Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management

Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

Building Cracks

Mechanism of Cracking
⚫ the physical processes causing change in size and movement
⚫ when the movement is restrained, stress will be developed results in cracking
⚫ stress generated in the material or element which is beyond its tolerance → cracks
exceed max. yield point of material

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

Types and Causes of Building Cracks

1. Plastic Concrete Cracks
➢ plastic concrete refers the concrete which has just been poured and not yet hardened, say 1 – 8
hours after placing
➢ 2 major types: plastic shrinkage cracks and plastic settlement cracks
➢ both types are affected by the phenomenon of ‘bleeding’ - water rises to the top of concrete
when heavier solid particles (particularly aggregates) migrate downgrades due to gravity
➢ extent of bleeding can be reduced by:
✓ air entrainment (by adding air entrainment admixture)
✓ reduce rate of water evapouration
✓ reduce water content
✓ concrete with retarders usually bleed more fill voids/space between particles
reduce permeability
✓ add ‘ultra-fine’ contents like PFA reduce water rise

1.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

❖ Easily found on exposed surfaces of
freshly placed concrete with large
exposed surface areas (e.g. slab)
❖ Formed when the moisture loss is faster
than it is replaced by the bleed water
❖ Faster rate of losing moisture under
conditions of strong wind, low humidity,
high temperature, direct sun exposure
❖ Usually occurs within a few hours after
placing concrete, before curing starts
❖ Surface concrete shrinks after moisture
evapourates and thus developing
excessive tensile stresses on the concrete
surface resulting in surface cracks

❖ Shallow cracks , usually short and fairly straight

❖ Cracks wider at the surface

surface tension force stability of surface tension

be affected

aggregates displace water to

the top of concrete

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

❖ Precautions: 1. retarder
- maintain low concrete temperature 2. PFA(fly ash) replace cement
- provide wind barriers or sunshades to slow down hydration process
- avoid concreting during mid-day of summer
- early curing steam curing provides additional moisture> reduce evaporation rate
❖ Repair: brushing cement grout into the cracks as soon as the concrete has hardened

1.2 Plastic Settlement Cracks aggregate movement is restrained

❖ Coarse and fine aggregates have a tendency to consolidate after vibration and
finishing
❖ Formed directly over formwork tie bolts or reinforcement which are fixed rigidly and
restrain the movement
❖ Voids and/or cracks developed adjacent to the tie bolts or steel reinforcement
❖ Cracks increase with increasing bar size, increasing slump, decreasing concrete cover,
insufficient compaction or using leaking formwork (water loss)
❖ Cracks usually penetrate at least to the reinforcement, thus promotes corrosion of
steel >higher risk of corrosion
❖ Precautions and remedies:
⚫ reduces bleeding of cement paste – lower concrete slump
⚫ thicker concrete cover
⚫ smaller bar diameter before the initial set of concrete
⚫ re-vibrate the concrete after the cracks have formed (the timing is the latest time
that a vibrating poker can be inserted into the concrete and removed without
leaving a significant trace; re-vibration needs to extend to a depth below the top
layer of reinforcement)

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

2. Hardened Concrete Cracks

2.1 Movement
2.1.1 Thermal Movement
❖ due to ambient temperature change:
❖ all materials expands when their temperature increases
❖ extent of expansion depends on
• coefficient of linear thermal expansion;
• size of component; and
• temperature change
❖ an 3m length aluminium alloy mullion in curtain walling subjected to a temperature
fluctuation of 60oC (5oC – 65oC )will have a movement of 4.3mm (24 x 10-6 x
3,000mm x 60)
❖ note that the temperature fluctuation varies with the exposure of the element to the
sun, e.g. colour of element, orientation, shading, insulation, etc.
❖ if the mullion is fixed rigidly at its lower end, its top end must allows for such
movement
❖ thermal movement is reversible, i.e. shrink when temperature decreases

shading area & open area

temperature difference
>differential volume changes
>thermal stress
exceed the load-bearing capacity
>cracks produced

1. temperature rise + movement constraint

2. stress generated
3. low tensile strength of newly-hardened
susceptible to cracks
Early-age Thermal Stresses Cracks
❖ rise in concrete temperature during the cement hydration process, particularly in large
volume concrete pours or in mass concrete e.g. pile cap, transfer plate, etc.
❖ higher temperature in the interior than the exterior
❖ temperature differences result in differential volume changes and tensile stress
❖ cause contraction to the ‘green’ newly-hardened concrete of low tensile strength
when cooled to ambient temperature restraint> tension develops, crack form
❖ cracks are seldom significant structurally
❖ prevention and reduction of thermally-induced cracking by reducing the maximum
internal temperature

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> channel for moisture, Co2, chloride etc

corrosion>durability decreased
Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

• avoid single pour of large volume of concrete of large section (divide it into
several pours and jointing by construction joints)
• low initial temperature of materials
• admixture (retarder) to slow down the hydration process
• avoid concreting during mid-day in summer rapid temperature changes
• PFA or GGBS concrete will reduce the rate of hydration and thus the heat
formation
• water pipes concealed inside the concrete mass and served with running water for
cooling
cooling tubes inside the concrete mass
2.1.2 Moisture Movement
❖ moisture movement is usually reversible, i.e. absorb moisture and expand whilst
shrink when moisture is lost ambient temp. change
❖ but irreversible moisture movement exists
❖ all irreversible size changes are negative, i.e. irreversible shrinkage
❖ exception - clay products which will experience irreversible expansion!
❖ irreversible shrinkage of concrete/mortar increases with the increase in cement
content e.g. the shrinkage of 1:3 mortar is 3 times of that of 1:6 mortar
higher W/C ratio > higher shrinkage

frame shrinks
compress brick wall>deform

Long Term Drying Shrinkage Crack of Concrete

❖ reduction of concrete volume caused by chemical and physical loss of water during
concrete shrinks
the hardening process and subsequent exposure to unsaturated air curing becomes important !!!
❖ tensile stresses developed causing the cracks
❖ extent of drying shrinkage influenced by the
• amount of aggregate – greater amount of aggregate will reduce the shrinkage
• water content
❖ drying shrinkage can be reduced by strength of agg. make concrete
higher dimensional stability
• using maximum practical amount of aggregate in face of deformation change
• use largest possible aggregate size >concrete volume stable
• minimizing water content /cement content
less space bet cement particles
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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

• adequate curing, particularly on large flat areas like slab

• properly spaced movement joints

Shrinkage of Cementitious Materials

no aggregate support, prone to shrinkage
➢ cracks on plastering are commonly
found at joints between dissimilar
materials or panels – e.g. joints
between precast concrete panels,
between concrete wall and block wall,
between plastering and door or
window frames, etc.
➢ plaster at vertical joint will also crack
easily to resist shrinkage cracks
➢ cracks can be eliminated by adding
metal lath (or metal bead) to the wall
before plastering (Photo shows metal
lath is fixed between the joint of
concrete block and concrete wall)

2.1.3 Creep
❖ the increase in strain (e.g. shortening in columns) under a sustained constant stress,
after taking into account other time-dependent deformations not associated with stress
❖ materials will deform gradually
❖ deformation extent depends on types of materials, stress applied and age of materials
❖ ‘young’ concrete creeps more than old one
❖ creep movement will reach a limiting magnitude but will occur again if the loading is
increased

buckling

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

2.1.4 Foundation Movements

❖ reasons for foundation movements:
o soil movement – change in water table, vibration, consolidation of soil
particularly in reclaimed land, landslide, earthquake, etc.
o failure of foundation e.g. overloading
o improper foundation design
❖ foundation movement will either cause (1) cracks on the building structure or (2)
cracks at connection between the building and the pavement/road
❖ uneven or differential settlement will cause both types of cracks
❖ even settlement will usually result in the 2nd type of crack
❖ remedies: stabilize soils, temporary/permanent support, underpinning

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

2.2 Chemical Reaction

❖ chemical reactions that cause movement (and thus potentially induce cracks) are :-
corrosion, carbonation and alkali silica reaction
(a) Sulphate Attack
(b) Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
(c) Corrosion-Induced Cracks – due to the expansion of rust formed at the steel
reinforcement
▪ Causes of corrosion: carbonation, chloride attack

2.3 Loading-Induced Cracks

➢ excessive tension, compression, deflection, shear flexure, torsion forces induce concrete
cracks
➢ concrete is weak in taking up tensile force, thus cracks are usually found on the tension
side of concrete e.g. underside of slab and beam; top of cantilevered structure

2.4 Poor Construction Practices

❖ adding excessive water on site for higher workability reduce concrete performance
❖ early removal or striking of formwork or its support (falsework, props)
❖ early loading of concrete which exceeds its developing loading capacity
❖ cold joint formed during pouring of concrete > formation of laitance due to bleeding
become weak point for cracking
❖ insufficient curing or early termination of curing causing extensive shrinkage
❖ precast members – not properly supported during handling, transit and storage
timber allow even load distribution for precast members
2.5 Others
❖ mechanical damages – by machines, heavy vehicles
❖ vibration (machinery, percussive piling, slam of doors, etc)

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

❖ fire attack > mechanical performance decreased> spalling> rebars buckling

❖ frost attack – to permeable elements/materials and exposed to weather in cold climate
❖ cracks are easily formed at the corners of openings (windows, doors) where the stress
is concentrated (this can be prevented or reduced by adding additional anchored
diagonal reinforcement at the corners of such openings)

Indication of Structural Cracks

➢ particular attention should be made when cracks are found on structural members
➢ diagonal cracks in beams and walls – high shear force and need further
investigation
➢ cracks at soffit of beams and slabs which are at right angles to the main
reinforcement (flexural cracks) – excess deflection
➢ cracks parallel to main reinforcement at columns or loadbearing walls – bowing
and excessive loading

Allowance for Movements – Movement Joints

➢ 2 types of joints – movement joints and construction (assembly) joints
➢ construction joints are used when it is impractical to have a single pour of concrete (e.g.
difficulty in compaction, finishing, overheating, inadequate supply of concrete, etc.) and will
not be discussed here
➢ movement joints are used to accommodate movements of the building elements or structures

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

for reference

Figure – Types of Movement Joint

➢ since some movement cannot be avoided, movement joints are introduced so that the movement
can take place at the movement joints, instead of appearing in somewhere else
➢ functional requirements of movement joints
o durability, resistance to abrasion
o resistance to water penetration (water in any form – liquid, vapour, solid)
o fire resistance
o appearance (sometimes the joint is covered for better appearance)
o accessibility – for repair, maintenance and inspection
➢ different types of movement joints to take the different forces – expansion joints, contraction
joints, some joints take the shear force or rotation force
➢ expansion joint consists of 2 components: joint filler* + sealant
➢ contraction joint – usually no initial gap, used to control the location of shrinkage instead of
random shrinkage causing cracks in uncontrolled areas provide a weakened point>control where cracks
occur as the concrete shrinks/contract
➢ some have reinforcement across the joint but some have not; depends on the types of loading to
take e.g. rotational, shear, deflection, etc.

❑ *joint filler – used to (1) prevent the joint space being filled by debris and (2) form a
backing of the sealant; materials: wood fibre, cork, plastics and rubbers, etc.

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

Where should Joints be provided?

➢ in structures at spacings of 50-70m
➢ structures with different height or weight are connected together
➢ structures of different foundation types e.g. one with pile foundation and the other with raft
foundation
➢ where concrete elements or building profiles change section suddenly

➢ separate different structural systems within the same building

➢ separate existing building and new extension

➢ water-retaining structures (e.g. dam) – to control early-age thermal contraction and
irreversible shrinkage; flexible watertight barrier (waterstop) may be required at the joints

Yardstick to Evaluate the Risk of Building Cracks

• Crack Location - whether the crack is on structural
elements like columns or beams (e.g. caused by over-
loading)
• Crack Width- weather the crack is dormant or still growing
(live cracks indicates that movement is still on-going
growing)
• Crack Depth - weather the crack is limited to finishes (e.g.
plaster, tiles) or has already penetrated down to concrete

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

Repairing of Cracks
1) Non-Structural Minor Cracks
❖ Shrinkage cracks, crazing with width normally not exceeding 0.3mm
❖ Narrow and shallow cracks – only extends into concrete of a few mm
❖ Repair by filled up the cracks by thin cement grout
❖ For repairing cracks with water seepage, the injection method can be applied by pressurizing the
water-stopping material polyurethane (PU) to fill up the cracks

2) Structural Cracks or Major Cracks

For structural cracks, the advice of qualified professional (e.g. structural engineer) should be sought
before we can determine the repair method. The following methods will usually be used to repair
major cracks. Note that different methods will be used to repair dormant cracks and live cracks.
Stitching method which has been discussed under the chapter ‘Concrete Repair’ may be used to
reinforce the concrete structures.
rigid material
Case 1 – DORMANT CRACKS : Where No Further Movement is Expected
➢ Grout Injection Method is the most popular method
➢ cracks as narrow as 0.05mm can be bonded by using the grout injection method
➢ working procedures for epoxy resin
o chase a V-groove along the cracks
o clean the groove thoroughly, e.g. by compressed air, or water followed by compressed air,
or other cleaning agents as necessary at regular intervels 30-50cm
o seal the crack surface with polyester resin with intermittent one-way injection nipples – the
seal prevents grout leakage when applied in later stage injection packers
o grout injection (gun-applied or by mechanical hydraulic pump) at the injection nipples
o vertical cracks – inject from the lowest injection point and works upwards
o horizontal cracks – (1) start at one end and work along the crack to the other end; or (2) start
in the middle and works left to the end then right, or vice versa; or (3) start in the middle
and then works alternatively left and right
o remove the nipple and make good the surface with finishes
predesigned injection location & sequence> ensure crack is full filled.

Crack Injection Materials

➢ performance requirements:
◼ low viscosity to penetrate narrow crack
◼ form good bond with concrete
◼ low drying shrinkage
◼ durable under service condition
◼ resistance to abrasion, chemical attack
➢ materials used: epoxy, polyurethane or polyester
➢ properties of epoxy resins (most popular)
◼ excellent bonding
◼ low curing shrinkage
◼ good chemical resistance – ground water, alkalis, etc.
➢ polyester resins is cheaper than epoxy but have weaker bond and lower strength
➢ polyurethane (PU) forms good bonding with damp surface, therefore suitable for
sealing damp cracks

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

➢ if rigid material is required, inject low viscosity epoxy resin

Grout injection at slab soffit (the

Above: Gun-applied injection grouting suspended ceiling tiles have been removed
for access)

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

Injection grouting by hydraulic pump

Note the protruded injection nipple

Close-up of plastic injection ports

Grout injection process is completed

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Hong Kong Polytechnic University BRE 326 Maintenance Technology & Management
Department of Building & Real Estate Topic : Building Cracks

non-rigid material 2 methods

Case 2 – LIVE CRACKS : Where Further Movement is Expected
➢ rigid repair materials should not be used
➢ flexible resins are available to seal up
live cracks by injection method but have
limitations of movement (about 35% of
crack width)
➢ if large movement is expected, treat the
live crack as movement joint
➢ working procedures:
o widen the crack at the surface
o make a suitable dimensioned recesses
o use elastic joint sealant materials (e.g.
polysulphide rubber, preformed
neoprene strip) to fill up the recesses
o sealant must not stick the bottom of
groove, by introducing a bond breaker
➢ for periodic movement, apply the seal
when the crack is at its widest width

allow movement> less restraints

higher degree of movement allowed
tape form

Reference:
Bonshor, RB (1996), Cracking in buildings, CRCD, London
Bussell, MN (1995), Design and construction of joints in concrete structures, CIRIA report
Emmons, PH (1993), Concrete repair and maintenance illustrated : problem analysis, repair strategy,
techniques, Kingston
Kay, T (1992), Assessment and renovation of concrete structures, Harlow, NY
Neville, A M & Brooks, J J (1990), Concrete Technology, Longman
Son & Yuen (1993), Building Maintenance Technology, Macmillan

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