Research Methods in Geosciences (Geol 4161)

Aspiron Hangibayna (PhD candidate)

Arba Minch University

Collage of Natural & Computational Sciences
Department of Geology

Chapter – Four
Jan, 2024 1
 4| Bibliography

Topic Outlines

o Bibliographic archives and searching for bibliography

o Catalogues
o Indexes and Indexing, thesaurus, using Scopus
o Writing annotated bibliography

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 Having completed this chapter, you should be able to:

Chapter Understand bibliographic archive

Objectives Have clear concept on catalogue
understand what is index and indexing
Know the difference of reference and bibliography

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 4.1| Bibliographic Archives and Searching for Bibliography

Overview

Archives usually consist of unique items, and unlike Libraries, cannot

take advantage of standardized organization.
Archives preserve records of enduring value: these may be
organizational or personal records. They are not necessarily old, and
may come in different formats.
Unlike libraries, archival materials are arranged and described in
groups.
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 4.1| Bibliographic Archives and Searching for Bibliography

Defining Records and Archives

RECORDS- all books, papers, maps, photos or other documentary

materials regardless of format, made or received by any public or
private institution in pursuance of its obligations or in connection with
the transaction of its proper business, and preserved by that institution
as evidence of its functions, operations or other activities, or because of
the informational value contained therein.
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 4.1| Bibliographic Archives and Searching for Bibliography

Defining Records and Archives

ARCHIVES- those records of any public or private

institutions which are adjudged worthy of preservation
for reference and research purposes and which have
been deposited or have been selected for deposit in an
archival institution.
In simple word, a file/media in which data is preserved.

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 4.1.1| Development of Archival Organization

Archival materials have been organized for

centuries.
A case file system was established in Rome
around AD 1200.
The registry system was developed in the 15th
century in Europe.
The concept of “provenance” (or “respect des
fonds”) emerged in France in 1840. 7
 4.1.1| Development of Archival Organization

The principle of “original order” (or “respect pour

I’ordre primitif”) was established by the Prussians in
1880s.
The first archival catalogs were lists and inventories.
Until the mid-30s, US practice was to catalog at the
item level.
A special MARC format for archival and manuscript
collections was developed.
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 4.2| Catalogues
Introduction
The library catalogue has been an indispensible and effective tool to make the library resources
available to its users.
The modern librarians have attached much importance to the convenience of readers for making the
use of the present action of the library catalogue has greatly influenced its shape which has led to the
adoption of various forms.
There are two forms of catalogue:
1. 1. Outer Forms or the Physical Form- which relates to the external shape, size, and appearance
of catalogue installed for the use of the readers.
2. 2. Inner Forms: -which refers to various varieties of construction and arrangement of catalogue.

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 Consideration in the choice of physical form

In choosing the physical form of catalogue, the following requirements

should be kept in mind.

• To keep it up to date • Economical to produce and maintain

• To bring together entries • Compact in size
• Accessible • Reproduction
• Portability • Fast speed of search.
• Easy to handle and consult

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 1. Outer forms

As the name suggests it resembles to a book or a register in appearance.

• The entries are printed on separate sheets as per a desired arrangement and the sheets
are then bound together to form a book or register.
• It is easy to prepare, however, lacks flexibility. Entries for newly coming books cannot
be accommodated at proper places, hence, requires frequent revisions.
• As such it is not economical to keep it up-to-date. Moreover, it cannot be used by
more than one user simultaneously; only a single user can use it at one time.
• It has the advantage of portability. Its use is not subject to the availability of
electricity. It is free from any machinery fault.

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 1. Outer forms … cont’d

Book Form: As the name suggests it resembles to a book or a register

in appearance.
Sheaf Form: This form consists of separate sheets preferably of
manila paper on which a couple of entries are printed.
Card Form: The non-flexibility problem faced by the previous
physical forms of the catalogue was gravely felt.
Computerized Form of Catalogues/ OPAC: The problems faced by the
previous forms of catalogue have been addressed to a great extant
by the computers. 13
 Sheaf Form

Book
Form

Card Form OPAC

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 2. Inner forms

• By simplest definition catalogue is a list of Books and other material in a

library or collection.
• The entries in the list being arranged in same systematic order.
• This order, or the mode of arrangement of entries determines the “ inner
form” catalogue.
• Main inner forms are: 1. Author Catalogue
2. Title catalogue
3. Dictionary Catalogue
4. Classified catalogue 15
 2. Inner forms … contn’d

1. Author Catalogue:

• Generally accepted that author catalogue is supreme in value and

important, because it is the only catalogue from which a reader can be
perfectly certain of ascertaining whether a library has a particular book,
• Assuming that he has the author's name correctly, for the author name is
the one indisputable thing about a book.

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 2. Inner forms … contn’d

2. Title Catalogue:
• The catalogue in which titles are arranged alphabetically
• And the totally documents available in the library are arranged
title wise.
3. Dictionary Catalogue:
• It appeals particularly to people who want very specific information, or
who are not pursuing a detailed investigation of a wide branch of
Knowledge.
Ex: The gardener who wants books about roses only. 17
 2. Inner forms… contn’d

4. Classified Catalogue:
• Here entries are made under class symbols or class numbers.
• One scheme is chosen i.e. CC, DDC,UDC
• Subject arranged accordingly
CC-A-Z
DDC 000-999
330 Economics
331 Labour and Lobour problem

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 4.3| Indexes and Indexing, Thesaurus, using Scopus

Terminologies

Indexing- the process of providing in-depth access to information

contained within a document or knowledge record.
Index- a guide to the contents of a document or collection of documents
with the same format arranged in a searchable order such as alphabetical,
classified, chronological or numerical.
Index entry- single record in an index that may consist of four parts:
main heading, subheading, locator and/or cross reference(s).
Descriptor- a term designed for use by the thesaurus to represent the
aboutness of a topic in a document.
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 Terminologies … contn’d

Document- any item that contains information, either in print or

non-print format, including digital forms.

Identifier- proper name of person, object, institution/organization,

process, etc.

Indexing language- any vocabulary, controlled or uncontrolled, used for

indexing along with the rules of usage.

Indexing system- a set of prescribed procedures (manual or machine-

operated) intended for organizing the contents of a document or knowledge
records for purposes of retrieval and dissemination.
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 Terminologies … contn’d

Keyword- raw word coming from the documents that are regarded as
indexable term.

Qualifier- a term or phrase added to a heading to distinguish among

homographs or clarify meaning.

Translation- the process of converting concepts derived from the document

into a particular set of index terms usually derived from a controlled
vocabulary.

Vocabulary control- the process of organizing a list of terms for use in

indexing, along with the rules of usage.
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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing

What is index and Indexing?

• Index- a list (as of bibliographical information or citations to a body of

literature) arranged usually in alphabetical order of some specified datum
(such as author, subject, or keyword).

• Indexing- the process of providing in-depth access to information

contained within a document or knowledge record.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d
Purposes and Uses of Indexing?

• Saves time and effort in finding information

• Identify potentially relevant information in the document or collection being
indexed.
• Analyze concepts treated in a document to produce appropriate index heading
based on the indexing language assigned.
• Indicate relationships among terms.
• Group together related topics.
• Direct the users/patrons seeking information under terms not chosen as index
headings to headings that have been chosen.
• Suggest related topics
• Tool for current awareness services.
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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Common Indexing Attributes?

i. B-tree-indexing and Bitmap indexing

ii. Ascending and Descending
iii. Column and Functional
iv. Single-Column and Concatenated
v. Non-Partitioned and Partitioned

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Types of Indexes/Indices

A. Single Level Indexing

i. Primary indexing
ii. Secondary indexing
iii. Cluster indexing
B. Ordered Indexing
i. Dense indexing
ii. Sparse indexing
C. Multi-Level Indexing

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Single Level Indexing

i. Primary indexing: It is defined on ordered data. As the index is
comprised of primary keys, they are unique, not null, and possess one to
one relationship with the data blocks.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Single Level Indexing

ii. Secondary indexing/non-clustered: It is a two-level indexing technique
used to reduce the mapping size of the primary index. The secondary
index points to a certain location where the data is to be found but the
actual data is not sorted like in the primary indexing.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Single Level Indexing

iii. Cluster indexing: It is defined on
ordered data. The important thing to
note here is that the index table of
clustered indexing is created using
non-key values which may or may not
be unique.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Ordered Indexing
i. Dense indexing: the index table contains records for every search key
value of the database. This makes searching faster but requires
a lot more space.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d
Ordered Indexing
ii. Sparse indexing: consumes lesser space than dense indexing, but it is a
bit slower as well. We do not include a search key for every record
despite that we store a Search key that points to a block.

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 4.3.1| Index and Indexing … contn’d

Multi-Level Indexing
• the main data block into smaller blocks.

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 4.3.2| Thesaurus

• A thesaurus is a book that lists words or phrases that mean the same thing
or almost the same thing–a book of synonyms.

• is a kind of controlled vocabulary.

• Some thesauruses list words in alphabetical order, just like a dictionary

(but that it does not provide word definitions);

• however, many don't.

• They have an index at the front, with instructions of how to use the index
to find the word you want. 32
 4.3.3| Scopus

• is a very large, multidisciplinary database.

• which is made up of datasets from other databases (such as MEDLINE

and Embase) and from publishers.

• does not have its own controlled vocabulary.

• Scopus records, are subject headings from the thesaurus of the dataset
in which the reference originated.
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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography

• References comprise the items that are referred to in the text so that the reader
can access them if necessary.
• Bibliography comprises a list of the sources that have influenced your thoughts
about the topic.

Why we need referencing?

(a) shows the range of ideas and approaches that you have found and
thought about.
(b) gives your acknowledgement of where these ideas came from.
(c) shows where your reader can locate the sources you have used.
(d) avoids plagiarism. Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas and/or
the way they express their ideas, as if they are your own. Plagiarism can be
unintentional and appropriate referencing helps writers to avoid this.
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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography … contn’d

In-text reference

Every time you use someone else’s ideas or information an in-text reference
must be included.

(i) paraphrase (express someone else’s idea in your own words)

(ii) summary (express someone else’s idea concisely in your own words)

(iii) quote (express someone else’s idea in their exact words)

(iv) copy (reproduce a diagram, table or any other graphic).

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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography … contn’d

Referencing system
The two most common types of referencing systems used are;
• Author-date systems, such as;
• the Harvard system,
• American Psychological Association (APA) and
• Modern Language Association
• Numeric systems, such as;
oChicago or Turabian,
oVancouver and Footnote.

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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography … contn’d

Why we do bibliography?
Some reasons:
• To acknowledge and give credit to sources of words, ideas, diagrams,
illustrations, and quotations borrowed, or any materials summarized or
paraphrased.
• To show that you are respectfully borrowing other people’s ideas, not
stealing them, i.e. to prove that you are not plagiarizing.
• To offer additional information to your readers who may wish to further
pursue your topic.
• To give readers an opportunity to check out your sources for accuracy. An
honest bibliography inspires reader confidence in your writing.
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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography … contn’d

Authenticity of reference article

Before we actually decide or adopt some information or data we must check
the authenticity of data or information.

(i) Scholarly or Professional Journals: contain articles by scholars and

experts in a specific field who wish to share their research with other
professionals.
(ii) Popular Magazines: contain current events, news, and general interest
articles written by journalists for the general public.
(iii) Trade Publications: fall somewhere in between scholarly and popular
periodicals.
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 4.4| Reference and Bibliography … contn’d

Evaluate internet information

• How much authentic data or information we may get from internet resource.
• Important clues to help you determine whether or not to trust the information
on a website:
(i) Authority - Who is the author?
(ii) Accuracy - How accurate is the information on the website?
(iii) Objectivity - What is the purpose of the page?

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