Grandma's recipe for lemon meringue pie. Unfortunately, they were not able to
find it when Olivia visited Jasmine. The night before the party, Jasmine found Grandma's recipe
in an old box in the back of her closet. Olivia was not at home, so Jasmine could not give her
the recipe over the phone. So, she emailed it to her.
Jasmine typed the recipe and sent it to Olivia's email address. Jasmine's computer reads the
email as digital data (0s and 1s). Then, it passes the email through her dial up or broadband
modem. The modem changes the digital signal into an analog signal that can cross over
telephone lines. Once the analog signal makes its way across the lines to Olivia, her modem
then changes the analog signal back into a digital signal that her computer can read. She then
opens the email to find Grandma's recipe exactly as she remembered.

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