SERIES B - No.

15

AN INTRODUCTION TO MARANUNGKU

(NORTHERN AUSTRALIA)

by

D.T. Tryon

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

The Australian National University

Tryon, D.T. An introduction of Maranungku (Northern Australia).

B-15, x + 121 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-B15.cover
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
 PA CI fI C LI NG UI S T I CS i s pub l i shed by the Lingui4 t ic Ci� cle 0 6 Cdnbe�� d
and c on s i s t s o f four s e r ie s :

S E R I ES A - O CCAS I O NA L PA PE RS
S E R I ES B - MO NO G R A PHS
S E R I ES C - B O O KS
S E R I ES V - S PE CI A L PUB LI CATI O NS .

EDITOR: S . A . Wur m . ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D . C . Laycock, C . L . Voorhoeve .

EDIT ORIAL CORRESPONDENCE:

The Editor,
PA CI F I C LI �G UI S T I CS ,
Department o f Ling u i st i cs,
School of Pacific Studies,
The Austral i an Nat ional Unive r si ty,

Canberra, A . C . T . 2600.
Austra l ia .

SUBSCRIPTIONS AND SALES:

ABOVE ADDRESS

C o p y r i ght � D . T . Tryon .
F i r s t pub l i s h e d 1 970 .

The e d i t or s are i nde b t e d t o t h e Au s t ra l i an Nat ional Uni v e r �i t y for

help i n t he prod u c t ion o f this s e r i e s .

Thi s p ub l i c at i on was made pos s i b l e b y an i n i t i a l grant from t h e

Hun t e r Douglas Fund .
 T A B LE O F C O N T E N TS

P a.g e

I N T RO D U C T I O N vii

MAP ix

L I S T O F A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D S Y M B O L S x

1 .0 M A R A N U NGK U P H O N O L OGY 1
1.1 T A B LE O F P H O N E M E S 1
1 .1.1 CONSONANT PHONEMES 1
1 .1 .2 VOW E L P H O N E M E S 5
1 . 1 .3 R E S T R I CT I ONS ON P H O N E M E O C C U R R E N C E 7
1 .2 P R A CT I CA L O RTHOG R A P H Y 7
1 .3 T H E S Y LLA B LE 8
1 .4 CONSONANT C LUST E RS 8
1 .4 . 1 I NT E R - S Y LLA B I C C LU S T E R S 8
1 .4 . 2 I N TR A - S Y LLA B I C C LUS T E RS 10
1 .5 S T R ESS 10
1 .6 P H O N E M E F R E QU E N C Y 11

2. 0 THE NOUN AND NOUN MODI F I ERS 11

2.1 N O U N C LA S S E S 11
2.2 A VJ E C T I VES 13
2.3 VEMONSTRAT I VES 13
2 .4 N U M E RA LS 14
2.5 POSS ESS I O N 14
2. 5 . 1 P R O N O U N POSS E S S O RS 14
2 . 5. 2 COMMON N O U N POSS ESS O RS 15
2.6 M O V I F I E RS I N C O M B I NAT I ON 16
2. 7 PRONO UNS S U B J E CT 16

3.0 T HE VERB 17
3.1 THE S ENTENCE 17

iii
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P ag e

3. 2 VE R B C LASS ES 17
3.2.1 C LASS I - VE RBS OF M onON 17
3. 2 . 2 C LASS 11 - VE RBS O F P R O J E CT I ON 20
3 . 2 .3 C LASS 111 - VE RBS O F S T A N V I NG 21
3 . 2 .4 C LASS I V - VE RBS O F LY I NG 23
3. 2 . 5" CLA SS V - VE RBS O F S I TT I NG 24
3.2.6 C LASS VI - VE RBS O F S A Y I NG 25
3.2.7 C LASS VI I - VE RBS O F HO LV I NG 27
3.2.8 C LASS VI I I - VE RBS O F A C T I ONS
P E R F O RM E V W I T H THE H ANVS 28
3.2.9 C LASS I X - VE RBS O F B U I LV I NG
O R VESTRO Y I NG 29
3 . 2. 1 0 C LASS X - VE RBS O F C U TT I NG 29
3.2.11 C LASS X I - VE R B S O F E AT I NG 30
3 . 2 . 1 2 C LASS X I I - VE RBS O F S E E I N G 31
3 . 2 . 1 3 C LASS X I I I - VE RBS O F C A US I NG
M O VE M E N T 32
3 . 2 . 1 4 C LASS X I V - UNAS P E CT U A L VE R BS 33
3 . 2 . 1 5 C LASS X V - VE RBS O F VE RT I CA L
M O VE M E N T 34
3. 2 . 1 6 C LASS X VI - VE R BS O F A R R ANG I NG 35
3 . 2 . 1 7 C LASS X VI I - VE RBS O F S E NS I NG 36
3 . 2. 1 8 C LASS X VI I I - VE RBS O F B U R N I NG 36
3 .3 S UMMA R Y O F A F F I X UN I T M O R P H E M E S 37
3 . 3. 1 TENSE MORPHEMES 37
3.3. 2 P E RS O N M O R PH E ME S 38
3.3.3 A S P E CT M O R P H E M E S 41
3.4 T E NS E ANV AS P E C T 42
3 . 4.1 THE NON- FUTURE 42
3.4 . 2 THE FUTURE 45
3 .4 .3 G E N E RA L N O T E TO S E C T I O N 3.4 47
3.5 T H E V IR E CT O B J E CT 47
3. 5.1 N O UN O B J E CTS 47
3. 5. 2 P R O N O U N O B J E CTS 48
3. 6 S P E C I A L VE RB S T E MS 50
3 . 6 .1 C H A N G I NG VE RB S T E MS 50
3. 6. 2 VE R B S T E MS W I TH CHANG I NG
M E A N I NGS 50
3 . 6 .3 T RANS I T I VE INT RANS I T I VES 51
3. 6.4 VE R B ST EMS P R E C E V I NG A F F I X U N I T 52
3. 6. 5 U S A G E O F nala 52
 v

Pa.g e

3.7 N E GA T I O N 53
3 .B T H E I MP E RAT I VE 54
3.9 C O M P E T E N C E ANV I N C O M P E T E N C E 54
3. 1 0 A B I LI T Y ANV I NA B I LI T Y 55
3.1 1 T H E V E S I VE RAT I VE 56
3.12 T H E N E C ES S A T AT I VE ANV P R OH I B I T I VE 56
3.13 T H E R E F LE X I VE 57
3.14 THE R E C I PROCA L 58
3.15 THE CONVI T I ONA L 59
3.16 A T T E M P T E V A C T I O N ANV F RU S T R AT I VE 60
3.17 T H E PASS I VE 61
3 . 1B I M P E RS O N A L VE RBS 62

4.0 O P T I O N A L S A TE L L I TE P H RASES 62
4.1 LO C A T I ON ANV V I R E C T I O N 62
4.1 .1 V I R E C T I ON 62
4.1 .2 LO C A T I ON 64
4.2 T H E BENE FACTI VE 65
4.3 T H E P R I VAT I VE 66
4.4 T H E LI C I T I VE 67
4.5 T H E I NS T R U M E N T O R A G E NT 67
4.6 MANN E R 68
4.7 ACCOMPAN I MENT 68
4 .B T I ME 69
4.9 I N V I R E CT O B J E CT 70
4.10 PURPOSE 70
4.11 C A US E 71

5.0 I NTERROGAT I VES 71

5. 1 WHO ? WHOM ? WH I C H ? 72
5.2 WHERE ? 73
5.3 WH E N? 74
5.4 WHY ? 74
5.5 WH AT ? 75
5.6 HOW ? 75
5.7 HOW MANY ? 75
5.8 Y E S -NO INT E RROGA T I VE 75

6.0 NON-VER B A L SENTENCES 76

6.1 NO UN + AVJ E CT IVE 76
6 .2 NO UN + NO UN 76
vi

P ag e

6.3 NOUN + POSS ES S I V E AVJ ECT I V E 76

6 .4 NOUN + N EG AT I V E 77
6. 5 V EMONS T R AT I V E + NOUN 77

7 .0 D E PE N D E NT C L A U SE S 77
7 .1 V EP EN V ENT S UB J ECT C LAUS ES 77
7.2 V EP EN V ENT N O N - S U B J ECT C LAUS ES 78
7. 3 R EL AT I V E C LAUS ES 78

8 .0 U NE L I C I TE D T E XT S 78
8.1 T EXT I - H U NT I N G 78
8.2 T EXT 2 - L I FE S T O R Y 81
8.3 T EXT 3 - H U NT I NG 82
8.4 T EXT 4 - TH E GOOS E H U N T 83
8. 5 TEX T 5 - C I RCUMC I S I O N 85
8. 6 T EXT 6 - V EATH 87

9 .0 L E X ICON 92
9.1 M AR AN U N G K U -ENG LI S H 92

9. 2 ENG LI S H - M AR AN UNGKU 10 2

B I B L I O G R A P HY III
I NT R O D UC TI O N

Maranungk u i s a l anguage s p oken i n t h e Da ly Ri ver are a o f t h e

Nor t h ern T err i t ory o f A u s tra l i a . T h e t rad i t i ona l h ome o f Mar anungk u
s p eakers i s t h e ar e a around E l i z ab e th Downs St at i on, a l t h ough ne arly
a l l of the ab or i gi ne s o f thi s reg i o n have mi grat e d to mi s s i on and
commer c i a l c e n t r e s b e tween the D a ly R i ver and Darwi n . Mara nungku i s
a memb er o f t h e Daly Lan g ua g e Fami ly, a map of whi c h i s s how n i n
F ig ure I . I t s s p e akers numb e r ab out fi ft y only , a lth o ugh i t i s fai rl y
w i d e l y unde r s t o od t hr o ughout t h e are a, e s p e c i a lly by o lde r p e op l e .
N o p re v i ous s tudy has b e e n ma de o f Ma ranungk u , a l t h o ugh w or d li s t s
have b een ga t h e r e d b y C ap e l l for a numb e r o f the memb e rs o f t h e Daly
La nguage F a mi ly . S t anner al s o made n o t e s on t h e Daly R i v e r l a ngua ges
d ur i ng the c ou rs e of his a nthr op o logi c a l s t udi e s of t h e s e p e op l e .
The mat e ri a l for thi s s t udy was c o l le cte d dur i ng f i e l dwork i n t h e
Da ly R i ve r area f r o m J u ly unt i l O c t ob e r 196 7 , a n d from Mar ch unti l
J u ly 1969. A t ota l o f app roxima t e ly four mont h s of t h i s t i me was
devoted to t he s tu dy of Mara n ungk u . S l ight ly more than 5 0 0 mi nu t es
have been re c orded o n tape . A l l o f t h e ma te r i a l u s e d i n thi s
d e s c r i p t i on, wi th the e x c ep t i on of t h e verb p ardi gms , i s t a ken f rom
s pontaneous une l i c i te d u t teranc e s b y Maranungk u s p e ak e rs .
Thi s d e s c ri pt i on h as b e e n wr i t t e n with out te chni c a l t erms whe re ver
p o s s ib l e , s i nce it w i l l be o f use to non-li ngui s t i c al ly t r a i ne d
work e rs i n t h e N orthern T e rr i t ory . P h one t i c symb o l s have b ee n
e l im i na t e d i n a l l s e c t i ons e x c ept t h e p h onol o gy, and a p ra c t i c al
o rth ography s ub s t i t ut ed .
Dur i ng t h e c o u r s e of t h e s tudy of t h e Mara nungk u l anguage I have
b e c ome i nd e b t e d t o many p e op l e and i ns t i t ut i ons . F i rs t I mus t th ank
the A us t ra l i an I ns t i t u t e of Abori gina l S t ud i es whose gra n t s m ade t he
ne c e s s ary fi e l dw o rk pos s i b le. I t e n de r my s i nc e re thank s a l s o t o
t h e D ep artme nt of S o c i a l W e l fa re i n Darw i n and i n p art i c u lar t o t h e
D i r e c t or , M r H . C . G i e s e , the A s s i s tant Di re c t or , Mr E . P . Mi l l i k en and
t o Mrs A ni t a Campb e l l . My grat i t ude mus t a l s o be expre s s ed t o
Me s s r s L . Wi l s on a n d D . P . Camp b e l l f o r t h e i r un ti r i ng a n d un fai l i ng

vii
 viii

c o- op e ra t i on . T o F a t h e r o ' C orr i gan o f the Daly R i v e r Mi s s i on and t o

Mr T . M i l l i kens o f t h e De l i s s av i lle S e t t lement, a most s ince re t ha nk
y o u f o r y ou r k i ndne s s and h o s p i t a l i ty . Mos t o f a l l, I am i ndeb t e d
t o my ma ny a b o r i g i na l fri end s, e s p e c i a ll y t o my pri n c i p a l i n forman t s
Mi c ky Mor e e n, Nym Ba lwani a nd T ommy Ngalwan , fo r t he i r c on t i nue d
e nc o ura gement and great p a t i e n c e at al l times . T o t h e many o th e r
p e o p l e who a s s i s t e d i n c ount le s s way s , unnamed b ut c eM;ainly not
f o r go t t e n , I expr e s s my mos t s i ncere th anks and grat i t ude .
A t t h e A us tra l i a n Na t i ona l U ni vers i t y I mus t t hank my c o l le agues
S.A . Wurm and D . C . Lay c o ck for t h e i r h e lp fu l c omm e n t s and s ugge s t i o n s
dur i ng t h e p r epara t i on o f t h e manus c ri p t .
T h i s d e s cr i p t i on of Ma ra n ungku i s only an i nt roduc t i on t o t h e
language , a n d de a l s w i th t h e s t r u c t ur e s u s e d c omm only i n e veryday
s p e e c h l . It i s h op e d , h owever, that it wi l l s t imulate Europe ans
working i n t h i s area of A us t ra l i a to l e arn the language and at the
same t ime s e rve as a n i n t roduc t i on t o t he la nguages of the Daly
Fami ly in genera l .

D . T . T ry on
Canb erra 1969 .

l
This description updates the notes on Maranungku published in
Tryon ( in press ) , based on work carried out in 1967.
 VClJl, Diem-en,
GUAf

Ban Ban.
Spring

0 20 40 60

MILES

1- Ngangikurrunggur 7. Maredan 13. Manda

2. Ngengomeri 8. Marengar 14. Mullukmulluk
3. Maramanandji 9. Wadyiginy 15. Dyeraity
4. Marithiel 10. Pungupungu
16. Matngala
5. Maretyaben 11. Maranungku
17. Yunggor
6. Mare Ammu 12. Ame
18. Kamor

DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, A.N.U. KM

THE DALY LANGUAGE FAMILY (AREA N) - D. T. TRYON

 L I S T O F AB B REV I AT I O N S A N D SY M B O L S

+ ob l igat ory
± op t i on a l
a . a. at t e mp t e d a c t i on
AU a f f i x uni t
aux . aux i l i ary
C cons onant
dI. dual
DO d i r e c t ob j e c t
excI. e x c l u s i ve
F future
i nc l . i n c lus i ve
10 i n d i re c t ob j e c t
NF non-fut ure
o ob j e c t
pI. p l ural
Pn . pronoun
po s s . possessed
S · s ub j e c t
sg . s ingu l ar
T t i me
V vow e l
VS verb s t em

Tryon, D.T. An introduction of Maranungku (Northern Australia).

B-15, x + 121 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-B15.cover
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
 1 .0 MARA N U NGKU P H O N O L OG Y

As this ' I nt r o d uc t i on t o Mara n ungk u ' i s of i n t er e s t t o non­

l i ngu i s t i c a l ly trai ne d worke r s in n or t h e rn A u s t r a l i a, t h e grammat i c a l
d e s c rip t i on o f t h e la nguage wi l l, a s far a s p os s i b l e, avoid t e c h n i c a l
t erms. T h e fi rs t s e c t i on, on p h on o l o gy, h owev e r , c o n t a i n s phone1. i c
s y mb o ls . O n ce t h e s ounds of Mar anungk u h a ve b e e n d e s c rib e d , a
prac t i c al ort hography i s i nt rodu c e d and w i l l b e u s e d t h r o ughout t h e
r e s t o f t h e b ook .

1 .1 TAB LE O F P H O N EM ES
�

<:
......
(a) C ons onant s : ro
� 0
'd
...... I

III
<:

<:
ro
o
III ro
......

III rt-
......

'1 III III

......

...... '1

'Y
S t op s p t t k
L a t e ra l s
Nasals m n I)
R e s onant s r R
S em i -V ow e l s w y

TABLE 1

(b ) Vow e l s :

Hi gh u

a
Low F ront Bac k

TABLE 2

1 . 1 .1 C o n s o n a n t Pho n e m e s

The Maranungku c ons onant ph oneme s and t h e i r al l ophones a re as

f o l l ows .
/ p/ has a l l ophones [p] a nd [b]
(a) [p], a v oi c e l e s s una s p i ra t e d b i labial s t op , o c c urs word
i ni t i a l ly and f i na l l y and i n c ons onant c l us t e rs b e fo r e /m/ a nd / t /
e . g. / p i y a l [p i Yfd head

Tryon, D.T. An introduction of Maranungku (Northern Australia).

B-15, x + 121 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-B15.1
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
2

IP ill k u l [p illg O:] wom a n

Ita p l [tAp ] m a ny
ItYip lTl<BI [tvYp m ill] b lack

(b ) [ b] , a v o i c ed lenis b i la b i a l s t op , o c c ur s e ls ewher e .
e . g. la p a l [AbA ] w ho?
I k u m p u l [kum bo : ] foo t
ItYrel p rer l [tYrel brer ] goose
ItI ha s a l lophones [ t - d - a - 0]
(a) [t] , a v o i c e l e s s unas pira t ed alveo lar s top , oc cur s word
i ni t i a l ly a nd f i na l ly , and i n c o n s o na nt c l us te r s b efore /Q/ and /p/ .
It a l t er na t es w i t h [aJ i n word i ni t i a l p os i t i on .
e.g. Ita m a nl [tAm A n ] b a n d i coo t
Ita RI [ta R] thigh
Ip retl [p ret] to t h row
la tQa l 1 [AtQA 1 ] to a nswer

(b) [d ] , a v o i c ed len is a l v e o lar s t op oc cur s e l s ewhere

e .g . la Rta n l [a Rda n] sha r k
Im u n ta k l [m u n da k ] o'ld
[ d] a l t erna t es w i t h [oJ intervo c a l i ca l ly a nd aft e r I n / . I t has no t ,
how ev er , b een o b s er v ed wi th ItYin ta l spear and / k a n tu / m a n. Only i n
one i ns t a nc e hav e [d ] a nd [0] b e e n f ou nd t o c ontra s t , nam ely [Q�oe J
da ug h t er a nd [Qillde J I sha'l'l si t. I t i s p os s i b l e that [Q�ae J 1 s a
b or r owi ng from the nei ghb o ur i n g Brinken-Woga i t y Group , where a d e n ta l /
a lv e o l ar opp o s i t i o n i s mai ntai n e d .
I P I has a l l oph ones [tv] and [dv ] .
( a ) [tYJ , a n al veo-palatal v o i c e l e s s affr i c ate , oc c urs word
i n i t i a l l y a nd f i na l l y .
It Y i pm <ll I
'
e .g . [tY ip mal] b'la c k
It Val Qi / [tYillQe ] ear
Ip u y tvl [ p u y tY ] no t to k now
(b ) [dYl, a n a l ve o -pa l at a l voi ced a f fr i c a t e , oc c urs e l s ewhere .
e .g . la tYa wa / [A dYAWA] u ri n a t e
Ik u tYa l a l [k udYA1A ] today
Ik l has a l l ophones [k ] and [g ]
(a ) [k l , a v oice l e s s unas p i ra t ed v elar s top, o c curs word
i ni t i al ly a nd fina l ly , and in cons onant c l u s t e r s b e fore Im / , Ip l and
Iw / .
e .g . Ik a ntul [ k A n do:] ma n
Ik a tl [kAt ] to c u t
Ik iy ik l [k i y ¥k ] sun
11illk m �1 [ l illk m ill ] wet
 3

(b ) [g ] , a v o i c e d u na s p i ra t ed v e lar s t op , o c curs e l s ewhe re .

e .g . IpIBk u l [ pIBg o : ] woma n
In a n k u nl [n A n g un] he
I n s ome c a s e s , w i t h the s t op s er i e s , t h e norma l ly v o i c e d
c o n s o nant i n i n t erv o c a l i c p o s i t i on i s unvoi c ed . Thi s has b ee n i nt er ­
preted f or p u rp o s es o f t h i s s tudy , as a mani fe s t a t i on of geminat i on ,
a nd i s b a s e d o n t h e v o i ce l e s s qua l i t y of s t op c lu s t e r s . ( See
b e l ow, 1 . 4 ) .
e .g . IQUPPiBII [Qu ppiBI ] m o r n i n g
IQa t t a l [QAt t A] hous e
Iwa k k a r l [wAk ka r ] fi s h
Iw l t Y t v i n l [w i t t y i n ] k i n d of p i ne t r e e
G emi nat e cons onan t s a l s o o c c ur w i t h [m ] a n d [ n ] .
Im/, a b i l ab ia l na s a l r e s o nant , has only one mani fe s t at i o n , [m ] .
e .g . Ima t a l [m AdA] dual i ndi ca t or
Im i y a l [m i Y A] food ( v e g e t a b l e )
In i m plBl [ n ·tmbIB] y o u s i ngul ar
It i ml [ t ¥m ] t o bury
I n / , a n a l ve o lar na s a l re s o na nt , has only on e a l l op h one , [n }.
e .g . In a t l a l [ n AdIA} g o o d
Ip�n n �1 [p�n n �] dus t
Ipa n a n l [pAnAn ] ma t e
Iwu n l [wun ] e � a r em e n t
In/ , a n a l v eo -p a la t a l nas al r e s onan t , h a s only one a l l op h one , [n} .
e .g . Inu k l [ nuk ] t o t e n l i e s
liiu nu k l [ nuiiuk ) to sme l l
Im i y i t i iil [m e y Yd i ii ) two
In a n k u iil [ n Ang un ) he
IQ/, a velar nas a l re s ona nt , has only one a l l ophone , [Q] .
e .g . IQa l 1 [Qa l ) m o u th
IQu r t Yi ! [Qu r dYe ) emu
I t vIBQ i I [t YIBQe ) ear
ly a r u QI [y a r uQ ) to s t a nd up
III, a voi ced a l v e o lar lat e ra l r e s o nant , ha s only one al loph one [I].
e.g. Il il! r i l [ l IB r e ) t o b e h appy
Ima Ia l [m Al A) s na k e
Ipa l a t l [pAl A t ) op e n g r o u nd
Ipa l l [pAl ) to br eak
Iw/ , a v o i c e d b i l a b i a l medi a n r e s onant , has only one a l l op h o ne [w].
e.g . Iwa t l [WA t ) to wa Z k
Iwu t l [wut ) t o g i ve
la wa i [a wA ) m e a t
4

/ p u wa l / [ p u w"l ] big
/paw/ [p a w ] to laak
/ y / . a s emi - vo c oi d , h a s o n ly one mani fe s t at i o n , [y ] .
e g.. / y iIl r a / [y iIl r "] ah i ld
/ Y iIl r i / [Y iIl r e ] t omorrow
/m i y a / [m i y ,,] v eg e t a b l e food
/ wa k a y / [w "k a y ] to f i ni s h
/ r / . a voc o i d a l ve olar median r e s o nant , has only one mani f e s tat i o n , [r ] .
e .g . / r iIlr i / [ r iIlr e ] fa t
/a r a/ Ca r ,,] g um t re e s p e a i e s
/ Y iIl r a / [ y iIl r " ] ahi l d
/ rJu r / [ rju r ] p en i s
/ R / , a t r i l le d a lv e o l a r median r e s onant , has o n l y one mani f e s ta t i o n , [RJ.
e .g . / a Ra / [a Rt,] tibia
[Y iIlR "] p a n da nu s
[t a R] t h ig h
[miIlR] hair
/ R/ d o e s n o t o c c ur i n w ord i ni ti a l p os i t i o n .

1 . 1 .1 . 1 Ta. ble 06 M inim a.l C o n.ttla.� tll (C onllo na.ntllI

The f o l low i ng is a s e le ct i on o f mi ni ma l ly c ontra s t i ve uni t s :
p/k /pa t/ m a k e; / ka t / aut
p /m / p i ya / h e a d; /miya/ fo od
p /w / p �/ t o sm o k e ; / w �/ t o ary
p / rJ / p a l / to brea k; / rja l / mou th
t/y / t a r u rj/ t o s no r e ; / y a r U rj/ t o s ta nd
t/1 / ma t a / dua l ; / m a l a / s na k e
t/tY / w u t Y/ t o p o ur ; /wu t / to give
t /r / ma t i / barram u ndi ; /ma r i / s toma a h
P/ l / n i t Ya / y o u p l ural ; /n i l a/ fa t h e r
t Y/ n / t Yu k / t o exti ng ui s h; / nu k / to t e l l l i e s
k/p / ka t / t o au t; /pa t / t o ma ke
kIn / k ina / us; / n ina / y ou p l ura l obj .
k/ l / k a k/ mov e; / k a l / to l eav e
m/p /m i y a / food; /p i ya / head
mIn /mi r / t h u nder; /n i r / vein
n/n / pan/ ma t e ; / p a n/ possum
n / rj /na/ h i m, / rja / her
n/1 / n i na / y ou s g . ; /n i l a / fa t h e r
nI t Y / nu k / t o t e n l i e s ; / t Yu k I t o ex t i ng u i s h
rj/ p / rja l / m ou t h ; /p a l / t o break
1ft / ma la / s na k e ; /ma t a / dua l
l /tY /n i la/ fa t h e r ; /,.,it va / y o u p lura l
 5

l /w la l a l mo t h e r ; la w a i m ea t
l /r lme l ill l br o t h e l'; Imill r ill I a wa y
w /y la wa i meat; la y a l no
W/R la w a i me a t ; la Ra l tibia
y/t ly aru QI t o s ta nd; I t a r u QI t o s nore
r /R IY ill r a l c h i ld; IY illRa l p a nda nu 8
rI1 IQill n i r a I fr om m e; IQilln i l a I for m e
R/w Ia Ra l tibia; la wa I meat

1 .1 . 2 V owel P h o n em es
Th e Maranungku vow e l p h o nemes a nd t h e i r a l l ophones a re as fo l lows :

� U

G 0

T AB LE 3

Ii i has a l l ophone s [ i - r - e - E)
(a ) [e ) , a higher mid fr ont unro unded voc o i d , oc c urs wo rd
f i na l ly .
e .g . Im i r i l [mfr e ] eye
Im a t i l [m lld e ] barl'am undi
(b ) [n , a hi gh e r mi dd l e unr ounde d vo c oi d , oc c ur s i n c l o s ed
s yl la b l es .
e .g. Ima n i m l [mllnfm ] exce l l e n t
In i m p illl [n·,· m bill] y o u r s i ngular
( c ) [E) , a l ower mid fr ont unr ounded voc oi d , oc c ur s in fre e
va riat i on w i t h [f).
( d ) [ i ) , a h i gh front unrounde d vocoid , o c c u r s e l s ewh ere .
e.g. In i r l [n i r ] vein
In i n a l [n i n ll] you s i ngular
Note : [ i J and [e J s o me t i me s a l t e rna te b e for e [y J .
lill l has a l l oph one s [ill - EJ
(a) [illJ , a hi ghe r l ow fro nt unr ound e d voco i d , o c c urs i n a l l
p o s i t i o ns .
6

e.g. / <ek <e l <e/ [<eg <e l <e ) y o ur m oth e r

/ m <e l <e/ [m<e l <e) y our brother
/ p <ek u / [p<eg o:) w oma n
(b ) [eJ , a l ower mi d fr ont unr o und e d Yoco i d , s ome t i mes
alt erna t es w i th [<eJ .
e .g . / lTIiBn i l)<ll t V/ [m <en i�et V) p or c up i ne
/ a / has a l l ophones [a - flJ
(a ) [a ] , a l ow b ack unro unded Yocoi d , oc curs b e fore /w , n.
r , y/, and aft er / �/ .
e .g . / ma w u ii/ [m a w u ii) c l oth es
/ a ra ii/ [a r a n) meat ant
(b ) [flJ , a low c e n t ra l unro unded Yo c oi d , oc c urs e l s ewhe re .
e .g. /ma I a / [mfll fl) s nak e
/ a pa / [flbfl) who?
/ re/ h a s o n l y one a l l op h on e , [reJ , a m i d c e n tral neu tral yoc oi d .
e .g. / p re/ [p re) to s m o k e
/ p rel re/ [p relre) o l d man
/ t Vre l p rer/ [ t vre l brer) g o os e
/ u / has a l l op hone s [ u _ 0 - 0: - oJ
(a ) [0: J , a l ow e r mi d back rounde d Yoco i d , oc c urs , w or d
f i na l l y .
e.g. / k a n t u/ [k fln do : ] man
/ p <ek u / [Pal g o:) w oman
(b ) [o J , a higher mid b a c k r o unded Yo c oi d , o c c ur s b e fore / y / .
e .g. / p u y t v/ [p o y t v] not to k n ow
/ w u y t v/ [woy t v) to p o u r
(c) [u J , a h i gh back r o unde d Yocoi d , o c c ur s b e fore / r / and / w /
e .g . / p u r i t V/ [p u r i t Y] to fix
/ku r i / [ k u re ) s hort s p e ar
(d) [oJ , a lower h i gh back r ou nde d Yoc o i d , o c c ur s e l s ewh e re .
e.g. /m un t a k / [mon dflk ) old
/ p u 1 t Val n / [pul t v<en ) e ag l e hawk

1 .1 . 2 .1 Ta. b le. 0 6 M-in-im a.l C o nVta.� t� (V o we.� I

The fo l l ow i ng i s a s e le c t i on of p a i r s of w ords s howing mi nimal
vowel c o ntras t s :
i /a / y <er i / tomorr ow; / y <era / chi ld
i /u /m i / do g; /mu / b o ne
<e Ire / p <e/ arm; / p od to s mo k e
<e/ a / m <el <e/ br oth e r ; /ma 1 a / s nake
a/u /w a t / to wa l k ; /wu t / to g i v e
ali /n i na/ you sg. ; /n i n i / now
a / <e / p a t / to ma k e ; / p <e t / to o p e n
 7

u/a /wu t/ to g iv e ; / wa t / t o wa L k
u / re / wu / tr o ub L e; / w re/ t e a r s
u/ i / mu / bone; /m i / dog
re/ al / pre/ t o s mo k e ; / Pal/ arm
re/ u / wre/ tears; /wu / troub Le

1 .1 . 3 R e s t r i c t i o n s o n Ph o n em e O c c u r r e nc e
The p honem e s / R, u , re/ d o not o c c ur i n word i ni t ia l p o s i t i o n .
W�t h t he s e e xc e p t i ons , a l l of t he p ho nemes l i s t ed i n Tab l e 1 oc c ur
i n a l l p o s i t i ons .

1 .2 P R ACTI C AL O R THOGR AP H Y
F rom t h i s p o i nt o n , a prac t i c a l ort hography s u i t ab l e f or u s e o n
unmod i f i ed t ypewr i t er s , w i l l b e u s ed . F o r t he rema i nder of t h i s f i r s t
s e c t i o n , o n p hono logy, b o t h t h e p honet i c and t he p ract i c a l orthography
w i l l b e wr i t t en para l l e l , w hi l e t he grammhr a nd l ex i c o n w i l l us e o n l y
t he prac t i ca l ort hography .
The l i s t of t he p ho nemes a nd t he i r equ i va l ent i n t he p r a c t i ca l
ort hograp hy are as fo l l ows :
C o ns onant s : P t tY k m n n � w y r R
Symb o ls : p t ty k m n n Y n9 w Y r r r

V ow e ls : al a u re
Symb o ls : e a u 0

Eng l i sh Equ i va le nts of Mara nungku Phone mes

p as i n s po o n
as in s tark
ty as in c h ur c h
k as i n s ky
as i n L i mb
m as i n man
n as in name
n9 as i n s i ng
w as i n wet
r as in run
r r a r o l l ed r , a s i n S c o t t i s h Eng l i s h
as in b ea t
e as in cat
a as i n car t
u as i n moon
0 as i n fu r
8

1 . 3 THE S Y LLAB LE

There are f i ve s yl lab le t yp e s , e ach havi ng a vow e l ( V ) as i t s

p eak . The y ar e :
V as in / a - tu/ , a t u f uture auxi l i ary
v e as in / a - ka - n i / , a k a n i m o t h e r
ev a s i n / m i - t a - n a / , m i t a na y am
eve as in / m i k - m i k/ , m i km i k ba ndi c o o t s pe c i es
evee as i n / y �rp / , y e rp t o s ha v e

1 .4 C ONSON ANT C LU S T E R S
There ar e s ever a l c ons onant c l us t e r s i n Maranungku whi c h d o n o t
occur i n Engl i s h . T h e y w i l l b e d i s cu s s e d i n t w o s e c t i ons , c lus t er s
w i t h i n t h e s y l l ab l e , and c l us t ers a cros s s yl l ab les .

1 . 4 .1 I n t er-Sy l l a b i c C l u s t e r s
A l l i nt er-syl lab i c c o ns onant c l us t ers oc c ur word me di a l l y. The
p o s s i b le c l us te r s are repr e s ented by + in t he f o l l ow i ng t ab le .

p tY k m n rJ w y r R

I
P + +
t + + + + +
tY +
k + + + + + +
1 + + + + + + + +
m + +
1
II
n + + + + + + +
+ +

I) +
!
w !
i I
I
y + +
I

i i
r
I
+ + +
I
+
1 +
+ I I
i
R + + + +
i
I I

TAB LE 4

When + a p p e a rs wi th the s ame c o ns ona nt i n t he v e rt i c al a n d hor i ­

zontal c o l umns , c ons onant gemi nat i on i s indi cate d , g i vi ng p p , tt, t t Y,
k k , m m a nd n n .
Examp l es o f i n t e rs yl lab i c c on s o na n t c l us t ers :
-pp- / rJu p p � l / nguppel morni ng
-tp- / w a t p a r/ , w a t p a r Z i gh t
-tt- / m �t t alr/ , m e t t e r sad
-t I- / ku t l u k / , k u t I u k t o co ugh
-tm- / t Yalt m al/ , t y e t m e s t ra i gh t
 9

/ a t r)a l / . a t n g a l t o a ns w er
/wit t Yin / . w i t t y i n p i n e tr e e
-k p - / p ook p oor / . p e k p e r t o r oa s t
-kt- / k i y ik t u k / . k i y i k t uk day t i me
-k k - /wa k k a r / . wa k k a r f i s h
- km - / l ook m oo/ . l e km e wet
- kw - / p ookwu y t v/ . p e k w u y t y fu H
-k y - / t u k y a r)a na / , t U k y a n ga n a p o L iceman
-1p- /maku l pa / , m a k u l pa nu L L a nu L La
-1t- / r)a 1 t i r i t i r i / , ng a l t i r i t i r i t o ng ue
-1 t Y- / p u l t Yoon / , pu l tyen eag L e ha w k
- 1 k- /ma l k i n / , m a l k i n s p i nife x
-1 m- / p i l moo/ , p i l m e ha L f - ca s te
- 1 r)- /m i l r) i n / , m i l n g i n m o u n ta i n
- 1 w- / t Ya l w u / , t y a l wu canoe
-1 y- / m u t l y i r)k i n / , m u t l y i n g k i n s a L t - wa t er t ur t L e
-m p - / k csnp l1
a /, k om p e l y e Z Zow
-m m - / moom m oo/ , m em m e axe
-np- /manpuk/. manpuk w o o m e ra
-nt- / ka n t u / . k a n t u ma n
-n t Y- / m i n t Yi r k / , m i n t y i r k b L a c k an t
-nk- / ma n a n k a / . m a na n k a t o a s k for
-nm - / t i n m oo/ , t i n me w h i t e coc k a t o o
-nn- / p ren n re/ , ponno dus t
-n r)- / p i n r)a r / . p i n n g a r ros e l la
- np - / t i r i np u k / , t i r i n y p uk b l oodwood
- nm - / n oonmoot oo/ , n e nym e t e three
- r)k - / wa m a r)k a n / , w a m a n g k a n w a l laby
-y t - / r)a y t p i r / , n g a y t p i r fa r
- y t Y- / p u y t Y/ , p u y t y n o t t o k n ow
-r t Y- / r)U r t Y i / , n gu r t y i emu
-r k - / oor k i l)a / , e r k i nga mother
- rm- / y a l)a r m a t a / , y a n ga r ma t a t h e P Le i a de s
/ t Yi r l)a / , t y i r ng a t o s ne e z e
-r w - / m a r w u n / , m a r w u n p y gmy - goos e
/ k reRp rer rel)/ , ko r r p o r o n g w h i te ka ngaroo
/ a Rda n/ , a r r t a n y s ha r k
/ ma Rk a / , m a r r k a f L ow e r
- Rm - / l reRm in / , l or r m i n ribs
/ t a Rwit Ya / , t a r r w i t y a tr o us e rs .
10

O n l y two e x a mp l e s o f more than two c o ns onants i n a c l us te r h a ve

b e e n found , name l y :
Imu t l y i �k i n/ , m u l t y i n g k i n s a Z t -wa t e r t ur t Z e
Iw i t l y u k / , w i t l y u k t o e n t er
The f o l l ow i n g cons onant c l us t e r s have b e e n obse rved o n l y w i th
r edup l i c at i ve s : - t Yp - , -m t , -nt Y- , - �m-, -�p - , -y k -, -r l - , - r t ­
Examp le s :
- t Yp - Ip u r i t Yp u r i t Y/ , p u r i t y p u r i t y smoo t h
- mt- It i mt i m / , t l m t i m t o k i Z l b y r ep e a t ed b lows
-nt Y- It y i l i nt y l l i ii / , t y i l i ny t y l l i n y k i n d o f ga l a h
Imrer u �mrer u �/ , m o r u n g mo r u n g k i nd o f bre am
Ip u l a �p u l a �/ , p u l a n g p u l a n g s we l l ( s e a)
Ik a y ka y / , k a y k a y t o ca l l o u t
-r t - I t a w a r t a wa r / , t a w a r t a wa r t h i c k e t

1 .4 . 2 I n t r a - Sy l l a bi c C l u�ters
C on s onant c l us te rs wi thi n t h e s y l lab l e are . n o t numerous . The y
w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t w o s e c t i ons , thos e o c c urri ng s y l l ab l e i ni t i al l y
and t h o s e o c curr i ng s yl l ab l e finally .
( a ) Sy l l ab le i n! ti a l :
tr- It r a t r a y / , t r a t r a y t o l oo k for
( b ) S y l lab l e f i n al :
-ti ly i t 1 y I t i l , y I t 1 y 1 t 1 v ery
-rp Iy �r p / , y e r p t o s ha v e
-r k Ip u l i r k / , p u l i r k s t i ng ray - ba rb
-Rk Ima n a R k / , m a n a r r k r e d k a n ga r o o
-l k Im u n t u l k / , mu n t u l k ank l e
-l p Ip � l p / , p e l p a l w ay s .

1.5 S T R ES S
S t r e s s i s non-phonemi c i n f.1aran un gk u , and fal l s o n t h e fi rst
s y l lab l e o f the word s t em .
Examp l e s :
Ip a n / , p a n fri e n d, m a t e
It fr a l k / , t i r a l k s ativ a
l a t Ya wa / , a t y a wa u r i ne
Wi th w o rds c onta i ni n g more than two s yl lab l es , a s ec o ndary s tr e ss fal l s
o n a l t erna t e s yl l ab le s .
Examp l es :
l mir �p � t / , m e r e p e t be ard
I�ur i nm i n / , n g u r i n y m i n b La ck h e ad
 11

1 .6 P HO N EM E F R EQU ENC Y

A random s amp l e o f two t hous and p hon emes w as t a k e n f rom

u ne l i c i t e d t e x ts , so t hat p honeme f reque n c i e s c o u l d be det ermi ned .
The r e s u l t i s as follows :

Ip l 55 2 . 7 5%
I tl 96 4 . 8%
I t vl 35 1 . 7 5%
Ikl 142 7 . 1%
Im l 112 5 . 6%
Inl 1 70 8 . 5%
Inl 39 1 . 9%
Irjl 113 5 . 6%
Iw l 98 4 . 9%
Ir I 80 4 . 0%
IR I 18 0 . 9%
II/ 57 2 . 8%
Iy l 78 3 . 9%
la I 444 2 2 . 2%
I�I 111 5 . 6%
Ii i 18 7 9 . 4%
lad 27 1 . 4%
lu I 139 6 . 9%

2,0 0 0 1 0 0 . 0%

Pe rce nt ag e s o f vowe ls t o c ons onant s :

V ow e l s = 4 5 . 4%
C o n s o nants = 5 4 . 6%
Phoneme s i n de s ce ndi ng o rder of frequency o f occ ur re n c e :
la l , I i i, In/ , Ik / , l u I, Irj/ , Im / , I�/ , Iw / , It/ , Ir / , Iy / , / II , Ip / ,
In/ , IP/ , lre/ , IR/ .

2.0 T H E N O U N A N D N O U N M O D I F I ERS
Thi s f i rs t s e c t i on o f t he grammar wi l l c ontai n a d i s c u s s i on o f t he
No un as b o t h s ub j e c t a nd obj e c t o f t he s e n t e nc e . Thi s wi l l b e
f o l l owed b y a n e x p lanati on of t h e Noun Modi fi e rs : ad j e c t i ve s ,
demons tra t i ves , numera l s a nd p os s es s i ve adj ec t i ve s . The final p a rt o f
t he s e c t i on l i s t s t he s ub j e c t p rono uns .

2.1 NO UN C L ASS ES
I n M ar anungku e ac h noun m u s t b e l on g to o ne of four noun c l as s es .
The c l a s s marker i n e a ch case p r e c e de s t he noun as fo l l ows :
12

(i) awa p re c e de s nouns denoti ng any ani mal or i ns ec t w hi c h may b e

c o ns i d ered t o b e edib l e .
e .g. awa m a l a snake
a w a wa k k a r fi s h
awa ma n a r r k r e d ka ngar o o
a w a wam a n g k a n wa l laby
a wa p a t p a t g ras s h opper
a wa i s in fact a n o un meani ng mea t .
(ii ) y l I i p r e c e de s nouns d e no t i n g t oo l s , we ap ons and a l l w o od e n
i ns t rumen t s .
e .g . y i I i w l n y i n g k i ny b oom erang
y i Ii t awa r d ig g i ng s ti o k
y I l i m a kuI p a nu Z Za n u Z Za
t y i n t a s p e a r d o e s n o t however b e l o ng t o t hi s c l as s , b ut i s a memb e r o f
c l a s s IV t o b e e�p l ai ne d b e low . y i I i i s a n oun m e ani ng s ti o k .
(iii ) m i y a p r ec e de s nouns deno t i ng vege t ab l e f o o d o f a ny type .
e .g . m i y a w a r k uy a l o ng yam
m i ya m i m i ro und yam
m i y a m i t a na wa t e r y a m
m i ya p e r i y a wa t e r lHy
m i y a i s a noun meani ng v eg e ta b l e fo o d .
( iv ) The fourth no un c las s , c omp ri s i ng p ar t s of t h e b o d y , k i ns hi p
t e rms and na t ur a l p he nomena i s not ma rke d b y the p r es enc e o f a c l a s s
no un .
e .g. kiyik s un
k um p u fo o t
k a r a lo.'a la s t one
memme axe
In Mara nungk u nouns do not change f or s i ngu l a r a nd p lural . Any
unmod i fi ed noun may be s i ngular or r e s tri c t ed p l ural , and must b e
j udged from the cont e x t . How e ve r , when t h e i qe a o f p l u ra li ty i s
s t res s e d , tap (m uoh. ma ny ) f o l l ows t he noun . The a b s e n ce of ove rt
s i ngula r - p l u ra l di s t i nc t i on does not oc c a s i on amb i gui t y , as the s ub ­
j e c t and t he ve rb mus t a lways a gr e e fo r numb e r as w i l l b e exp lai ne d i n
3. Some examp l e s o f the s t r e s s e d p lu ral a re :
mi tap many do gs
ka n t u ta p many me n
t awa r t a p ma ny t r e e s
Two furthe r mar k e r s ar e u s e d w i th nou ns i n Ma �anungk U , w a t i - w i t h nou ns
i nd i c at i ng ma l e s e x age di f ference t e rms , and w u n g k u - w i th th,'s e t ha t
de not e fema l e s ex a g e di ffer e n ce t erms . Examp l e s :
 13

wungku ty i pe 1 g i r� a t pu b er t y
wu n g k u n g u l a n u nma r ri e d g i r�
wa t i n g u l p a k y ou n g ma n
However , the f u n c t i o na l load of t h e s e two p r e f i xes i s s o s li ght that
t h ey hav e not b ee n inc luded a s s epara t e noun c l a s s markers .

2.2 AVJ ECT I V ES

I n Mara nu ng k u t h e a dj e c t i v e a lways f o l l ows t h e noun i t mod i fi e s ,
t hu s :
mi nat l a g o od do g
ne n t u na t 1 a good hors e
m i wer i k bad dog
n e n tu wer i k bad h o I'S e
t y i n t a y a ng u new s p e ar
t y i n t a m u n t a k o�d s pear
k a n t u p u wa l big man
m e r r t y i pm e b �a c k h a i r
I f t h e n o u n whi c h the adj e c t ive modi f i e s i s i n t he uns t re s s ed p l ur a l
( up t o f ou r o r f i v e ) , t he f orm o f the adj e c t i v e remai ns t h e s ame as
for the s i ng ular . Howev er , if the idea of p l u ra li t y is s tr e s s e d , t h e
a dj e c t i v e i s re dup l i c ate d .
e .g . m i wer i kwer i k bad dog s
mi p uwa l p u wa l b i g dogs
Whe n the idea of p l ura l i t y i s s tr e s s ed , t a p m a ny is u s e d in conj unc t i on
w i t h the r e dup li c a t e d form of th e adj ec tive , t h u s :
m i we r i k w e r i k t a p many b a d dogs
A �� is expres s e d b y the form t a p i n k i n i . . . . . wa k a y as f o l lows :
mi ta p i nk i n i n a t l a wa ka y a�� t h e g o o d dogs
Th e s up e r la t i v e de gre e i s conv eyed b y y i t ly i t l i mmed i at e ly fol l owi ng
the adj e c t i v e , t h us:
k a n t u p uwa l y i t l y i t l v ery b i g ma n

2.3 V EM O N STR AT I V ES
Thr ee demons trat i v e adj e c t i ves are in c ommon use i n Mar anungk u . They
ar e as fo l l ows :
kenk i this, near t h e s p e ak er
ke n i t ha t, near t h e addre s s ee
y uwa tha t , no t near t h e s p e a k e r or a ddr e s s ee
The demonst r at i ve adj e c t i v e f o l lows the noun t o which i t re fer s , t hu s :
mi kenk i t h i s dog
ka n t u ke n i tha t m a n
14

peku ke n i tha t w oma n

n g a t ta y u wa t ha t h o u8e
k a n t u y u wa that man

2.4 NUM E R A L S
The numer a l s of Maranungk u d o n o t e xc e e d five . When t h e numb e r
e x c e e ds five, t a p many i s us e d fo l lowi ng th e n o un . T h e nume rals are :
n g a n t aw a n y one
m I y i t I ny two
ne ny m e t e three
m i y l t l ny m l y l t i n y f o u l'
pengent I fiv e
Examp l e s of usag e :
mI m I y I t i ny t w o dog8
ml n e nyme te three dog8
mI tap many d og8

2.5 POSSESSI O N
2 . 5 .1 Pronoun Possessors
Whe n a noun is pronomi na l l y pos s es s ed , t h e p os s e s s i v e adj e c t i v e
f Ol l ows t h e n o u n i n al l c a s es . The Mar anungku p o s s es s i ve adj e ct i v e s
are as f o l l ows :
n g a n y o r ng e n i my
n i n a or n l mp e y o ur s i ngula r
n a n k u n y or n aw a n y hi8
ng a n k u n y o r n g a wa n y her
k i nya o ur p lura l inc l us i ve
nga t y a o u r p l u ra l e x c l us ive
n i nya y o u r p lur al
w i nya t h e i r p l ural
n g a ng k u o ur dual i nc l us i ve
nga tama ta our d ua l e x c lus ive
n i n yama t a y our d ua l
w i nyama t a t h e i r d ual
Wi t h s i ngular p os s es s ors there are two forms of t h e p os s e s s i ve
a dj e c t iv e . Wi th mos t nouns , nga n y , n i n a and n a n k u n y , n g a n k u n y are
u s ed , as in the f o l l ow i ng s e le c t i on o f e xamp le s :
p i y a n ga n y my h e a d
mi n ga ny my dog
k a n t u n ga n y my h U8ba n d
mi n i na y o u r dog
 15

However , whe n t h e p o s se s s ed i t em i s an i n s t rument or we ap o n , o r a

ki nship t er m , ngen i , n i m p e, n a w a n y and n g a w a n y are p re ferr e d .
Examp l e s :
ty i nta ngen i my s p e ar
n i l a n i m pe y ou r m o t h e r
m a n p u k n a wa n y h i s w o mmera
It s h o u ld be no t ed , however , that in e veryda y s p e e c h a t e nde n c y h a s
deve l op e d f or b o th f or ms o f t h e s ingular p os s es s ive adj ec t i ve t o b e
u s e d w i t h the s am e n o u n w i th ou t di s ti nc t i o n .
C e rtai n ki nship t e rms undergo cha nges i n f o rm dep e nd i ng o n
wheth e r t h e pos s e s s or i s fir s t , s e c ond o r t h i rd p ers o n . T h e fo l lowi ng
t a b l e i l l us t ra t es t h e c hanges :

1st . 2nd. 3rd.

fa t h e r n i ka n i n i ka 1 a or n i l a n i r ka n a
mother akan i eke le e r k i nga
br o th el' me re n i me1e m er e n a
sis ter w u ng ka n i wu n g k a l a wu ng ka n g a
u ncl.e ka 1 a n i ke l i ke 1 i na
auntie n ga 1 a n i ng e l i nge l a nga

Ki ns h i p no uns , therefor e , t ak e t h e s uf fi xes - n i for f i r s t p ers on , - 1 a .

- I e or - 1 1 f or s econd p er s o n , a n d - na f o r t h i r d p e rs on ma l e , - n ga f or
t h i rd p e rs on f emal e . How e ver , other c ons onan�al and voc a l i c changes
wi thi n the s er i es mak e s i t ne ces s ar y t o l earn e ac h s et by r o t e , as no
formal s o und c hange r ul e s h ave b e e n found which c o ve r all s et s . It
s h ould b e o b s e rve d that a l th ough the no uns d e not i n g k i ns h i p t erms
c hang e in form a c c ordi ng as they are p o s s e s s e d by a f i rs t , s ec on d
or third p erson p o s s e s s or they a r e s t i l l fo l lowed b y the no rmal p o s s e s s ­
i v e adj e c t i ve s , t h u s :
n i k an i n ga n y my fa t h e r
ka l a n i n ga n y my u n c I.e
n i l a n i mp e y ou r fa t h e r

2 . 5. 2 C o mmo n N o u n P o s s e s s o r s
(i) Whe n th� p os s e s s or a nd t h e p o s s e s s ed ar e i n i nt i mat e
r e l ati ons hi p , o r when a part o f a wh o l e i s exp r e s s e d , t h e p os s e s s or
p re c e d e s the p os s e s s ed w i t h out any p os s es s ive a f fi x .
Examp l e s :
mi Yiri dog's t a i l. (dog t a i l. )
ngurty i mur u em u's egg (emu e g g )
m e m m e t y er e n y axe h a n dl.e (ax e h a n dl.e )
mi ar r a d o g's l. e g (dog l. e g )
M i cky p i y a me rr Mi c ky's h a i l' (Mi c k y h a i r )
16

(ii ) When the p os s es s or a nd the p os s e s s e d are in an acqui re d

r e l a t i onship , t hat i s , when the re la t i on s h i p b etw een pos s e s s or and
p os s e s s e d is not i n t i mat e , two c ons t r uc t i ons ar e p os s i b l e , t h us :
Pos s essor + n a wa n y + Pos s e s s ed
or Pos s es s ed + Pos s es s o r + n a wa n y .
Eit he r c o ns tru c t i on may b e u s ed w i th out d i s t i nct i o n . Not e that n g a wa n y
r ep la c e s na wa n y i f the p os s e s s or i s femi ni ne .
Examp l e s of us"ge:
mi M i c k y nawa n y M i c k y ' s dog
M i c k y n awa n y m i M i c k y 's dog
a w a a ka n i n g a wa n y my m o t h e r ' s me a t
m e m m e n i l a n i m p e n a wa n y y ow' fa h t e r ' s axe
t y i nta mer e n i nawa ny m y b r o t h er ' s sp ear
n i ka n i nga ny nawa n y t y i n t a my fa t h e r ' s s p e ar
Obs erve tha t n a wa n y . n g a wa n y ar e u s ed even when t h e p os s es s o r i s
mod i f i e d b y a p o s se s s i ve adj e c t i ve .

2.6 M OV I F I ER S I N C OM B I N AT I O N
Wh en a noun i s modi f i e d by a c omb i nati on o f adj e ct i ve , demon s tr a t i ve ,
nume ra l and p o s s es s ive adj e c t i ve , t h e fo l l ow i ng or d e r i s obs erved :
+ Noun ± Adjective ± Demonstrative ± Nume ral ± P os s e s s ive Adjective.
Exa mp le s :
mi na t l a m i y i t i ny two g o o d dogs
mi n a t l a m i y i t i n y ng a n y my two good dogs
n ga t t a y u wa n e n y m e t e t h o s e t hr e e h o u s e s
mi n a t l a yuwa t h a t g o od d og

2.7 P RO N O U NS S U BJ E CT
B e f or e di s cu s s i ng the S ent ence i n Maran ungku and the '/erb
s t ru c t ur e wh i c h is c e nt ra l t o i t , i t is nec e s sary t o l i s t the s ub j e c t
p ro n o uns . T h e y a r e a s f o l l ows :
nga n y I
n i na y ou s i ngul a r
nanku ny he
ngan kuny s he
k l tya we p l ur a l i nc lusive
n ga t y a w e p l ural e x c l u s i ve
n l tya y ou p l ur a l
wi tva t h ey p lura l
ng a n g k u w e d ua l i nc l us i ve
nga t ama t a we dua l e x c l us i ve
n i t am a t a y ou d ua l
w i t am a t a t h e y dual
 17

I t sh ould be o b s e r ve d t h at t h e only dua l p r o n o un w i th a c o mp l e t e ly

s e p arat e form from the p l u ra l p r on ouns i s n g a n g k u we dua l i nc l us i ve .
The dual p r onouns for a l l o th er p e rs ons are the s a me a s f o r t h e p lura l ,
b u t c ar ry the dual mark e r - ma t a . Th i s arrangeme n t i s re f l e c t e d i n a l l
o f th e Mar an un gk u verb p aradi gms , as w i l l b e e xp lai ned i n t he n ex t
s e c t i on .

3.0 T H E V ER B
3 .1 THE S ENT ENC E
Sent ences i n Mara nu ngku are of two b a s i c t ype s : verba l and non­
verba l . I n t h i s s ec t i o n verba l s ente nc e s only w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . Non­
ver b a l s en t e nc e s w i l l b e d e a l t wi th i n s ec t i o n 6 . Th e b a s i c verb a l
s ent enc e c o ns i s t s o f the fo l low i ng e l ements :
± 'Hme ± Subject ± Object + Verb Stem + Affix Unit ± Tens e Auxil iary .

The t ime s l ot i s f i l l e d by time adve rb s or phras e s , whi ch w i l l b e

dis c us s ed i n s ec t i on 4 . 8 . The Sub j e c t s lo t i s fi l le d b y a n oun whi ch
a gre e s w i t h t h e a f fi x Unit for p er s on and numb e r . I f t he s ub j e c t i s a
p r onoun, t h e s ubj e c t s l ot is l e f t u nf i l l ed norma l ly , a l th o ugh the
s ubj e c t p r o noun j u st d i s c us s ed above may s omet i me s f i l l i t . Thi s i s
only whe n e mpha s i s i s s ough t , a s t h e b ound f orm of t he p ronoun i s
always c o ntai ned i n the aff i x u ni t . The ob j e c t s l o t i s fi l l ed only i f
t h e obj e c t o f t he verb i s a n ou n . If �he ob j e c t i s p ronomi na l i t oc c ur s
i n t h e a f f i x Uni t ; t h i s f e a t ur e w i l l b e di s c us s e d at l ength i n a
s p e c i a l s e c t i o n on p r o noun obj e c t s , 3.5. Th e verb s te m , a ff i x unit and
t e ns e auxi liary w i l l b e di s c us s e d i mme di at e ly , in the ��e ct ion whi ch
f o l l ows .

3.2 V ER B C LASS ES
I n Mar a nu ngku there ar e s ome e i gh t e e n ver b c la s s e s or conj u ga t i ons .
Thus , e a c h verb s t e m i s a memb er of one o f th e s e c l a s s e s . Ea ch c la s s
h as i t s own a c c ompa ny i ng s et o f a ff i x uni t s . Th e s e w i l l b e s et o u t i n
f u l l b e l ow a s they s how only par t i a l regularit y . A s ummary mat r i x
wi l l b e g i v e n a t t h e e nd .

3. 2 .1 Class I - V er b s o f M o t i o n
Th ere are t w o bas i c t ens es in Mar anungku , the non-fu t ure and t h e
f u t ur e . Each has a corresp o nd i n g a f f i x uni t s er ie s .
The non- f u t ur e af fi x u n i t indi c a t es a p r e s ent c on t i nuous o r
imme di a t e p a s t t e ns e . A general pas t t e ns e i s i ndi c a t e d by the p as t
t e n s e auxi l i ary y l or a y i f o l l ow i ng t h e v e rb s t em a nd a f f i x uni t .
The fut ur e af f i x u ni t i nd i c a t es a n imme d i a t e f u t ur e t ens e . A
gener a l f u t ur e t e ns e i s i nd i c a t ed b y t h e fu tur e t e n s e au xi l i ar y , t u or
a t u f o ll ow i ng t h e verb s t em a nd aff i x uni t .
 l

18

The auxi l iary f orms b e g i nning w i th a v owe l ar e use d after verb

stems or a ff i x uni ts end ing i n a c o nsonant; e lsewhere , the forms
b e gi nni ng with a c onsonant are use d .
F urther d isc ussi on o f tense and asp e ct wi l l b e fo un d b e l ow , 3 . 4 .
The af f i x uni ts whi c h a c c omp any C lass I verb stems are as fol l ows:

non-Future Future

I k a - ng a - n i nga -wa -n i
y ou sg . k a - na - n i wa r i
he-she k a - na k a -wa - n i
w e pI . inc l . ka - r r ka - n i nga - r r k a - n i
w e p I . e xc l . wa r i n n ga - r a - n i
y ou p I . k a - ra - n i wa r i r a
they k u - n i - nya pu - ra - n i
w e d I . i nc l . k a - rna - n i ng a -rna - n i
The affix uni t n o rma l l y fo l l ows the v e rb stem and i s p honol ogi c a l ly
separate from i t .
Examp l e :
t i rr w u t t a r wa t k a n ga n i yi
edge s e a wa l k I go ( NF ) past a ux .
I wa l k e d t o the b eac h
The af fix uni t may , how eve r , p r e c e de the ver b stem without
d i stinc ti on in me ani ng , thus:
t i r r w u t ta r k a n ga n i wa t ay i
e dg e s ea I go ( NF ) walk past a ux .
The af f i x parad i gm set o ut ab ove reveals the regular i ti e s and
i rregu larities of the system . The i rr egul ar i t i es are so n ume r o us that
it was d e c id e d , in the i nterests of c l a ri ty , that the ful l p ar ad i gm wi l l
b e gi ven for e ach v e rb c lass .
The a f fi x unit c onsists of thr ee morpheme s , e x c ept f or the sec ond
p erson singula r and p l ural of the non- future and the fi rst p e rson
p lura l e x c lusive of the non- futur e tense . The f irst morp heme i n di cates
the b a si c tense; the se c ond i nd i c ates the p e rson , and the thi r d
indi c ate s the type o f a c ti on . Thus :
k a - n ga - n i p ast-I goi ng -

ka - n a - n i p ast y o u sg - g o i ng
- .

n g a - wa - n i future-I - g o i n g
nga - r a - n i f u ture -you p l . goi n g-

Examp l es of usa ge :
t i rr w u t ta r n g a wa n i wa t atu
e dg e s ea I go ( F ) wa l k futur e aux .
I s ha l l wa l k to t h e b e ach .
 19

t a wa r ka nga n l k a 1 ka 1 ayl
tree I go ( N F ) a�imb pas t a ux .
I a�i mb ed t h e t ree .
The affix uni t in fa c t a c t s as a c o mment on h ow the act i on i s
perf ormed . T h e two s ent e n c es given a s examp les c o u l d have b e e n e ven
more l i t e r a l l y tran s l a t ed as I g o i n g s ha�� wa�k t o t h e s ea . and I g o i n g
alimb e d the t r e e . I nde e d , mos t of t h e affix uni t s c ons t i t ut e i ndep e n ­
d e n t meani ngfu l utt eranc e s or s e n t e nc e s i n t he i r own r i gh t .
Examp le s :
tawun ka n g a n l yl
t ow n I g o ( NF ) p a s t a ux .
I w e n t to t ow n .
ta w u n ngawan 1 tu
t ow n I go ( F ) fut ur e a ux .
I s ha l l g o t o tow n .
Thi s k i n d o f d ou b Je verb s truc t ur e i s common t o a l l of t h e memb ers
'
o f the D a l y La nguage Family, and app l i e s to a l l o f the Maranun gk u
verb c la s s e s .
I t w i l l ha ve b ee n ob s erved that for dua l p ro noun s ub j e c t s t h e only
s eparate p ronoun form is for w e two i nc l us i ve. n ga n g k u . E l s ewhe re t h e
s ub j e c t forms fo l low the p l ura l p r o n ouns to whi c h the dual marke r m a t a
i s a d de d . Thi s i s a l s o refle c t e d i n t he af fix uni t , w h e re ma ta i s
i ns e r t e d b e f or e t h e t ens e auxi l i a ry . I n al l o t h e r r e s p e c t s the
parad i g m i s the s ame as fo r the p l ura l .
Exampl es :
ta w a r karan i ka l ka 1 ay 1
tree y o u p l . go ( NF ) a Umb p a s t a ux .
BUT :
t aw a r kar an i k a 1 ka 1 ma t a yl
tree y o u p I . go ( NF ) a Z imb d ua l p as t aux .
Yo u t w o ali mb e d the t ree
Whe n the s u b j e c t of the s ent enc e is a n o un, the s ub j e c t s lo t
describe d in 3 . 1 i s fi l l e d b y i t . T h e s u b j e c t r e ap p e a rs i n t h e a f f i x
uni t i n p r o n omi na l form .
Exa mp l e s :
w er em p en kana wa t ay 1 w u ta y en a
a l Z i ga t or he go ( NF ) wa l k p a s t a ux . water in
The a� l ig a t o r w e n t a � o n g i n the wa t e r.
kan t u y uw a t awun kan a wa t ay i
ma n tha t t ow n he go ( NF ) wa Z k p as t a ux .
Tha t m a n w a l k e d t o town.
20

The rules explained for Class I verb stems apply to all Maranun gk u
verb classes.
Verb stems belonging to Class I include:
wa t to wa l k
kal kal t o a t i mb
t ra t r a y me t o t o o k for
tyapa t t o 8wim. ba t h e
w i t l y uk t o e n te r , go i n
wurka to work
ta t t o r e s t aft e r watk i ng
Before proceeding to the explanation of the other verb classes,
it should be noted that no forma l distinction between transitive and
intransitive verbs has been observe d.

3 .2 . 1 . 1 VeJt b� 06 M o t ion II
A sub-member of Class I consists of a small gro up of verb stems
which have affix units very si milar to those set out in the paradigm
above. The affix units for the subclass are as follows:
non-F ut ure F uture
I k a ng a n t l ng a wa n t l
y o u sg. kanant i a nt i
he-she ka n t i kawan t I
w e pl.incl. ka r r ka n t I ng a r r ka n t i
w e pl.e xc 1 • ant i n n ga r a n t i
y ou pl. ka r a n t l a n t l ra
t h ey ku n t l nya pu r a n t i
w e dl. in cl. k a ma n t i n ga ma n t i
Morpheme divisions have not been made, as they always occur as
for Class I affix units as explained above.
The only two verb stems found in this sub-class are: w u l t o bri ng
ba a k and w u 1 w u 1 to p u n .
Examples o f usage:
y er a ma r w u k a n ga n t l w i nya wul ayi
a h i tdr e n ti t t te I go ( NF ) t h em bri ng past aux.
I brough t t h e a h i tdr e n b a a k .
n en t u k a ng a n t i wu 1u1 ay i
horse I go ( NF ) pu n past aux.
I put Z ed t he h o r s e .

3.2.2 Cl ass II - V e r b s of P r o j e c tio n

The verb stems which make up this class are verbs denoting
movement to and from the speaker plus those which denote throwing
actions. The affix units are:
 21

non- F uture F uture

I k a ng o r o nga p o r o
y ou sg. k a no r o payor o
h e -s h e kawo r o k a p o ro
we pl. incl. k a r r k a ny o r o nga r r k a ny o r o
we pl. excl. poron nga r l ny o r o
y o u pl. k a r i ny o r o p a r i ny o r o
they k u ny o r o p o r o ny o r o
w e dl. incl. kamo r o ng a m o r o
These affix units are used with verb stems such as p a t y t o t h r ow a
s p e a r and p o t t o throw a b o omera n g .
Examples:
t y I nt a k a ng o r o paty ay i
s p e ar I project(NF) t hr o w past aux.
I threw the spear
w l ny i ng k i ny k anor o po t ay i
b o o merang y ou project(NF ) t h r ow past aux.
You t h r e w t h e b oomera ng
When followed by e ither of the directional particles nu ng u towa rds
the s pMak er or mere a way fr om the s pe a k e r or p o i n t of refere nc e . the
Class I I affix unit constitutes an independent meaningful utte rance,
thus:
kawo r o nu ng u yl
h e project (NF) t h i s way past aux.
He c am e .
tawun m ere k am o r o yi
t own away h'e dl. project(NF) past aux.
We t w o w e n t t o t ow n .

3 . 2.3 Class III - V e r b s of S ta n din g

Ve rbs belonging to this class denote actions thought of as nor­
mally performed in a standing position. The affix units which
accompany them are as follows:
non-F uture F ut ure
I k a ng a m a nga t a ma
y o u sg. ka nama t a ng a m a
h e - she kama ka t ama
we pl.incl. k a r r kama nga r r k ama
we p l.exc 1 . t a nm a n ng a r a m a
y ou pl. k a r am a t a ng a r a m a
t h ey ku ny a m a p u r a ma
w e dl.incl. kamama ng a m a ma
22

The aff ix units of Class I I I are meaningful independent of the

verh stem. For example, k a n g a m a y l means I s to od, while ng a ta ma tu
m eans I B hatt s ta nd. Verb stems which are members o f Class I I I include:
ya r u ng t o s ta nd up s tr a i � h t
�u I i t o aha n�e di rea t i o n
wu l to a o me ba o k
p a r a ty t o r un away
ka y to oatt o u t
pir t o t hrow away
p u I pu I to be h o t
Examples of usage:
ty l n ta na l a k a n gama ka y ay l
spear fo r I stand:(NP) oaH past aux.
I aatte d o u t f or t h e s pe ar .
k a n g a ma wul ay i
I stand.(NF) a ome past aux.
I aame ba a k .

3.2.3.1 VeJlb� 0 6 S.t4nding I I

Only a single member has been found for this sub-class, namely
p a r a ty t o �o . When used in conjunction with the normal Class I I I
affix units it means t o r u n away . The affix units for the sub-class
are very similar to those listed a bove for Class I I I . They are as
follows:

non-F ut ure F ut ure

I k a n ga m n g a ta m
y o u sg. ka n a m ta n g a m
he - s h e kayam k a ta m
w e pI.incI. k a r r k am n g a r r k am
we pI. excl. ta n n ga r a m
y ou pl. ka r a m ta n g a r a m
they ku nyam p uram
we d l. incl. k ama m n ga m a m
Examples of usage:
ka ma m p a r a ty ay i taw u n mere
we dI. stand(NF) go past aux. town away
We t w o w e n t to t own.
ka n g a m p a r a ty ay I
I stand(NF) go past aux.
I we n t
 23

3 .2.4 Class IV - V e r b s of L y i n g

Verb s tems which b e long to this clas s de note actions norma l ly

thought of as p erformed in a l ying pos ition. Thes e include mainly
verb s of s l eeping , dreaming and b eing s ick , a lthoug h they a ls o inc:!. ude
verb s which Europeans would not connect with lying down , s uch as bu ying
and as king. The affix units ar e :

non-Future Future
I k a ng l y a nga y u
y ou s g . k a n i ya yu ngu
h e-she kaya kayu
w e p I.incI. k i r r k i ya ng i r r k i ya
w e p l.e xcl . yu n ng i r i y a
y o u p I. ka r i y a yu ngura
t h ey kuy i nya p i r i ya
w e dl . incl. k am i y a ngam i ya

A s for Clas s I I I , the affix units a lone cons titute comp l ete me an­
i ngful utterance s. k a ng i y a y i me ans I lay , while n g a y u t u m eans I
s ha H li e .
V erb s tems included in Clas s IV are:
ng u r k u r to s l e e p
t a r u ng t o s nore
y er i t o dream
t i nk i r k t o b e s i C! k
m a na n k a t o a s k for
payam t o buy
Exam p l e s of usage:
t y a l tya r a ngu r ku r k a ng i y a yi
y es t erday s l eep I lie ( NF) p ast aux.
I s l e p t y e s t e r da y .
t i nkirk k a ng i ya yi
s i C! k I lie ( NF ) p as t aux.
I was s i C!k .
wun ma na nka k a n g i ya yi
t o b a C!C! o a s k fo r I l 1 e ( NF ) p as t aux.
I a s k e d fo r t oba C! C! o
t em i n g a n t a wa n y kang i ya yi
s ide one I l 1 e ( NF ) p a s t aux.
I lay on one s id e .
24

3.2.5 Class V - V e r bs of Sit t i n g

V er b s te ms b el ongi ng t o C la s s V i ndi cate act i ons per for me d s i t t i ng

d ow n , or thought o f as b ei ng p erf ormed i n a s i t t i ng p os i t i o n . The
a f f i x u ni t s f o r C l a s s V are :

non-Future Futu're

I ka n g i na n n g e ti
you sg. k a n i na n n i nga
he-she k a na n ke t I
w e p l . i nc l . k I r r k i na n n g i r r k i na n
w e p I . e xc 1 . ni n n g e r i na n
y ou p I . ka r i na n n i nga r a
they k u n i na n p i r i nan
w e d l . i nc l . k a m i na n ng a m i n a n
k a ng i na n a y i m e ans I sa t . whi l e ng e t i t u me ans I s ha L L s i t . Ve rb
s tems whi c h are ac comp a ni e d by C l as s V a f f i x u ni t s i nc l ud e :
w i r i ty a to cry
e r u w i yo t o Lau g h
1 eri t o b e happy
ta t t o s ta y
ng u n g uk to pa n t. bre a t h e
tya k a l to ea t . dr i nk
tya p a t t o ba t h e
tam to cook ( i ntra n s i t i ve )
wu 1 i ya t o dance (of a wom a n )
E xa mp l e s o f u s ag e :
peku k an a n wu l i ya yi
wom a n s h e s i t ( NF ) dance p a s t aux .
T h e woma n dance d .
l e ri ka n g i n a n ay i
happy I s i t ( NF ) p as t aux .
I was h appy .
wowe yena k a n g i na n ay i
camp in I s i t ( NF ) p as t a ux .
I s tay ed h om e .

3.2.5.1 V eJt b4 0 6 S.<.tt.<. ng I I

T he s ub - c la s s o f C lass V has a lm o s t i de nt i c al af fi x uni t s t o t h os e
l i s t ed ab ov e , w i t h the ma i n e xcep t i on that the t h i r d morph eme - na n i s
r ep la ce d t)y - k u r . The v erb s tems l i s t e d a s b e lo ngi ng t o C la s s V may
a l s o be us e d w i th C l ass Va a f fi x u ni t s , b ut w i th mor e a n i de a o f
p e r manency or l eng thy d ur a t i o n . The affi x uni t s ar e :
 25

non-Future F utUre
I ka ng I k u r ng i ya k u r
you sg. k a n l ku r n i ng a k u r
h e - s he ka n a n k i ya ku r
w e p l . i ncl . k i r r k i kur ng i r r k i k u r
we p l . e xc l . ni n ng l r a ku r
y ou p l . k a r i ku r n i nga ra
they kuny uku r p i r i ku r
w e d l . i nc l . kam i k u r ngam i ku r

O ne v erb s t em ha s b e e n found which i s u s e d on ly w i t h C l as s Va

a f f i x u ni ts , name ly p l y a to wai t for , rathe r than w i th b oth C la s s V
and Va aff i x uni t s .
E xamp l e :
k a ng i k u r n i mpe p i ya yi
I s i t ( NF ) y ou wa i t p as t aux .
I wa i t ed for y o u

3.2.6 Class V I - V e r b s of Say i ng

Thi s c la s s i n c lude s verbs o f s ay i ng and f ee l i n g , o r ver b s d e n o t i ng
a c t i ons i n whi c h the head i s though t of a s p lay i ng the l e ad i ng role .
The a f fi x uni t s are as f ol l ows :

non-F uture F uture

I k e n ga m e ngepe
y ou s g . kename me
he-she keme kepe
w e p l . i nc l . ka r r ka m e n g a r r k ame
w e p l . e xc l . men ng a r a m e
y ou p l . k a r am e mere
they k um i n ya p u rame
w e d l . i nc l . k e m em e ngamame

As w i t h prev i ous a f fi x unit s , t h e C l a s s V I af f i x uni t s are c o m­

p le t e u t t erances ev e n i f not a c c omp ani e d by a v e rb s te m . k en g a me
me ans I s a y , whi le ng e p e t u me ans I s ha L L . say . V e rb s te ms u s e d i n
c o nj u nc t i on w i th C l a s s V I a f fi x uni t s i nc l ude :
ku t 1 u k t o c o ug h
t y i r nga to snee z e
tyi l k t o h ur � , t o b e s or e
met ter t o b e t i red
me1 k to b e s ick, t o fe e L s i c k
ta 1 t o grow up
ny i p t o w i nk
26

E xa mp l es o f usage :

arra ty i l k k e nga me
Zeg s ore I s ay ( NF )
I h a v e a s ore leg .
ny i p k e nga m e mi r i yi
w i nk I say ( NF ) eye p a s t aux .
I winked.
me 1 k k e nga me
sick I s ay ( NF )
I fee l s i c k

3.2.6.1 V�� b � 0 6 A c q u�� � ng

A s ub - c l a s s of C la s s VI i s r es t ri c t e d a lmos t ent i r e l y t o ve rb s o f
ac q ui r i ng . Th e aff i x u ni t s are a lmos t i de nt i c a l w i t h thos e o f C las s VI .
They a re :

non-F utur e F uture

I ke ng a m e n ng e p e
y ou s g . k ena m e n me
he-she kemen kepe
we p l . i nc l . k a r r k a m en ng a r r ka m e
we p l . e xc l . m en nga r a m e
y ou p l . k a r a m en mere
t he y k uma ny a p u r am e
we d l . i n c l . k em e m e n ng e m e m e
The affi x uni t i s mos t o f t e n u s ed a lone t o s i gni fy t o g e t .
Examp le s :
ty i nta k en a m e n ay i
sp e ar y o u get ( NF ) p a s t aux .
D i d y ou g e t a s p e ar ?
w i tya y u wa t y i nt a k u ma ny a yi
they t h er e sp ear t h ey get ( NF ) pas t aux .
They g o t a sp ear .
Th i s s et o f a f f i x uni ts i s a l s o us e d w i th w i nt y a r a t o s te a l a nd
w er t o }/ urry . It has not b e e n f ou nd u s ed i n c onj unc t i on w i t h any oth er
v e rb s t ems .
Examp l e :
ka r a wa l a k e m en w i nt y a r a yi
m oney h e get ( NF ) s t ea l p as t aux .
He s t o le t h e money .
 27

3.2.7 Class V I I - V er b s of H o l d i n g

Thi s verb c la s s i s c ompr i s ed o f verb s t ems i ndi c a t i ng a c t i ons

per formed with the hand s . I t s memb e rs d e not e a c t i ons i n whi ch a n
i ns tr ument i s h e l d i n the hands and a re i n contra s t t o v er b s b e l onging
t o Class VI I I , where the hand i s tho ught of as doing s ome t h i ng to s ome ­
t h i ng e ls e . On t h e who le , C l ass V I I v e rh s t en d t o be c o ns t ruc ti ve ,
wh i l e t h o s e o f C l as s VI I I t e n d t o b e d e s t ruct i ve . The a f f i x uni t s are
as fo l l ows :

non-Future F uture
I k a n g a ma n ngama
y ou s g . k a n a ma n wuma
he-she k uma n k a ma
we p l . i nc l . k a r r k ama n n ga r r ka m a n
w e p l . e xc l . w u ma n ng a r a m a n
you p l . k a r a ma n wumara
they kum u n ya p u r a Ol a n
w e d l . i nc l . k a ma ma n n ga ma ma n

As wi th previ ous v e rb c la s s es , t h e a f f i x uni t s al one rep re s en t

c o mp le te s e n t e nc e s . k a n ga m a n me a ns I h otd. ma k e , whi le n g a ma means
I s hatt ma k e . C la s s V I I a f f i x u ni t s a re us e d i n c on ju n cti on w i t h th e
f o l l owi ng v e rb s tems :
kur t o s pe a r. catch
pet to open
tim to s h u t
t e n t em t o s ew
y e ta n t a r a t o b e j e atous
ty i pa k to spi t
Examp l e s o f usag e :
a wa wakkar ka n g a m a n kur ay i
me a t fi s h I ho ld ( NF ) spe ar p as t aux .
I s p e a r e d a fis h .
ng a l k a ng a ma n tim nga l ay i
door I h o l d ( NF ) shut door p as t a ux .
I s h u t t h e door .
ty a l t y a r a t y i n ta k a n ga ma n ay i
y es t e rday sp ear I h o l d ( NF ) p as t a ux .
Ye s t e rd ay I m a de a s pe a r .
Note t h at w h en the C la s s VI I a f f i x uni t s a re s uf fi x e d b y - n y a , g i v i n g
f orms s uc h as w u ma r a n y a a n d p u r a ma n y a , t h e m eani ng c hanges fr om h otd
to fig h t . Thi s c hange w i l l b e c omme n t e d on at l en gt h i n t he s ec t i o n
de a l i ng w i t h r e c i p roc a l f or ms o f t h e ve rb , 3.1 4 .
28

3 . 2 .8 Class VI I I - V e r b s of A c t i o n s P e r fo r m e d w i t h the H a n d s

The a ffi x uni t s o f t h i s verb c l as s ar e us ed wi th a great n umb er

of verb s te ms denot i ng a ny act i on p er formed w i th the h a n ds w i t h t h e
e x ce p t i on o f t h O S E' l i s t ed for C l a s s VI I a b o ve . Wi th tl: i s verb c la s s .
t h e af f i x u ni t s must a lways b e a c c omp ani e d by a v e rb s te m . as the
af fi x uni t s thems e l ves do not r e p r e s e n t mi ni ma l meani ngful u t t e ranc e s .
The af f i x uni t s ar e as fo l l ows :

non-Future F uture
I ka n ga r a n ga wa r a
y ou s g . ka n a r a a ra
he - s h e kara kawara
we p l . i nc I . ka rrkara n ga r r k a r a
w e p I . e xc I . a r an n ga r a r a
you p I . karara a r a ra
t h ey kur l nya p u ra ra
we d I . i nc l . k am a r a ng ama r a
V e rb s t e ms commonly used w i th C la s s X af fi xes a r e :
p u r i ty t o fix. mend. repair
kat t o pi ck (fru i t )
pit to wa s h
p etu r to tear
p e ty t o have
r e ty e t o wa n t. � i k e
tu n g k u t l to push
tu r t o pi ck up ( s ev era� o b j ec t s )
ny l r l k l t o s cra t ch
ya l a k t o �os e
p l r k l ty to r u b
p i r keI to untie
wa r a k t o u ncov e r
tim t o b u ry
p a r a ty t o chas e
pal t o bre ak
Examp l es o f us age :
ty l n ta k a ng a r a pal ayl
s p e ar I hand ( NF ) break p a s t aux .
I b r o k e t h e spea r .
ml natl a k a n g a ra p ety
do g g ood I hand ( NF ) hav e
I hav e a g o od do g .
 29

3.2.9 Class IX - V e r b s o f B u i l d i n g or De s tr oy i n g

The v erb s t ems whi c h b e l ong t o thi s c l a s s denote ma i nly ac t i ons

of b u i l di n g or d e s troy i n g . The re ar e , h ow e v e r , s ev er a l verb s t ems
b e l ongi ng t o C las s I X whi ch do not fit i nt o thi s ge n era l s emant i c
field . A s w i th C la s s VI I I , t h e affix uni t s o f t h i s verb c la s s mus t
a lway s b e a c c o mp ani e d by a v erb s t em, as they do not i n t h ems e l v e s
c on s t i t u t e c o mp l ete u t t erance s . T h e aff i x uni t s are :

non-F utur e Future

I kanga nya ngawa ny a
y ou s g . k a n a nya anya
he-she ka nya k a w a n ya
we p I . i nc I . k a r r ka n y a nga r r kanya
we p l . e xc l . anya n ng a r a n y a
y ou p I . ka ra nya a n y a ra
t h ey k u n g un y a pu r i nya
we d I . incl . k a ma n y a nga ma n y a

Ve rb s te ms us e d i n conj unc t i on w i t h thes e af fi x uni t s i nc l ude :

y erp to s ha v e, a o mb
mi t t o fi nd, di s a o v e r
kutyuk to s w a l l ow
pat t o b ui l d
pa 1 t o c hop dow n
tya nta l to lean on
kur to hi t
ka t t o a u t off, au t up
tya t to d i g
ku 1 t o fi Z Z
E xamp l e s o f usage :
nge l k i ny kanga nya tva t ay i
hole I b ui l d ( NF ) di g p as t aux .
I dug a ho le .
a wa k a ng a n y a ka t ay i
mea t I b ui ld ( NF ) aut p a s t a ux .
I a u t up the m e a t .
k a r a wa l a kananya mit ay i ?
money y ou b ui ld ( NF ) fi n d p as t aux .
D i d y ou fi n d the money ?

3.2.10 Cl a s s X - V erbs of C u t ti ng
The verb s t ems b e l on gi ng t o t h i s c la s s fi t i n t o t h e gene r a l fie l d
o f c u t t i ng a n d c l eani ng , a l th o ugh nothi ng app roa chi ng a s p e c i fi c f i e l d
30

o f me ani ng has b e en f ound whi ch c overs a l l t h e memb ers o f th e c la s s .

A s for C lass es V I I I and I X , t h e af f i x uni t s mus t a lway s b e a c co mp ani e d
b y a v er b s te m . The C la s s X a f fi x u n i t s a r e a s fol l ows :

non-F utur e Future

I kanga l a n ga p a l a
y ou s g . ka na I a pula
h e- s h e ka l a kapa la
we p l . i n c l . karrka l a nga r r ka l a
we p l . e x c l . puIan nga r a l a
you p I . kara l a pu l a r a
t h ey ku l i nya pura l a
w e d l . i nc 1 . k am a l a n ga m a l a
V e rb s tems u s e d w i th C l a s s X a f fi x uni t s i nc l ude :
kat t o c u t, m a k e (a c a n o e )
ka tur t o c h a s e awa y , hunt
petur to s p l i t
putur to c l ean
mo r k t o c ov el'
Examp l es o f u sage :
n ga t ta ka ngal a p u tu r ay i
house I c u t ( NF ) c le a n p as t aux .
I c l ea n ed t h e h o u s e
tya l tya ra y i m i ny k a n ga l a kat ay i
y e s t e rday w ood I c ut ( NF ) cut p a s t a ux .
Yes t e rday I c u t t h e w o o d .
p i yame r r k a n ga l a kat p i ya yi
ha i l' I c u t ( NF ) cut head pas t aux .
I cu t h i s h a il' .

3.2.11 Cl ass X I - V er b s o f Ea t i n g
Thi s a nd a l l the verb c la s s es which f o l low hav e f ew memb ers ,
s o me t i me s on ly a s i ngle memb er , although mos t of them are freque nt ly
u s ed i n da i ly c o nve rs a t i o n .
C la s s X I has only two v erb s tems whi ch a c c o mp any t h e af f i x uni t s .
M o s t oft en the af f i x u ni t s a l one are u s ed as they c ons ti t u t e c o mp l et e
u t t er a n c e s i n t h eir own righ t . Th e af fi x unit s are :
 31

non-Futur e Future
I keng i 1 a n gew i l a
y ou s g . ken i la wi 1 a
h e - s he ki 1a k ew i 1 a
we p l . i n c l . ki rrki l a ng i r r k i l a
we p l . e xc 1 . wi 1an nger i l a
you pl . ke r i I a w i l ara
t h ey k i I i nya piri Ia
we d l . i nc l . kem i I a ngemi l a

k e ng i l a means I e a t or dr i n k. whi le n g e w i l a means I s ha t t e a t or

dr i nk . Thus :

t y a l tya ra w u ta tu r w u ken gi l a yi
y es t erday wa ter b i t ter I dri nk ( NF ) p a s t a ux .
Y e s t e r day I h a d a dr i nk o f b e e r.
The re i s o n e p e cu l ar i ty w i th thi s verb c las s whi ch i s i mp o rtant .
When t h e ob j e ct w u t a � r e c e d e s the affix uni t , t h e verb exp res s e d i n i t
me ans t o dri nk . H ow�v e r , whe n w u t a f ol l ows the a f fi x uni t the meani ng
i s to di e . Thus :
t ya 1 t ya r a ki 1a wu t a yi
y e s te rday h e d ri nk ( NF ) wa t e r p as t a u x .
Y e s terday h e di e d .
Th e af fix uni t s f o r t h i s c l ass have b e e n f ou nd o n ly w i th the verb
s t ems pe t I e t o p a i n t o ne s e t f and t y a m t o e a t ( of a n i ma t s ) . Examp l e :
pet I e k i I i nya ma t a yi
pa i n t t h e y dri nk ( NF ) d ua l p as t a ux .
T h ey t w o p a i n t e d e ach o t h e r.

3 . 2 .1 2 Class X I I - Ver bs of S e e i n g
Th e af fi x uni t s of C l a s s X I I ar e u s e d i n c o njunc t i on w i t h only
two verb s t ems , m i r i t o t oo k a t a nd y e t a n ta r a to b e j e a t o up. . Th e
a f f i x u ni t s a re as fo l lows :

non-Future F uture
I k a ng a ta n n gawa t a n
y ou s g . k a n a ta n veta
he - s h e katan k a wa t a n
we p l . incl . ka r r k a t a n n g a r r ka t a n
we p l . excl . yetan n ga r a t a n
y ou p l . ka r a tan y e ta r a
t he y k u t i nya p u ra t a n
we d l . i nc l . k a ma t a n n g a ma t a n

k a n g a t a n a l o n e me ans I s e e whi l e ng awa t a n means I s ha t t s e e .

32

S ome e xamp le s o f usage :

peku y u wa ka n ga t a n ay i
w oman that I s ee ( NF ) p a s t a ux .
I s aw t h a t woman.
peku kangata n mi r i yi
w o ma n I s ee ( NF ) Look p as t a ux .
I L o o k e d a t t h e woma n .
kana ta n yetantara yi ka n t u y uw a
y ou s ee ( NF ) j e a L o us p as t aux . ma n tha t
Were y ou j e a L o us of t h a t ma n ?

3.2.13 Class X I I I - V e r b s o f C a u s i n g M o v eme n t

Th i s v e rb c la s s c o ns i s t s mai n ly of v erbs denot i ng a c t i ons o f
mov eme nt . . i n or o u t o f some t h i ng . . I ts a c comp any i ng a f fi x uni t s mus t
alway s b e u s e d i n c o n j unc t i on w i t h a v e rb s tem as they have n o
i nd e p e n dent meani ng . T h e a ff i x uni t s a r e :

non-Future Future
I k a n ga t i n n gawa t i n
you s g . kanat i n wut i
he-she kut i n kawa t i n
we p l . i nc l . karr kat i n n ga r r k a t i n
we p l . e x c l . wu t i n ng a r a t i n
you p I . karat i n wu t i r a
t h ey ku t i nya purati n
we d l . i nc 1 . k a ma t i n n g a ma t i n

V erb s t ems u s e d w i th the above af fix uni ts i nc l ud e :

w u ty t o p o ur o u t
p i tY i t o r o r r up . wrap u p
t u n g ku t i to push
ty uk t o s e nd
t u tu y to try o u t . s tr a i gh t en
pir t o throw away
Examp les of usag e :
mu ty u ng nga ny ngawa t i n p i ty i tu
swa g my I mov e ( F ) r o L L fu t ure aux .
I s ha l l ro l L up my swag .
wu t a ka na t i n wu ty ay i
wa t er I move ( NF ) p o ur pas t aux .
I p o ur ed o u t t he w a t er .

3.2.13.1 V eJL b4 0 6 F a.lL<. 119

C la s s X II I c on ta i ns a s Ub - c l a s s w i t h only one memb er w hi c h c o n si s t s
o f af f i x u n i t s onl y . I t means t o fa L Z , and pat terns a lmos t i de nt i c a l ly
 33

with t h e a f f i xes o f C la s s X I I I . Th e a f f i x uni t s for t h e s ub - c la s s

ar e :

non-F u tu re F ut ur e

I k a n ga t i n t i ngawa t i n t l
y ou s g . kana t i nt i a t a n g en t i
h e -s h e ka t i n t i k a wa t i n t i
we p l . i nc l . ka r r k a t i n t i n g a r r ka t i n t l
we p l . e x c l . a t i n t i n y a na nga r a t l n t i
y ou p l . ka ra t i nt l a t a r a n g en t i
they k u t i n t i ny a purat i nt l
we d l . i n c l k am a t i n t i ng a ma t i n t i
Examp l es o f usage :
tawar kat l nt l yl
tpee h e fa l l ( NF ) p as t aux .
The t p e e fe l Z d ow n .
t ya l ty a r a k a n ga t i n t i yi
y e s t epday I f a l l ( NF ) p a s t aux .
Ye s t e pd ay I f e l l down .

3.2.14 C l a s s X I V - U na s p ec t u a l Verbs
Thi s c la s s has b e en c al l ed ' un as p e c tua l ' b e c au� e i t s a f fi x uni t s
l a c k t he t ri -morphemi c s tru c t ur e o f a l l t h e o t h e r verb c la s s es . In
t h i s c la s s , t h e t hi r d morpheu.e , whi c h i ndi c at e s what type o f a ct i on
is b e in g p e r for me d ( a s e xp lai ned in 3 . 2 . 1 ) , i s a b s ent . No c lear
s ema nt i c field c o vers th i s c la s s , b ut w u t t o g i v e i s b y far i ts mos t
c ommonly us ed memb e r . The a f fi x uni t s a r e as fo l lows :
non-Futu r e F uture
I k en g l ng l y e
y ou s g . ken t ye
he-she k a nga k l ye
w e p l . i nc l . k l r' r k l n g er r k l
w e p l . e xc l . y en ng er I
y ou p l . k er I y er I
t h ey k l ny a pir I
we d l . i nc l . k em l n g em l
The a f fi x uni t s mus t a lways b e us e d i n conj unc t i on w i t h a v erb
s tem, as they h a ve no i ndep e n dent meani n g . S ome verb s te ms o c c urr i ng
w i t h the s e af fi x uni ts ar e :
wu t to give
po to smoke
wu r u t to give ( s e v e ra l o b j ec ts ) . to put
down
t u t uy t o s tpai g h ten
34

Examp l es o f us a ge :
ka r awa l a ng i y e n i mp e wut atu
mo ney I (F) you gi v e fu t ure aux .
I s ha n g i v e y ou s ome m o n ey .
wu n keng i po yi tya l tya ra
tobaaao I ( NF ) s mo k e p a s t aux . y e s t er day

3.2.15 C l a s s X V - V e r b s of V e r t i ca l M o v em e n t
T h i s v e rb c la s s i s r e s tr i c t e d t o verb s t e ms d e no t i ng a c t i o n s o f
j umpi ng up and d ow n , b o t h t r ans i tive a nd i ntr ans i t i ve . The aff i x
u ni t s whi ch fo l l ow mus t alway s b e us e d i n c o nj unc t i on w i th a v e rb
stem:
non-Future Future
I k a n g i na n ga n ge t a n g a
you sg . k a n l na nga na
'
he-she k a na n ga k e t a n ga
we p l . incI . k i r r k i na nga n g i r r k i na n g a
we p l . e x c l . na n n g e, r i na n g a
y ou p l . k a r i na nga nara
they k u n u n a ng a p i r i na n g a
we d l . i nc l . k a m i na n ga n g em l n a n g a
Verb s t ems us e d w i t h t h e s e a f fi x uni t s are :
p u r up t o da nae
pal t o b r e a k by jump i ng o n
p e ty t o s ta nd o n
Examp l e s o f us age :
t y a l ty a r a wa n g k a k a n g i na nga purup ay i
y es t e rday a o rr ob or e e I j ump ( NF ) danae p as t aux .
Yes te rday I d a na e d a a or r o b ore e .
ty i n ta k a n g i n a n ga pa l ay i
s p ear I j ump ( NF ) break p a s t aux .
I b r o k e the s p ea r by j ump i ng o n i t .
awa ma l a y e na k a n g i na n g a pety ay i kumpu nunu
IT, ea t s na k e on I j ump ( NF ) get pas t aux . foo t w i th
I p u t my foo t o n a s na k e .

3 .2.1 5.' V ellb4 0 6 C o o k.i. ng

Thi s s ub - c la s s c o ntains verbs c on c e rne d only � i t h cooki ng and
b o i l i ng , a nd has affix uni t s a lmos t i d e nt i c al w i th t h o s e o f C la s s XV .
I n thi s c as e , the affix uni t may b e u s e d wi t h o ut th e a c c o mp a niment o f
a v e rb s t em . The a f f i x u ni t s are :
 35

non-Future Future
I ka n i nyanga nge ty a nga
you sg . k a n i ny a n g a nya
he-she k a n g a ny a k e t y a nga
w e p l . i nc l . k i r rk i nya nga n g l r r k i nya nga
w e p l . excL ny a n nga r i nya nga
y ou p l . k a r i ny a n g a ny a r a
t h ey k u ny u ng a na p i r i ny a ng a
w e d l . i nc l . kam i n y a nga n g a m l ny a n g a

ka ng i n y a ng a a lo ne means I oo o k , whi l e n g e t y a n g a mea ns I s ha L L ooo k .

The ab ove a ff i x uni ts a r e a l s o u s e d w i t h t h e v e rb s t ems w u t o h ea t
up, a nd t u t u y t o s tra i g h t e n b y h ea ti ng .
Examp les of u s age :
awa k a n g i ny a n g a wu yl y l m l ny y e na
mea t I c o ok ( NF ) h ea t pas t aux . fi r e in
I h e a te d th e mea t up on t h e fi r e .
ty i n ta n g e ty a n g a tu tuy a tu
s p ear I c ook ( F ) s tr a i g h t e n f u ture aux .
I am g o i ng t o s tr a ig h te n t h e s p ear (by h ea t i ng i t ) .
awa wama n g k a n ka ng i ny a n ga yl
m ea t wa l laby I c ook ( NF ) p a s t aux .
I oo o k ed t h e wa L L a by .

3 .2.16 Class XVI - V e r b s of A r r a n g i n g

The v e rb s t ems w hi c h are memb ers o f thi s c l as s deno te a c t i o n s o f
arrangi ng o r p u t t i ng ob j e c � s i nt o heaps and s u c h l i k e . Th e a ff i x
uni t s mus t a lway s b e a c c omp a ni e d b y a v e r b s te m , a s t h ey a l o ne d o not
c ons t i tu t e c omp le t e u t t er a nc es . The a ff i x uni ts are :

non-Future F u ture

I k a nga nka nma n g a p a ma

y ou s g . k a n a n ka nma p a ma
h e-s h e k a n k a n ma k a pama
w e p I . i nc L k a r r k a n k a n ma n g a r r k a n k a nm a
w e p l . ex c l . paman ng a r a n k a nma
y ou p I k a r a n k a n ma pama ra
they k u n k u n y am a p u ra n k a nm a
w e d l . i nc l . k a m a n k a nma ng a m a n k a nma
V e rb s t ems used w i t h th e ab ove a f f i x uni ts are :
tu r to h eap up
kurp to s ta nd s . th . up ; pu t i n p La oe
t a tta t to ma k e a fi r e
36

Examp l es o f us age :
y i m i ny k a n g a n k a nm a ta t ta t ay i
fi r e I arrange ( NF ) set p a s t aux .
I s e t t he fire .
Y i m i ny k a n g a n ka nm a tur ay i
wood I arra nge ( NF ) h eap p a s t aux .
I h e a p e d up t h e woo d.

3 .2. 1 7 Class XVI I - V er b s o f S e ns i ng

Thi s c la s s i s c onc e rned w i t h v e rb s o f s ens i ng a nd s me l li n g , p l us
,

any r e s u l t a nt a c t i on from the s e ns i ng , s uc h as f le e i ng from d a n ge r .

The a f f i x u ni t s are as f o l l ows :

non-Future F uture

I ke n g i n y m e n n ge p i nyme n
y ou s g . ke n i n y m e n p i n y me
he-she k i n y me n k e p i ny m e n
w e p l . i nc l . k i r r k l n y me n n g i r r k i n y me n
we p l . exc l . p i nyme n n ge r i n y me n
y ou p l . k e r i n y me n p i nyme r e
they k i nyme nye p i r i ny m e n
w e d l . i nc 1 . k e m i n ym e n n g e m i n y me n

k e n g l n ym e n a l one me ans I s me L L , whi le n g e p i n y me n me ans I s ha L L s me L L .

C la s s XVII a f f i x uni t s are u s e d a l s o w it h :
na r a ta r a t o r un a Lo n g
pet . . . tet i t o ge t up
tet i t o ge t up
Examp l e s o f u s age :
m i ya k e n g i ny m e n ay l na t 1 a
foo d I sme l l ( NF ) p a s t a ux . good
I sme L t g o o d food.
mi . k i ny m e n na r a t a � a
do g h e s me l l ( NF ) run
T h e d og i s r un ni ng a L ong.
ml pet k i nyme n tet i yi
dog op e n h e sme l l ( NF ) back p a s t a ux .
Th e dog g o t up .

3 . 2 . 18 Class XVI I I - V er b s o f Bur n i n g

Thi s las t verb c la s s has b ee n fou nd u s e d w i th only one ve rb s te m ,
name ly y u r w u t o b u r n . The a ff i x u ni t s are :
 37

non -Future Future

I ka n g a n t a n ng awa n t a n
y ou sg . ka n a n t a n wu n t a
he - s h e ku nta n kawa n t a n
w e p l . i nc l . k a r r ka n t a n ng a r r k a n ta n
w e p l . exc l . wu n ta n nga ra ka n t a n
y ou p l . ka r a n t a n wu n t a r a
they ku n t a n y a p u r a nta n
w e d l . i nc l . kama n t a n n g a ma n t a n
Examp l e :
woro k a n ga n ta n y u rwu yi
g ra s s I b ur n ( NF ) burn pa s t aux .

3 .3 SUMM A R Y O F A F F I X U N I T M O R P H EM ES
The a ff i x uni t s f o r t h e d i f fe r e nt v erb c la s s e s , l i s t ed i n
parad igms ab ove i n or d er t o f ac i l i ta t e l ea r ni ng a nd d emons t r a t e the
s em a nt i c f i e ld s covered by e ac h , pre s e nt a c er ta i n d e gr e e o f r e gu lar i ty .
How ev er , they a l s o pre s e nt a large numb er of i rregular i t i es . Summary
tab l e s o f regular i t i e s and i rr egu lar i t i e s wi l l now b e giv e n s o as t o
e l im i nat e t he need t o c omm i t a l l par t s o f t h e paradigms t o memory .
As wa s s e en a b ov e , 3 . 2 . 1 , ea c h aff i x u ni t c ons i s t s norma l l y o f
t hr e e morphemes . Thu s w e hav e , f o r e xamp l e :
k a - ng a - n i I go
k a - n g i - na n I sit
k a - ng i - v a I "l i e

3 .3 .1 T e n s e M o r p h em e s
The f ir s t o f th e thre e morpheme s , the n, i nd i ca t e s t h e b d � i c � e n� e
of t h e verb . Th e f orm of t h e b as i c t e ns e morpheme s ( fu t ur e and non­
f u t ur e ) is c on s t a nt t h r o ughout a l l t he verb c la s s e s . The t en s e mark i ng
morphem e s are as f o l lows :
ka - non-f u t ur e f o r a l l p ers ons e x ce p t f ir s t
p e r s on p lura l exc l u s i v e a nd third p e r s o n
p l ura l .
ku- no n-f u t ur e f or thi r d p er s o n p lura l . Th e
f ir s t p er s on p l ur a l exc l u s i v e i s h igh l y
irr egular and w i l l b e s e t o u t i n a s e p a r a t e
tab Ie .
n ga - f uture t ens e for a l l p er s ons e x c ep t s e c o nd
p er s on s i ngu lar and p lu r a l and t h i r d p e r s o n
s i ngular . W i th t h i r d p er s on s i n gu lar the
n g a - is rep l a c e d by k a - .
 pu- future t ens e f o r t h i r d p er s on p l ura l .
The s e c o nd p er s o ns s i ngu l ar a nd p lu r a l
a r e h i gh l y irregular a n d wi l l b e s e t o ut
i n a tab l e , t o ge ther w i t h the f i r s t p er s o n
p l u r al exc lus i v e .

3 .3.2 P e r s o n M o r p h em e s
The p e r s o n morp h emes o c c ur s e c o nd i n t h e aff i x unit . Th e i r
re gu lar i t i e s a n d i rregular i t i e s w i l l b e s et o u t i n a s er i e s o f f o ur
tables .

non-Future Future

I - n ga - - wa - ( s ee Tab le 8 )
you s g . - na - - s ee Tab l e 6
he -8he -� - - wa - ( s ee Tab l e 8 )
we p l . i nc 1 . -r rka- -rrka-
w e p l . e xc l . - s ee Tab l e 6 -ra-
y ou p l . -ra- - s ee Tab l e 6
they - ny a - ( s ee Tab le 7 ) - ra - ( s ee T ab l e 7 )
we d l . i nc l . - rn a - - rn a -

TA B L E 5

The f orms f or the f i r s t p er s o n p l ura l e xc lus i ve of the non­

f uture a nd thos e for the s ec o nd p er s on s i ng u lar and p l ural of t he
fut ur e t ens e form a c l os e-k ni t uni t w i t h i n each verb c la s s . How e ver ,
they are no t predi c t ab l e a c r o s s c l a s s e s . The forms f or a l l c la s s es
are s et out i n Tab l e 6 .
 39

We pl . e xc l . NF You s g . F . You p l . F .

C I . Ia wa r i n wa r i wa r i r a
b anti n ant i a n t i ra
Cl . II poron pay oro pa r i nyoro
C l . II I a t a n ma n ta ngama t a n ga r a m a
b ta n ta ngam t a n g a r am
C l . rV yun y u ngu yungura
C LV ni n n i nga n i ng a r a
C l .VI me n me me r e
C l .VI I wuma n wuma wuma r a
C l .V I I I aran ara a r a ra
C l . IX a ny a n a nya a ny a r a
C l .X pu 1 a n pu1a pu l a ra
C l .XI w i la n wi la wi lar a
C l .XII y e ta n veta y e ta ra
C LX I I I wu t i n wu t i wu t i r a
C l .XIV yen ye ver i
C l .XVa na n na nara
b nya n nya nya r a
C l .XVI p am a n pama pama r a
C l .XVI I p i nymen p i n y me p i n y me r e
C l .XV I I I wu n t a n wu n t a wun t a r a

TA B L E 6

W i t h t h e s e affi x uni t s no m orp heme d i v i s i on h as b ee n ma de i nt o

t e ns e , a c t or and typ e of a c t i o n a s was d o ne f o r al l o th e r affi x uni ts .
F or a l l prac t i cal p urp os es a n a t t empt a t s uc h a d iv i s i i o n w o u l d b e
u s e les s . Th e affi x uni ts for the s e p er s ons has , therefore , b ee n c o n­
s i de r e d as fus ed and i nd i v i s i b le , i nc orp o rat i ng t e ns e , p e rs o n and t y p e
of action. I t i s t o b e no t e d , h owev er , that � f t h e f orm f o r t h e
s ec on d p ers o n s ingu lar i s tak e n as th e b a s e f or � - n i s a dde d to gi ve
the f orm f or t h e f i r s t p er s o n p l ur a l e xc l u s i v e , a n d - r a i s added t o
f orm the s ec ond p er s on p l ural f u t ur e . Thi s c o u ld b e s ummar i s ed i n
t h e formu la e :

2nd Future + - n = 1 s t p l ural exc l u s ive non-Future

2 nd F u ture + - r a = 2nd p l ural Future
Th e forms of the af f i x unit s for t h i r d p ers o n i n b oth t h e
Fut ur e and t h e non-F u t ur e p r e s e nt f ur t he r irre gular i t i es , b es t
high lighted b y s et t i ng them o u t i n a t ab l e , as f o l lows :
40

They ( non-Future ) They (F uture )

C l .I a k u - n i - n ya pu-ra-ni
b k u n - t i - nya p u-ran - t i
C l .I I k u- ny o - r o po- ro- nyor o
C l .I I I a ku - n y a -ma p u - r a -m a
b ku - nya -m pu - r a -m
C L IV ku-y i -nya p i - r i -y a
C LV k u -n i -nan p i -r i -na n
C l .V I k u -m i - ny a p u - r a -me
C l .V I I k u - m u - ny a pu - r a-man
C l .V I I I k u - r i - ny a p u - ra - r a
C l .IX k u - n g u - ny a p u- r i - nya
C LX k u - l i - ny a pu-ra - l a
C l .xI k i -1 i - nya pi-ri-la
C l .XII k u - t i - ny a pu-ra-tan
C l .XIII ku - t i - n y a p u- r a - t i n
Cl .XIV k i - nya p i -r i
C l .XVa k u - n i - na n g a p i - r i - na n ga
b k u - ny u - n g a n a p i - r i - n y a n ga
C l . XVI k u n - k u - n y a ma pu - r a n - ka n m a
C l . XVI I k i ny - m e - n y e p i - r i n y - me n
C l . XV I I I k u n - t a - ny a p u- r a n - t a n

TA B L E 7

The unu s ua l feat ure w i th t h e t h i r d p e r s o n p l ura l aff ix uni t s i s

t h a t i n t h e non-futur e t e ns e t h e p ers on morph eme mos t o f t en oc c up i e s
t he f i na l p os i ti o n i n t h e u ni t i ns t e ad o f t h e s e c ond . W i th the f ut ur e
t en s e , t h e m orph emes obs erv e t h e norma l orde r i ng . T h e mos t c ommon
form o f the t h ir d pers on p lural �orpheme i s :
non-F uture - ny a
F u t ure -ra -
The e x a c t f orms are not , h ow ever , a c cu ra t e ly pre di ct ab le an d mus t b e
le arnt for e ach v erb c la s s .
W i th the f u t ur e t ens e , t h e f i rs t and thi rd p er s o ns s i ngular are
h i gh ly i rregular a nd unpred i c tab l e . They do , h oweve r , have a lm os t
i de nt i c a l forms , t h e s o le d i f fer ence b ei ng that the v e lar na s a l ( n ga - )
o f the t en s e m orpheme o f t h e f i r s t p e rs on s i ngular b e c ome s a v e lar s t op
( k a - ) wi th the t h i rd p e r s on s i ngular . Th e a c t ua l p e rs on mar ki n g
mor p h eme s , whi c h oc c upy the s e cond p os i t i on i n t h e af fix uni t , ar e
i de n t i c a l f or t h e f i rs t a nd third p er s o n s s i ng ular i n t he f ut ur e
t e ns e , a s wi l l b e r e v e a l e d b y Tab l e 8 .
 41

I (Future ) He -She ( Futur e )

C l .I a n g a -wa - n i k a -wa - n i
b n g a -wa n - t i ka -w a n - t i
C l .I I nga -po - r o k a -p o - r o
C l .I I I ng a - t a - rn a k a - t a -rn a
C l .IV nga -yu ka -yu
C l .V nge - t i ke - t i
C l .VI nge-pe ke - p e
• C l .V I I n g a - rna ka - rn a
C l .VI I I n g a -wa - r a ka -wa - r a
C l .IX n g a -wa - ny a k a - w a - ny a
C l .X ng a - pa - l a ka -pa - l a
C l .X I nge-w i - l a ke - w i - 1 a
C l .X I I n g a -wa - t a n k a -wa - t a n
C l .X I I I n g a -wa - t i n k a -wa - t i n
C l .X I V ng i -y e k i -ye
C l . XV ng e - ta - nga k e - ta - n g a
C l . XVI n g a - p a -rna k a - p a -rna
C l . XVI I n g e - p i n y -rn e n k e - p i n y - rne n
C l . XVI I I n g a -wa n - t a n k a -wa n - t a n

TA B L E 8

Two h omoph onous morpheme s are therefore in e x i s t e nc e , ka ­

i nd i cat ing the non- future t e ns e in m o s t c as e s , b u t a l s o the f u t ur e
t ens e f o r t hird p er s on s i ngu lar .

3 .3.3 A s p e c t M o r p h em e s
The a s p e c t morp heme o c c up i e s t h e thi rd and f i na l p os i t i o n i n
t h e aff ix u ni t , w i t h t h e e xc e p t i on o f the f i r s t p er s on p lura l
e xc l u s i v e non-fu t ur e and the s ec o nd p e r s o n s i n gu lar and p lura l o f
the future t e ns e , a s s et out i n Tab l e 6 , and t h e third p e r s o n p lural
non- f u t ur e as s et ou t i n T ab le 7 . The asp e c t morp heme i n di c at e s
what t ype of a c t i on i s b ei ng p e rf orme d . I t i s thi s , i n f a c t , o n
whi c h t h e c la s s i f i c at i on of Mar anungku v e r b s i s b as ed . T h e tab l e o f
a s p e c t mor p h em e s is a s f o l l ows :
42

C I . Ia -ni verbs o f m o t i o n
b -ti verbs of m o t i o n
C L II - ro v e rb s o f p r o j e c t i o n
Clo III -ma v erbs o f s t andi ng
C L IV -ya verbs o f lyi ng
C I . Va - na n verb s o f s i t t i ng
b - ku r v e rb s o f 1 1 vi n g
C I .VI - me v erbs of s a y i ng
Cl .VII -ma n verb s o f h ol di ng •

C I . VI I I -ra v erbs o f a c t i on d o ne
w i th the hands
C I . IX - nya v e rb s o f b ui l di ng or
d e s troy i n g
CloX -la verbs o f c u t t i ng
Cl oXI -1 a v e rb s of ea t i n g
C l oXII - ta n verbs of s ee i n g
C l o XI I I -ti n verbs of c aus i ng movement
C I . X IV - IJ unas p e c t ua l ve rb s
C l . XV - na n g a verbs of ver t i c a l movement
C l o XVI - k a nma v e r b s o f arrangi ng
C l o XV I I -me n verbs of s ens i ng
C I . XVI I I -ta n v e rb s o f b urni n g .

TABLE 9

3.4 T E NS E A ND AS P E C T
A s w a s s ee n ab o v e , t h e b as i c t ens e d i s t i n c t i o n i n Maranungku i s
b etween F ut ure and non � F utu r e . Th e F ut ur e , taki ng the Fut ure a f f i x
u ni t s , r ef e rs t o any a c t i on oc c urri ng at s ome f u t ur e t i me . T h e n on ­
F ut ur e , tak i ng t h e non-F ut ur e a ff i x uni ts , r e fers t o any a ct i o n
though t o f a s tak i n g p l a c e e i t h e r i n the p re s ent or i n the p as t . The
e x p l a na t i on of t ens e a nd a s p e c t w i l l th erefore b e t r e at ed i n two
s e c t i on s : F u t ur e and no n-Fut ure . A l t h ough t h e b as i c t ens es were o ut ­
li ne d ab ov e , i n 3 . 2 . 1 , they wi l l re appe ar i n more de ta i l i n thi s
s e ct i on for t h e s a k e o f c omp le t ene s s .

3.4.1 The Non -Future

Mara nungk u non-F uture s en t e n c e s may b e r ep r e s ent ed b y t h e
f o l l ow i ng formula : -
± T ( ± S ± 0 ) + AU ( NF ) ± VS ± me ± n i n i ± Yi
I n t h e f o rmu la : + = ob l i ga t ory ; ± = op t i ona l ; T Time ; S = S ubj e c t ;
o = Obj ect ; AU = A ffi x U ni t ; NF = Non-F uture ; VS V e rb S te m .
3 .4 .1 . 1 G e n ella..t Pa.6 t
With th e ge ne r a l pas t t e ns e , t he t i me s lo t i s o f t en l e f t u nf i ll e d ,
a l t h o ugh i t may b e f i l l ed b y t i me a d verbs s u c h a s t y a l t y a r a y es t e r day ,
or k u t ya l a t oday . The a f fi x uni t and verb s te m are f o l l ow ed by t h e
p a s t t ens e auxi l i ar y a y i or y i ( f or d i s tr i b ut i o n s ee 3 . 2 . 1 ab ove ) ,
g i v i ng the formu l a :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS + a y i
Examp les :
a wa ma n a r r k k a n g a ma n kur ay i
me a t k a n ga r o o I h o l d ( NF ) spe ar p as t a ux .
I s p e ar e d a kanga r oo .
tya I tya r a w i ny i n g k i n y k a n ga r a p u r i ty ay i
y es t e rday b oomerang I hand ( NF ) ma k e p as t a ux .
Yes t er day I made a b o om e rang .

3 .4 .1 . 2 R ec e nt Pa.6 t
A n i mm e d i a t e or r e ce nt p a s t may b e c o nv ey e d by two di f fer e nt
c on s t r uc t io ns . The f i r s t c o ns i s ts of fi l li ng the t ime s l ot w i t h e i t h e r
k u t y a l a t a n y or k u tya l a ke n i meani ng t o day n o w a n d t o da y t h i s , a n d b y
t h e us e o f th e p a s t t ens e auxi li ary , g i v i ng the formu la :
+ T ± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS + a y i
Examp l e :
k u tya l a ta ny awa wam a n g k a n k a n ga m a n kur ay i
to day now meat w a l laby I h o l d ( NF ) s p ear p a s t aux .
T od ay I s p e ar e d a wa l laby .
The s e c ond and more empha t i c c o n s t r uc t i o n c o n s i s t s o f p u t t ing a n i n i or
ni ni ( s a me dis tr ib u t i on as for a y i and y i ) af ter t h e v e rb s t em a nd
b e f o r e the pas t a uxi liary ma rker , g i v i n g the formu la :
± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS + n i n i + yi
Examp l e :
w i ny i ng k i n y kang a r a p u r i ty ani ni yi
b oomerang I hand ( NF ) ma k e now p as t aux .
I hav e j u s t made a b oomerang .

3 .4.1 .3 V-i.6 u nt P a. 6 t
Th e di s ta nt p a s t te ns e i s i nd i c at e d by f i l li ng th e t i me s lo t wi th
e i th er a t a r a p r e v i o u s ly , or m u n ta k o l d , and p la c i ng t h e p as t aux i l i a ry
mark e r a f t e r the a f f i x uni t a nd verb s te m , gi v i ng th e formula :
+ T ± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS + y i
Examp l e :
a ta ra t awa r k a n ga l a kat ay i
pre v i o us ly tree I c ut ( NF ) a h op p as t a u x .
I a h op p e d dow n t h e t r ee s o me t i m e ago .
44

3 .4 . 1 .4 C om pl et ed A ctio n
To s p ec i fy c omp l e t e d a c t i o n , the t im e s l ot i s f i l l ed by wa k a y
fi n i s h , a nd the aff i x unit a nd v erb s t em ar e fo l l ow ed by t he p a s t
t e ns e au x i l i a ry , giv i ng t h e f ormu l a :
+ T ± 5 ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS + y i
Examp l e :
wa k a y a wa k a n g i n y a n ga yi
fi n i s h meat I c o ok ( NF ) pas t a u x .
I ha v e fi n i s h e d c o o k i ng t h e mea t .

3 .4 . 1 .S Pa� t C o nti nuou�

Th ere are t wo past co n t i nuous te ns es i n Mar anungku , a gener a l
p a s t c on t i nuous a nd a r e c ent pa s t c ont i nuous . Th es e ar e u s ed only
with v e rb s tems d e no t ing ac t i ons though t of as c o nti nu i ng for s ome
t ime . They hav e b ee n fou nd wi th the f o l l owing v erb s t ems :
pi tpi t t o c l ea n
tyu tyuk to c o o k
ty a k a I t o ea t
t a t ta t t o s tay
pot t o thl' ow
t y i ru n g t y i r u ng to b l ow b u b b l es
n g u I a ng t o cha t
taru ng t o s nore
ku t I u k to c o ug h
p a t y pa t y t o throw
t ra tray t o l o o k for
wu y i t y to rain
ngu n g u k to breathe
wu r u t t o g i ve
papal to h u n t
w u r ka to w or k
ka l ka I to c l i m b

(a ) Th e f i r s t p a s t c o nt i nu o u s t ens e i s t h e genera l p a s t c o nt i n­
uous . It c o ns i s t s o f f o l l owi ng the v erb s t em immed i at e ly b y t h e
c ont i nuou s mark e r m e , g i v i ng t h e s e nt en ce formu la :
± T ± 5 ± 0 + AU ( NF ) + VS + m e + y i
Examp les :
k a r a wa l a k a r r kama p a ty pa t y me yi
s to ne w e p l . s t a nd ( NF ) throw s ta t e p as t au x .
We p lu ra l inc l u s i v e w er e t h r ow i ng s to n es .
wu ta kama wuy i ty me yi
rain h e s ta nd ( NF ) p o ur s ta t e past aux .
I t was r ai n i ng hard .
 45

(b ) The s ec o n d p a s t c on ti nuou s t e ns e i s th e re cent p as t

c on t i nuou s . I t c ons i s ts of fo l lowi ng t h e v e rb s tem imme d i at el y b y
m e n i n i p lu s t h e u s ua l p as t auxi l i ary ma r k er , g i v i ng t h e f o rm u la :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) + VS + m e + n i ni + yi
E xamp l e :
k a ng i k u r tyapa t me ni ni yi
I s i t ( NF ) Bwim s ta te now p a s t au x .
I was ju s t swimm i ng .
Ob s er v e that t h e v e rb s t em may a l s o pr e ce d e t h e af f i x u ni t , as was
s hown ab ov e , 3 . 2 . 1 .

3 .4.1 .6 Plt e.o en.t r e M e

The p res ent tens e i ndi c at es a p r es e nt c o nt inu o us , and may b e
rep res e nt e d b y the formu la :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ( NF ) ± VS ± me ± n i n i
The p r e s ent c o n t i nuous i s i nd i c a te d by the non-Fu t ure a f f i x uni t
a l one , p l us the v e rb s t em whe n one i s req ui r ed ; w i th the verb s tems
l i s ted in 3 . 4 . 1 . 5 , the v erb s t em i s f o l lowed by the c o n t i nuo us
marker m e .
Examp les :
w i ny i ng k i n y kanga ra pu r i ty
b o ome rang I h and ( NF ) ma ke
I am m ak i ng a boom era ng .
ngu r k u r y uwa kaya
s Z eep there he l i e ( NF )
He i s s Z eeping there .
k a ng i na n ng u n g u k me
I s i t � NF ) bre at h e s t ate
I am b r e a t h i ng .
Whe n t h e emp ha s i s i s s ough t , t h e ab ov e utt era n c e s are f o l l owed b y
n i ni now , g i v i ng s e ntences s uch a s :
keng i l a ni ni
I eat ( NF ) now
I a m e a t i ng now .
k a n ga nya kur ni ni
I d e s t r oy ( NF ) hi t n ow
I am h i t t i ng h im now .

3.4.2 T h e F u tu r e
The re are f o ur f u t ur e t e ns es i n Ma ranungku : gen e ra l f u t ure ,
i mme di ate f u t ur e , f u tur e c o n t i nuo us and exhor t a t iv e .

3.4.2.1 G e n elt.ai F u.tult e

The gene r a l f u t ure t e ns e doe s no t i mp ly immediacy ; nor d o es i t
i mp l y a d i s tant future s pe c i fi c a l ly , a l t h o ugh i t i s s o u se d , a s no
46

s p e c i a l c ons tru c t i o n e xi s t s for t h i s p urp os e i n Mar anungk u . I t may

be s ummari s ed in t he f ormu l a :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU (F ) ± VS + a t u
The f u t ur e t e ns e affi x u ni t s are u s ed , t ogether w i t h the f ut ur e t e ns e
a u x i l i a ry marker t u or a t u ( f or d is tri b u t i on s ee 3 . 2 . 1 ) .
Examp l es :
y er i y i m i ny ng a p a J a kat a tu
t om o r r ow w ood I cut (F ) a h op futur e aux .
Tomorrow I s ha l l a h op t h e w o o d .
ye r i n g a wa n i wa t atu tawu n
t om or r o w I go ( F ) wa l k fut ure aux . t o w n
T omorrow I s ha l l wa l k t o t ow n .

3.4.2.2 I mm ed�at e F u tu� e

There ar e t w o i mme d i a t e f u t ur e c ons tr u c ti ons as f o l l ows :
(a ) The u s ua l imme di ate fut ur e c ons i s ts s i mp ly of t he f u t ur e
a f f i x uni t p lus v e r b s t em i f requi re d , g i v i n g t h e f ormula :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ( F ) ± VS
Examp l e :
ng a w a n i a t y awa
I go ( F ) u ri na t e
I a m going t o u ri na t e n ow .
(b ) When e mp ha s i s i s s ough t , the t i me s l o t i s fi l le d b y the t i me
p hra s e a t u k e n i fut ure t h i s ; th e v erb s te m and a f f i x u ni t a r e f o l l owed
by the f ut ur e t e ns e aux i li ary a tu . Thi s c an b e r e p re s ente d in the
f ormula :
+ T ± S ± 0 + AU ( F ) ± VS + a t u
Examp l e :
atu ken i y i m i ny ng a p a J a kat atu
f u t ur e this w o od I cut (F ) a h op f u t ur e aux .
I s ha l l a h op t h e w o o d s tr a i g h taway .

3 .4 .2.3 Fut� e C o n � nu o u b
The f uture c on t i nu ous i s n o t v e ry o f t e n u s ed . I t may b e rep re s ented
by t h e formul a :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ( F ) ± VS ± me + tu
Wi t h the v erb s tems which may take the c o n t i nu o us mar k e r m e , t h e
c o n t i n uous i s ind i c at e d by m e f o l l ow i ng t h e a ff i x uni t o r v e rb s t e m a s
t he c as e may b e . W i th a l l o th e r v erb s t ems , the norm a l f utur e t e ns e
may a ls o i nd i c a te t he f ut ur e co nti nuo us .
Examp le s :
yeri nge t i t y a pa t me tu
t omorrow I si t ( F ) swi m s t at e f u t ur e aux .
T om orrow I s ha l l b e swimmi ng .
 47

y er i a wa na 1 a n g a wa n i
t omor row mea t f or i t I go ( F )
Tomorrow I s ha Z Z b e h u n t i ng .

3 . 4 . 2 .4 T h � E x h o�tat�v �
A n e xh ortat iv e f u t ur e t e n s e i s i nd i c a ted b y t h e p ar t i c l e p a p r e ­
c e d i ng t h e aff i x u ni t a nd v e rb s t em , a nd b y n t a immed i at el y f o l low ing
it . Th i s giv es th e f ormula :

+ p a + AU (F ) ± VS + n t a
Examp le :
pa n g a ma n i n ta
Ze t we t w o go ( F ) now
L e t u s two i nc l us iv e g o n ow .

3 .4 .3 G ener a l N o t e to S ec t i o n 3 . 4
( a ) W i t h a l l o f the f o rmu lae ab o v e i t w i l l b e s ee n that the Verb
S t em (VS ) is op t i ona l . Th i s is b ec a u s e t he aff i x u n i t s thems e lv e s , b oth
fut u r e a nd no n-fut ure are p o t e n t i a l l y c omp l e t e u t t e ra nc e s f or m o s t verb
c las s es , a nd oft en ar e . F o r an e x p l a na t i o n o f t hi s fea tur e , s ee
a b ov e , s e ct i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . How e v er , i n most c a s e s a verb s t em i s r e q ui re d ,
i n ad di t ion t o the ac company i ng a f f i x u ni t , a s the e xamp les giv e n i n
t hi s s ect i o n have s hown .
(b ) In ne ar l y a l l of t h e e xamp le s , t h e aff i x uni t h a s p re c e de d
t he verb s t em . A s was p o i nt ed o ut i n 3 . 2 . 1 t h e v erb s t em ma y a l s c
p r e c e d e t h e a f f i x uni t w i t h out a ny change i n me aning . Thi s feat ur e
wi l l mani f es t i t s e l f c l ear ly i n t h e s e c t i on o n une l i c it ed t e x t s . In
t h e gramma t i c a l e xp la n at i on , howev e r , e xamp le s have b ee n c h o s e n w i th
t h e aff i x uni t s pr e c e di ng t h e v erb s tem b o th f or p e d a g ogi c a l r e a s ons
a nd b e c au s e this is by far t h e mo s t c ommon orde r i ng .

3.5 THE VI RECT OBJECT

T h e p os i t i on o f t h e d i r e c t ob j ec t i n t h e Maran ungku s ent ence h as
b een me nti one d ab ov e i n 3 . 1 . I t i s t reated i n d e t a i l h er e as th ere are
s ev eral t yp e s of d i r e c t obj e c t , s ome o f w h i c h require e xp la na t i o n
i mme di a t e l y , b ef o re fur ther f e a t ur e s of t h e Maranungku v e rb are
d i s c us s ed .

3 . 5 .1 No u n O b j e c t s
I n Maranungku t h e dir e c t ob j ec t - norma l ly fo l lows any noun s ub j ect
and oc c ur s i mme diat e l y b efore t h e af f i x u n i t a nd v e rb s te m . Th i s c an
b e s ee n i n t h e general s en t e n c e f ormu la :
± T ± S ± 0 + AU ± VS ± V erba l Par tic l es

Examp l e s :
t y a l t ya r a M U T I KA k a ng a r a p ur i t y ay i
y es t erday car I h a n d ( NF ) fix p a s t aux .
Y e s terday I fi xed t h e ca r .
48

Y I M I NY kanga l a ka t ay i
wood I c ut ( NF ) aut pas t aux .
I a u t th e w o od .
mi AWA ka ra tim ay i
dog meat h e hand ( NF ) bury p a s t aux .
The d og b u r i ed t h e m e a t�
O c ca s i on a l l y the d i r e c t ob j e c t o c c ur s s en t e nce f i na l ly , but o nly when
emphas i s i s s o ught .
Examp l e s :
tva 1 tya r a keng i wut ay i TV I NTA
y es te rday I ( NF ) pu t down p a s t aux . s p e ar
Y e s t erday I p u t d o w n t h e s p ear .
k a n ga r a ya l a k ay i MAWUNY

I h and ( NF ) lose p a s t aux . s wag

I l os t my s wag .
When t h e d i re c t ob j ec t i s p art o f t h e b od y , or a r e f l e x i ve
pr onoun ( a . f . 3 . 1 3 ) , i t o c c ur s twi c e i n t h e s entence , b ot h b e f ore and
a f t e r the af fi x uni t a nd v erb s t em , g i v i ng the formula :
± T ± S + 0 + AU ± VS + 0 ± Verbal Par tic les
Examp l es :
tva 1 tva ra TANNGAN k a wa n ya - n g a n y yerp TAN NGA N ay i
y e s t e rday b e ard I de s tr oy ( NF ) me s h av e b eard p a s t aux .
Y es t e r day I had a s hav e .
t v a 1 t va r a K UM P U k a n g a l a - ng a n y ka t K U M P U a y i
y es t e rd ay foot I c ut ( NF ) me c u t fo o t pas t a ux .
Y e s terday I c u t my fo o t .
tya l tya ra T I RR k a n ga r a - n g a n y pi t T I RR ay i
y e s t e rday t o o th I hand ( N F ) me wa s h t o o t h p as t a ux .
Y e s t erday I a l e a ned my teeth .

3.5.2 P r o no u n O bj e c t s
The ob j ec t p rono un i n Maranungku i s expr e s s ed b y a s e ri e s of
s u ffi x e s to the a f f i x uni t s d i s c u s s ed above . Th ey are as fo l lows :
- ng a n y me
- n i mpe y o u s i ngu lar
- na him
- nga h er
-k i nya u s p lura l i n c lu s i ve
- ng e r i n y a u s p l ura l e xc l us iv e
- n i nya y o u p lural
-w i nya t h em p l u ral
 49

- ng a n g k u w e dua l inc l u s iv e
- n g e r i n y a ma ta w e dual exc lu sive
- n i nya ma t a y ou dua l
-w i n y a m a t a t h e m d ua l
Examp l e s :
ty i k i r i t k e n g i - na wu t ay i
c i ga r e t t e I ( NF ) h im give p a s t au x .
I gav e h im a c i ga re t t e .
ty i n ta ng i y e - n i mp e wu t a tu
spear I ( NF ) y ou giv e fu t . au x .
I s ha Z Z g i v e y o u a s p e ar .
ver i n g a wa n y a - n i m p e ku r a tu
t omo rr ow I d e s t r oy ( NF ) y o u hi t fut . au x .
I s ha Z Z h i t y o u t omorrow .
t ya l t y a r a k a t a n -w i n y a y i
y es t erday h e s e e ( NF ) them pa s t a u x .
H e s a w t h em y e s t erday .
t y a l t ya r a ka t a n - n g e r i n y a ma t a yi
y e s t erday h e s ee ( NF ) u s d l . e xc l . pas t aux .
He s a w u s t wo y es t e rday .
If th e ob j e c t o f t h e verb is a p lura l noun d e no t i ng huma n b ei ngs ,
two ob j ec t s are e xpre s s ed , o ne nomi na l a n d the other pronomi na l .
Examp l e s :
v er a n g a wa n t i -w i n y a tu
c h i ld I t ake ( F ) t h em fu t . a ux .
I s ha Z l b r i n g t h e c h i Zdr e n .
ver i p o l opo l o n g a r r ka t a n - w i n y a tu
t omorrow o l d p e o p l e �re p l . ( F ) s e e t hem fu t . au x .
We s ha l Z s e e t h e o ld p e op l e t omorr ow .
I f t h e ob j e c t of the verb is a s i ngular noun d e n ot i n g a human b e in g ,
t he p r o nomi nal form o f t h e noun i s of t e n droppe d , g iv i ng t w o p o s s ib l e
s en t en c e s s uc h a s :
pol o nga r r k a t a n -na tu
o ld man we p l . ( F ) s ee h i m f u t . au x .
We s ha l l s ee t h e o l d man .
po l o n ga r r ka t a n a tu
o l d ma n w e p l . ( F ) s ee fut . aux .
We s ha Z l s ee t h e o l d m a n .
50

3.6 S P EC I A L V E R B S T EMS
Ther e are f o u r t y p e s o f verb s t em i n Maranungku whi ch r e qu i re
s p e c i a l e xp lanat i o n , as th ey b ehave d i f f er e n t l y from t he r e s t .

3.6 .1 C ha ng i n g V e r b S t em s
I n Mar anungku s everal v erbs t a ke a d i f f e r e n t s t em a c cord ing t o
whe t her t h e o b j e c t expre s s ed i s s i ngular o r p lura l . They a r e a s
f o l l ows :

S i ngular 0 P lural 0

to break pal pa IpaI

t o b u i ld pa t patpat
to hi t ku r k u r ku r
to smoke po popo
t o throw p i! t Y pa ty p a t y
t o wa s h pi t p i tp i t
to catch kur tIp
to pick ka t tu r
t o p our wu y ty wuy i ty
t o put. g i ve wu t wu r u t
t o s ta nd up ( Tr . ) kurp tyuk

W i t h the maj or i t y o f thes e v e rb s t ems the s i ngular ob j e c t form i s

fu l ly red up li c at ed whe n t here i s a p lura l ob j e c t . W i t h t h e other s ,
h owever , t h er e i s a c omp l et ely d i ff e r e nt s tem .
Examp l e s :
a wa wa k k a r k a n g a ma n kur ayi
meat fi s h I h o l d ( NF ) ca t c h p as t aux .
I c a ug h t a fish .
awa wakkar nga r r ka r a tip a tu
meat fi s h w e p l . ( F ) h a n d s p e ar f u t . aux .
We p l ura l s h a l l s p ear s o me fi s h .
wu n ken g i - na wu t ay i
t o ba c c o I ( NF ) h i m give pa s t a ux .
I g a v e h i m s om e t ob a cc o .
wu n k a n g i -w i n y a wu r u t ay i
t o ba c c o I ( NF ) t h em give p as t a ux .
I g a v e t he m s om e t obac c o .

3.6.2 V er b s t em s w i t h C h a ng i n g M e a n i n g s
A f ew Mara nungku v erb s t ems may b e long t o more t han one v erb
c las s , and so may be ac c ompani ed by d i f ferent aff i x units w i th
d i f ferent me ani ngR . The s e i nc l u de :
 51

kur + C la s s V I I AU ( - m a n ) t o s p e ar. ca t c h
kur + C la s s IX AU ( - n y a ) to h i t (w i t h a s ti c k )
kur + C l as s X AU ( - I a ) t o s ho o t
kat + C la s s I X AU ( - n ya ) to cut. make
kat + C la s s X AU ( - I a ) t o c u t up . c u t i n two
pa r a t y + C la s s I I I AU ( - ma ) t o r un away
pa r a t y + C l ass VI I I A U ( - r a ) t o c ha s e
pa l + C l a s s I AU ( - n i ) t o break ( i n trans i t i ve )
pa I + C la s s V I I I AU ( - r a ) t o b r e ak w i th t h e ha n d s
pal + C lass I X AU ( - nya ) t o s ma s h . d e s troy .

I t i s a rathe r common p h e nomenon f or a l arge numb er o f i ntrans i tive

v e rb s t o b e u s e d w i t h more than one af f i x uni t c la s s , n o t w i t h a change
i n meani ng, b u t ra the r t o s p e c i fy e xa c t ly how t h e a c t i on was p e rf orme d ,
i . e . i n a s i t t i n g , s ta nd i ng, l y i ng or mov i ng p os i t i o n . Thu s an
i nt ra ns i t i v e verb s t em may be a c c omp ani ed by a ff i x uni t s b e l ongi ng t o
e i ther C la s s I , I I I , IV or V .
Examp l e s :
wo ka n g a n i w i r i tya I c ry ( wa lking )
wo kan gama w i r i tya I c ry ( s tandi ng up )
wo k a n g i ya w i r i t y a I cry ( l y i n g down )
wo ka n g i na n w i r i t v a I cry ( s i t ti n g down )

The above chang e s i n v erb c la s s oc c ur o n ly i f there i s r ea s on t o b e

very s p e c i fi c ab out the manner i n whi c h th e a c t i on i s p er formed . Oth e r­
wi s e , t he v erb s te m r ema i ns c o ns t a n t l y i n the one ve rb c la s s .
W i t h trans i t i ve v e rb s , i f the a c ti on i s p er f ormed i n an unus u a l
p os i t i on , t h e s t e m i ts e l f does no t c h an ge c lass . I n thi s case , t h e
s en t e n c e r e q ui re s two v e rb s , one de s c r i b i ng t h e ac t i on and t he o t h e r
de s c ri b i ng t h e unus ua l c i rc ums tance s . T h e v e r b d e s c ri b i ng the unus ual
c i r c ums t a nc e s is a lway s acc omp ani e d by the i ns t rumenta l marker n u n u .
Exa mp l e :
k ava nunu Yi awa k u ma n kur ay i
h e l i e ( NF ) with p a s t a ux . mea t he h o l d s p e ar p a s t a ux .
He s p ea r e d a n a n ima l w h i le l y i ng dow n .
The remarks made i n this s ec t i on app ly t o only a s ma l l p er ce nt a ge
o f the Ma r anu ngku v erb s te ms . Nor ma l ly a v e rb i s a memb e r o f one
verb c l as s on ly , as s e t out ab ov e in 3 . 2 .

3 . 6 .3 Tra n s i t i v e I nt ra n s i t i v es
Two verb s whi c h are i nt r a ns i t ive i n Engl i s h are trans i ti v e i n
Ma ranu ngku . They are :
w i r i tya t o cry
e ruw i yo t o l a ug h .
52

w i r i t y a r eq ui r e s the ob j e c t w o t ea r s ; e r u w i y o requires the ob j ec t e ru we

Za ug h ter .
Examp le s :
tya l tya r a wo k a n g i na n w i r i tya yi
y e s t e rday t ears I s i t ( NF ) cry pas t a u x .
Y e s t erday I c ri e d .
tya I tya ra e r uwe ka n g i n a n e r u w i yo yi
y es t erday Z a ug h s I s i t ( NF ) Zaugh p as t aux .
Y e s t e rday I Zau g h e d .

3 .6 .4 V e r b S t em s P r e c e d i n g A f f i x U n i t
Whi le mos t verb s t ems norma l ly fo l l ow the af fix uni t , t h e re a re
s o me whi c h a lway s pre c e de i t . Th ey ar e as fo l l ows :
me l k to be sick
met te r t o be b o r e d
I er i t o b e happy
ty i l k to b e p a i nf u Z
wa w pa n p a t o t a k e, carry
ta I t o grow up
retye t o wan t, Zike
ng u r ku r t o s Z eep
paw t o b e t i r ed
Examp le s :
a wa nat la retye ka nga r a
meat good wa n t I hand ( NF )
I wa n t s ome g o od mea t .
n gu r k u r kuy i nya ma t a yi
s "L e ep they l i e ( NF ) dual p as t a u x .
T h ey two s "L ep t .
met ter k e n g a me
b or e d I say ( NF )
I am bor e d .

3.6.5 U sa g e o f na l a
n a l a for him , for i t, p e r f orm s two f unct i o n s w i t h Mar a n ungku
v er b s , as f o l lows :
(a ) . I t f o l l ows the nou n ob j ec t o f the f o l l ow i ng trans i t i ve v e rb
s tem :
ma n g a n a to "L o o k for , t o a s k for
kay to ca n f o r
t ra t ray t o "L o o k a b ou t for
ma n a n k a t o a s k for
C la s s I AU t o h u n t for
t ye n g i wer i k to t h i nk a b ou t , w or r y a b ou t .
 53

Examp le s :
k a r a wa l a na l a ka n ga t a n m a n ga n a yi
money for it I s ee ( NF ) l ook pas t aux .
I l o o k e d for t h e m o ne y .
wu t a na l a n g a t am a w i nya kay atu
water for i t I s t and ( F ) them cal l f u t . aux .
I s ha I I ca Z Z o u t t o t hem for s om e wa t e r .
nen t u na l a k a n ga n i t ra t r a y me yi
h or s e for i t I g o ( NF ) look s t at e p as t a ux .
I was l oo k i n g fo r a h o r s e .
t y en g i wer i k ka n ga n i mi na l a
ear ba d I g o ( NF ) d o g for hi m
I was t h i n k i ng a b o u t t h e d o g .
( b ) n a l a i s a l s o u s e d t o i nd i c a t e p urp o s e or i nt e n t i o n , a n d fo l l ows
th e verb s t em, as i n :
k a n ga n i yi t ya p a t me na l a
I go ( NF ) pas t aux . s w i m s t at e for i t
I w en t fo r a s w i m .
n g a wa n i a t y awa na l a
I go ( F ) ur i na t e for i t
I am g o i ng t o u r i na t e .

3.7 NEG A T I O N
Negat i o n i s i ndi c a t e d i n Mara nungku i n t h e f o l l o w i ng wa ys :
( a ) W i t h verb s t ems wh i ch f o l l ow the a f f i x u n i t , ne ga t i o n i s
i nd i c a t ed i n two way s :
(i ) wa y p i y a no t head may p r e c e d e t he aff i x u n i t a nd v e rb s t em
in a s en t en c e i n it i a l p os i t i o n , s ummed u p i n the f o rmu l a :
wa y p i y a ± 5 ± 0 + AU ± V S ± Verba l Par t ic l es
Examp l e s :
way p i ya t y i n ta k a n g i y a - na pa ty wa k a n ayi
not head s p ea r I l 1 e ( NF ) h im throw back p a s t au x .
I d i d no t t h r ow t h e s p e ar ba c k a t h im .
way p i ya wow e v e na k a n g i na n ayi
no t h ea d camp in I s 1 t ( NF ) p a s t a ux .
I d i d n o t s t ay h om e .
( 11 ) p i y a may p r e c e d e t h e a f f i x u n i t a n d v e rb s t e m and w a y
f o Z Z ow g i v i ng t h e formu la :
p i y a ' ± 5 ± 0 + AU ± VS + wa y ± Verba l Par t i c l e s
Examp le :
p i ya k a ng a n i way
head I go ( NF ) no t
I am no t g o i n g .
54

Th i s s e c o nd c o ns t r u ct i on i s more emphat i c t h a n t he f i r s t .
(b) W i t h t h e sma l l numb er o f verb s t ems whi ch norma l ly p re ce d e t he
af f i x u ni t , w a y p i y a i s m o s t o f t e n p la c ed b etween the verb s t em a nd t he
a f f i x u ni t , a l t h ou�h p i y a a l o ne i n s e ntence i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n i s some­
t im e s u s ed .
Examp l e s :
1 er i wa y p i ya k a n ga n i
happy no t head I go ( NF )
I am no t happy .
p i ya 1 er i k a ng i k u r
head hap p y I s t ay ( NF )
I am n o t happy .
In rap i d s p e e ch wa y p i y a i s o f t e n c o ntrac t ed t o p i y a •

3 .8 T HE IM PERAT I V E
The imper a t i v e i n Maranungku i s c o nvey ed b y the g en er a l f u t ur e
t e ns e , e xp la i ned above i n 3 . 4 . 2 . 1 . T h e c ommand i s a c c o mp a n i ed b y a
high r i s i ng i n tonat i on a t t h e e nd o f t he u t t era nc e .
Examp l e s :
wu t a nu n g u a ny a ku r nge n i l a
wa t e r here y ou ( F ) get for m e
Bri ng m e some wa t er .
y i m i ny ara ngi
wood y ou ( F ) Zi g h t
L ig h t t h e fi r e .
y e - na wu t a tu
y ou (F ) h i m g i v e fut . au x .
G i v e i t t o h im .
wa r i tat
y ou ( F ) sit
S i t dow n .
Not e t h at the f uture t e ns e auxi liary a t u i s op t i o na l w i t h t he i mp erat i v e
c on s tru c t i o n .
W i t h nega tiv e c o mma nd s , p i y a p r e c e de s t h e order , as i n :
p i ya wa r i tat
no t you(F ) si t
D o no t s i t dow n .
The e xh or t a t i v e f or m o f t h e impera t iv e has b ee n d i s c us s ed above
in 3 .4 . 2 . 4 .

3.9 C OM P E T E N C E A ND I NC O M P E T ENC E
C omp e t e nc e i nd i c a t e s ' t o k now h ow t o ' , whi l e inc ompe t enc e i n d i c at e s
' no t t o k now h ow t o ' .
 55

(a ) C ompe t ence i s c o nvey ed in Mar anungku by the p hra s e t y e n g i w i t y a ,

l i t e ra l ly ear wi t h, pl us the af f i x uni t s of ve rb c la s s 1 .
Examp le s :
mu t i k a t y eng i wi tya ka nga n i w a ka y
m o t orcar ear with I go ( NF ) fi n i s h
I k now a n a b o u t mo t or car s .
tyeng i w i t ya ka n g a n i t y a pa t me
ear wi th I g o ( NF ) s w im stat e
I k now h o w t o s wim .
tyeng i w i t ya kana n i ara pu r i ty w i ny i n g k i ny
ear wi t h y ou go ( NF ) you (F ) ma ke boomerang
Do y o u k n ow h ow to ma k e a b o o m e ra n g ?
t y e ng i w i tya k a n a - ng a n y
ear wi t h h e go ( NF ) me
H e k nows m e .
(b ) I nc ompe t e nc e i s i nd i c a t e d by the verb s te m p u y t y us ed i n
c o nj unct i o n w i t h C la s s I X a f fi x uni t s .
Examp l es :
kanya puyty awa t y u tyuk me
s h e d e s t roy ( NF ) n o t k n ow me a t c o o k s ta t e
She does n o t k n ow h ow to c o o k m e a t .
k a n ga n y a puy ty
I d e s t r oy ( NF ) no t k now
I do n o t know .

3,10 A B I L I T Y A ND I NA B I L I T Y
The abi l i ta t i ve f orm me ans ' to b e a b l e t o ' , whi l e i nab i l i ta t i v e
m eans ' n ot t o b e a b l e t o ' .
(a ) Ab i l i ty i s indi c a t e d s o l e ly by the u s e o f t h e f u ture t e ns e ,
w i t h or wi thout the f u t ure t e ns e a ux i l iary a t u .
Examp le s :
k a r a wa l a ke n k i anti wa r
s t o ne this you(F ) Uft
C a n y o u l i f t t h i s s to ne ?
yu ng a wa n t i wa r a tu
y es I go(F ) lift f ut . au x .
Y es , I can lift i t .
(b) I nab i l i ty i s i nd i c at ed by p la c i ng p i y a me n g k e a t t h e b eg inni ng
o f the s en t en c e , t h e verb of whi ch is i n the non-future t e ns e .
Examp le s :
p i ya meng ke ka ng i nya n g a wa y
h e ad s hade I c o ok ( NF ) not
I ca nno t c o o k .
56

p i ya meng ke mu t i ka k a n ga n t i wa r
h e ad s h ade m o t o r aar I go ( NF ) Z i ft
I a a n no t Z i f t t h e mo t oraar .
Not e that w a y is s ome t i me s added u t ter anc e f i na lly f or e mp ha s i s .

3.11 T H E VES I V E RAT I V E

The de s i d er a t i v e form i nd i c a t es ' t o want ' and a ls o i n Mara n un gk u ,
' t o li ke ' .
(a) Whe n t h e ob j e c t of the de s i de r a t i v e v erb r e t y e i s a n o un o r
p r o no un , t h e c o ns tr uct i o n i s t h e same as f or any tr ans i t i v e verb .
Examp l e :
a wa retye kanga ra
mea t wa n t I hand ( NF )
I wa nt s o me m e a t .
As was s ta ted ab ove , r e t y e i s one o f the v erb s t ems wh i c h oc curs
b efor e t h e a f f i x uni t .
(b) When t h e ob j e c t o f the de s i der a t i v e v e rb i s a verb phras e ,
t h e r e are t wo p os s i b le c o ns t r u c t i ons , as fol l ows :
(i ) Wh en t he s ub j e c t of b o th verbs i s t h e same , t h e de s i de r at i ve
i s c onvey e (l by the future t e n s e a l one , w i thout the f u t ur e aux i l iary
tens e marke r , wh i c h may h ow ever o p t i ona l ly o c c ur .
Examp les :
n g a wa n y a kur atu mi y u wa
I d e s t roy ( F ) hi t fut . aux . dog th a t
I w o u Z d L i k e t o hi t t h a t dog .
po n ge r r k i
s mo k e we p l . ( F )
W e wa n t t o s mo k e .
( ii ) Whe n the s u b j ect o f b o t h v e rb s i s di ffe re n t , t wo i n dep endent
c la u s es are u s ed .
Examp le s :
re t y e kangara n i mpe awa wi 1 a
wa n t I hand ( NF ) y ou meat y ou eat ( F )
I wa n t y o u t o e a t t h e m e a t .
r e ty e ka nga r a m i ya ku k a n a t k awa r a t ur
wa n t I hand ( NF ) food aoa o n u t he p i ak
I wa n t h i m t o p i ak a a o ao nu t .

3.1 2 T H E N E C E S S ATA T I V E A NV P R O H I B I T I VE
The ne c e s s a t at i v e i n Maranungku i s c o nvey e d by the u s e of t h e
ne c e s s i t at i v e part i c l e n ga t y whi c h oc curs fi r s t i n t h e s en t e nc e , p l us
the future t ens e of t h e v erb .
 57

Examp l e s :
n g a ty yi I i w i n y i ng k i n y ara pur i ty ngen i l a
must s ti c k b oome r a n g y ou ( F ) ma k e m e for
Y o u m u s t ma k e a bo omera ng for m e .
nga ty w i n tara wa n y ta ngama wu 1 nungu
mu s t q ui c k aZso y o u s t a nd ( F ) c ome t ow a r d s s p e a k e r
Y o u m u s t c o me b a c k q u i c Hy .
The p r ohi b i t i v e i s the same as e x p l a i ned ab ove f or t he ne ga t i ve
i mp era t iv e , i n 3 . 8 .
Examp l e :
wa k k a r p i ya wi la
fi s h h e ad y o u e at ( F )
Y o u mus t n o t e a t th e fi s h .

3 . 13 T H E R E F L EX I V E
The Maranu ngku re f le x i ve does not h a ve a p a ra l le l i n Eng li s h .
T h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s of Maranun gku r e f le x i v e as f o l l ows :
(a) Wh ere t h e Eng l i s h has , for examp le ' I c ut my s el f ' , th e
Maranungku s peaker mus t s p e c i fy the p ar t of t he b ody that has b e e n c u t .
How e v er , as was s ee n above i n 3 . 5 . 1 , whe n t he d ire c t ob j e c t i s a p a rt
of th e b ody , i t o c c urs twi c e i n the s ent e nc e , b oth b e f ore an d aft er
t h e a ff i x u n i t a nd verb s t em . I n a dd i t i on t h e r e f l e xi ve p r onoun , t he
s ame as the nor ma l ob j ec t pro noun , i s u s ed , g i v i ng a s en t ence form u la :

± S + 0 + AU + P nO + VS + 0 ± T ens e auxi li ar i e s
Examp l es :
kumpu k a n g a l a - ng a n y kat k um p u yi
fo o t I c ut ( NF ) me cut foo t pas t aux .
I c u t my fo o t .
tarr k a n g a r a - ng a n y ny i r i k i tarr ay i
l eg I h and ( NF ) me s c ra t c h leg p a s t a ux .
I s c ra t c h e d my l eg .
kumpu k a r a l a - n i n ya kat kump u yi
fo o t y o u p l . ( NF ) c u t y ou cut fo o t pas t aux .
Y o u p l ural c u t y o u r fee t .
(b ) W i th v e rb s t ems i nd i cat i n g fa l l i ng aga i ns t o r l e ani ng agai ns t ,
a nd a l s o w i th the v erb w e r t o h urr y , t h e r e f l ex i ve p ro n o un i s a lway s
used .
Examp le s :
k e n ga men - n gany wer ay i
I g e t ( NF ) me h urry p a s t aux .
I h u rr i e d .
58

peku y u wa k em e n - n g a we r ayi
woma n tha t s h e get ( NF ) h e r h ur r y pas t au x .
Tha t wom a n h u r r i e d .
k a ng a n y a - n g a n y tya n t a l ay i t a wa r v ena
I des tr oy ( NF ) m e l e a n p as t a ux . t r e e on
I l ea n t a ga i ns t a t r e e .

3.14 T H E R EC I PR OC A L
Th ere are two t y p e s of r e c i p r o c a l c ons tr uc t i o n i n Maranungk u , t h e
f i rst mea n i ng ' t o d o s ome thi ng t o e a c h o ther or one anoth e r ' , a nd t h e
s e c ond meaning ' t o d o s o me t h i ng i n r e t urn ' .
( a ) R e c i p ro c a l f orms of t h e f i rs t type s ee m to b e r e s tr i c t e d t o v e rb
c la s s e s VI I , V I I I and X I I . Th e r e c i proca l is i nd i c at e d by the t h i r d
morph eme i n t h e af fi x uni t , e l s ewhere u s ed t o i ndi c at e t ype o f ac t i o n .
Th e a f f i x uni t s for r e c i p r oc al forms o f t h e thr ee verb c la s s es are a s
f ol l ows :
C LASS VI I ( - ma n ct · 3.2.7)
non-F uture Futur e
w e p l . i nc l . k a r r k a -ma n y a n g a r r k a - ma n y a
w e p I . e xc l . w u ma n y a n n ga r a - ma n y a
you pl . k a r a - ma n y a w u ma r a n y a
t h ey p I . k u ma n y a p u r a ma n y a
we d l . i nc l . k a m a - ma n y a n g a m a - ma n y a

C LASS V I I I ( - r a ct · 3 .2.8)
non-Future Fu ture
we pl . i nc l . k a r r ka - r i n y a n g a r r k a - r i n ya
w e p I . ex c l . a r i n y a n ng a r a - r i n y a
you pI . ka r a - r i nya a r a r i nya
they pl . ku r i n y a p u r a r i ny a
w e d l . i nc 1 . k a ma - r i n y a n g a m a - r i ny a

C LA S S X I I ( - t a n ct · 3 . 2 . 1 2 )
w e p I . i nc l . ka r r ka - t i nya n ga r r ka - t i n y a
w e pl .excl . y e t i ny a n nga r a - t i ny a
you p I . kara - t i nya y e ta t i ny a
they p I . ku t i ny a pu r a - t i nya
w e d I . i nc I . k a m a - t i n ya n g a ma - t l n y a

The r e c ip r o c a l i s i nd i ca t ed i n a regu lar manner , summed u p t hu s :

(i) For t h e t h ird morp h eme of the reg ular affi x uni ts f or
verb c l a s s es V I I , V I I I a nd X I I are s ub s t i tu t ed -ma n y a for c la s s V I I ,
- r i n y a for c la s s V I I I , a nd - t i n y a for c la s s X I I .
 59

( ii ) The t h ird p e r s o n p lu ral r e ma i ns the s am e as for t h e

normal a f f i x u n i t .
( ii i ) W i t h f i r s t p er s on p lu ra l non-fu ture and s ec o nd p er s o n
p lu ra l future morphop h o nemi c change i s obs erved .
Examp l e s :
a r i n ya n pit ma t a yi
w e r e c . ( NF ) wa s h dual pa s t a u x .
We t wo e x c lu sive wa s h ed e a c h o th e r .
em I na l a ka r a t i nya ma ta yi
what for i t you r e c . ( NF ) d ua l pas t aux .
Why a r e � o u two L o o k i ng a t ea c h o t h e r ?
k a r r k a r i nya k i ty i i i I i yi
w e p I . r e c . ( NF ) t i ck L e pas t aux .
We p lura l inc lus i v e t ic k L e d o ne ano t h e r .
k a r a m a n ya tara yi
y o u r e c . ( NF ) figh t p as t aux .
D i d y o u me n fiy h t o ne a no t h e r ?

Not e that w i th c la s s V I I t h e verb s t em t a r a , t o f ig h t i s mos t

c ommon ly u s e d , whi l e w i t h c la s s V I I I there are many v er b s tems whi ch
take t h e r e c i proc a l f orm . W i t h c l a s s X I I no v er b s te m is r e q ui re d
as t h e aff i x uni t i s a c omp l e t e utter ance i n i t s own r Ight .
(b) R e c i p r o c a l f orms o f t h e s e c o nd t y p e d e n o t e ' t o d o s o meth i n g i n
r e t ur n , t o pay b ac k ' . The c o ns truc t i o n c o ns i s ts of p l a c i ng the
r ec i p ro c a l i nd i c a t or wa k a n a t the b eg i nni ng of the s ent e n c e . In all
o t h er r e s p e c t s t h e s entenc e c ons truc t i o n f o l l ows th e norma l trans i t i v e
s en t e nc e .
Examp l es :
wa k a n k a I a - ng a ny kur ta r r ay i
ba c k h e c u t ( NF ) me hi t Leg p a s t aux .
H e h i t m e b a c k o n the Leg .
way p i ya k e n g i y a - na pa t y wa k a n
no t h e ar I lie ( NF ) h im t hr ow bac k
I di d n o t t h r ow b a c k a t h i m .
W i t h ne ga t i ve r e c i p r oc a l s e n te nc e s o f t h i s ty p e , wa k a n o c c urs
after the verb .

3.15 T H E C O ND I T I ONA L
C ondi t i on i n Mar anungk u i s i nd i c at ed by the c ondi t i on mar k e r
y a n ga n a from whi c h e i t h e r pre cedes o r f ol l ows th e a f f i x uni t a n d v erb
s tem . The verb in t he c ondi t i o n a l c la u s e i s nor ma l ly in t h e f uture
t e ns e .
60

Examp l e s :
a wa wa k k a r y a n g a n a wuma kur , ye-na wu t a t u
m e a t fi s h fpom you ( F ) c a t c h , you ( F ) h im g i v e fut . au x .
If y o u c a t c h a fi s h , g i v e i t to h im .
y e ra a r a pit yangana , 1 er i n g a wa n i
b a b y y o u ( F ) w a s h fpom happy I go ( F )
If y o u w a s h t h e b a b y , I s ha Z Z b e happy .
p i ya yangana a r a pu r i t y a t u , wa y p i y a 1 er i n g a wa n i
h e a d fpom you ( F ) fix fut . au x . , no t h e a d happy I go ( F )
If y o u do n o t fix i t , I s ha Z Z n o t b e happy .
N o t e t h a t the future t e n s e auxi l i ary a t u i s o p t i o n a l l y p re s ent in the
cond i t i onal c o n s t ru c t i on .
Whe n i rre a l c ond i t i on i s e xp re s s e d , that i s , when t h e a c t i on
s t at e d in the cond i t i onal c l au s e is not p e r forme d , the t e n s e o f t h e
c o nd i t i onal c la u s e i s pas t , wh i l e t h e main c lause i s in t h e future ,
BUT fo l l owed by the p a s t t e n s e aux i l i ary .
Examp ] e :
t y a l t y a r a y a n g a n a p i yo ro , awa n g i ye - n i mpe w u t ay i
y e s t e pday fpom y o u go ( NF ) m e a t r e F ) you g i v e p a s t aux .
If y o u had come y e s t e pday , I wou Z d h a v e g i v e n y o u some mea t .

3.16 A T T E M P T E V A C T I O N ANV F R U S T RA T I V E
At t empt e d a c t i o n ' t o try t o ' and the Frus t r a t i ve ' t o nearly d o
s ome t h i ng ' , have the s ame c o n s t r uc t i on i n Maranungku . There are two
c on s t ru c t i on s a c c ording t o tense as fo l lows :
(a) When the t e nse o f the v e rb i s t hought o f as non-fut ure , the
c o n s t r u c t i on may b e s umma r i s e d in the formu l a :

± T ± S ± 0 + AU ± VS + n u n a y i
Whe n the verb i s in the non- fut ure t e n s e in Engl i s h , the
Maranungku stem i s a c c ompan i e d b y the fut ure t e n s e affix uni t s and
f o l l owe d by n u n a y i .
E x amp le s :
n g a t t a n g awa ra p u r i ty nuna y i
house I hand ( F ) fix a . a . part i c le s
I t p i e d t o fix t h e h o us e .
t y a l t y a r a ma n a r r k n gama k u r n u na yi
y e s t e pday k a n g a p o o I s t and ( F ) h i t a . a . p a rt i c le s .
I n e a p Z y k i Z Z e d a k a n g a p o o y e s t e pday .
tyen t i a t a r a n g we i l a wu t a nuna yi
Z o ng ago I drink ( F ) watep a . a . part i c le s
L a s t w e e k I n e ap Z y di e d .
 61

(b ) When the a c t i on i s t h ought o f as t a k i ng p l a c e at s ome fut ure

t ime , the fut ure a f f i x uni t s are u s e d , as in ( a ) , and the who le
s en t e n c e i s pre c e d e d b y e n t y i .
Examp le s :
enty i ngawa ra pur i ty atu
a.a. I hand ( F ) fix fut . aux .
I s ha l l t ry t o fix i t .
enty i ng awa ra pu r i t y a t u mu t i ka
a.a. hand ( F ) fix fut . au x . c a r
I s h a l l t r y t o f i x t h e car .

3.17 T H E PASS I V E
Any Eng l i s h pas s i v e cons t r u c t i o n b e c omes a c t i ve in Maranungk u ,
as the p a s s i v e d o e s not e x i s t in t h i s l anguage . There are two
c o n s t ru c t i ons , as f o l l ows :
(a) I f n o a c t o r i s spe c i fi e d , the imp e r s onal ' he , t h e y ' s ub j e c t
i s inserte d :
E x amp l e s :
tya l tyara mi kungunya ku r ay i memme n u n u
y e s t e rday dog t h e y des t roy ( NF ) k i l l p a s t aux . axe with
Ye s t e rday t h e dog was k i l l e d wi t h an axe .
tya l t y a ra mi t y i n t a n u n u k u ma n y a kur ay i
y e s t e rday dog s p e a r w i t h t h e y de s t roy ( NF ) kill p a s t aux .
Y e s t e rday t h e dog wa s k i l l e d w i t h a s p e a r .

The agent or i n s t rument i n t r o d u c e r i s n u n u w i t h , by . I f emphas i s

re s t s o n the agent , the age n t i v e phra s e ( noun + n u n u ) p r e c e d e s the
affix uni t and ve rb s t e m ; o t h e rw i s e i t o c c urs i n p os t p o s i t i on .
Furthe r re ference wi l l b e made t o t h i s during the e xp lana t i on o f t h e
A g e n t or Ins t rume nt b e low , 4 . 5 .
(b) I f the a c t o r i s s p e c i f i e d , the normal a c t i ve t ran s i t ive
s en t e n c e is us e d .
Examp le :
k o r uwe awa ma l a kanya ku r ay i
k o o k a b u rra mea t s n a k e h e d e s t roy ( NF ) k i l l past aux .
T h e s n a k e w a s k i l l e d by t h e k o o k a b u r ra . ( Th e k o o k a b ur r a
ki l led the snake ) .
Howeve r , i f emphas i s i s l a i d on the agent , the s ub j e c t b e c ome s t h e
age nt and o c curs i n p o s t p o s i t i on t o the a f f i x u n i t a n d v e rb s t e m , e v e n
t hough t h e cons t r u c t i on remai ns a c t ive .
E x amp le :
awa ma l a kanya kur ay i k o r uwe nunu
m e a t s n a k e h e d e s t roy ( NF ) k i l l pas t aux . k oo ka b u r r a b y
T h e s n a k e was k i l l e d b y t h e k o o ka b urra .
62

3.18 I M PE RS O N A L V E RBS
With the v e rb s ' t o b e h o t , c o l d , hungry or t h i r s t y ' , the heat ,
c o ld , hunger and t h i r s t b e c ome the a c t ors a c t ing on the p e r s on
s u f fe r i ng from the s e d i s c omfort s , and are u s e d in c onj unc t i on w i t h
the v e rb s t e m p a w t o h u r t .
Examp le s :
mu t u n g ku r ka l a -ngany paw
co�d h e cut ( NF ) m e hurt
I a m co � d .
wu t a na l a ke t i - ngany paw
water for i t h e s i t ( F ) me hurt
I am t h i r s ty .
tya l tya r a ngupe l mu t u ng k u r ka l a - ng a n y paw ay i
y e s t e rday night co�d he c u t ( N F ) me h u r t p a s t aux .
I wa s co � d � a s t n i g h t .
t y a l t y a r a mu r i n t i r i n kuma n - n g a n y ay i
y e s t e rday s we a t h e h o l d ( NF ) m e p a s t aux .
Ye s t e rday I s w e a t e d .

4.0 O P T I O N A L S AT E L L I T E P H R A S E S
The phrase s d i s c us s ed i n t h i s s e c t i on oc cur a s opt i onal adj unc t s
t o t h e a f f i x un i t s and verb s t ems t r e a t e d above .

4.1 L O C A T I ON AND D I R E C T I O N

4.1 .1 D i re c t i o n
The re e x i s t i n Maranungku three s e r i e s o f d i re c t i on a l p art i c le s
wh i c h i n d i c a t e movement t o o r from a p e r s o n o r p l a c e . They are as
f o l l ow s :
n u n g u and m e r e to a n d from a p e rs o n
y a n g a n a and v e n a t o a n d from a p � a c e
k a k g e n e r a � m o v e me n t .

4.1.1.1 n u n g u and m e r e
(a) The part i c le n u n g u i n di c a t e s moveme nt t owards the s p e ak e r or
c h i e f point of re feren c e of the s e nt en c e . I t may e i th e r p re c e d e or
f o l l ow the affix unit and verb s t e m .
E x amp le s :
wu t a nungu anya ku r ngen i l a
wa t e r here you des troy ( F ) g e t me for
B r i ng me s ome wa t e r .
kunyoro wa n y nungu
t h e y move ( NF ) again here
T h e y c ome t h i s way a g a i n .
 63

(b) The p art i c le m e r e i n d i c a t e s movement away from the s peaker o r

c h i e f p o i n t o f re fe rence o f the s en t e n c e . It i s u s e d i n t h e s ame way
as n u n g u .
Examp le s :
y uwa me re kangan i wowe vena
there away I go ( NF ) camp to
I am g o i n g t o t h e camp .
k a mo r o yi tawun me r e
h e move ( NF ) p a s t aux . town away
He w e n t t o t own .

4.1 .1.2 y a n g a n a and v e n a

Where as n u n g u and m e r e i n d i c ate mai n ly movement t o and from a
p e rs on , y a n g a n a and v e n a i nd i c at e moveme nt t o and from a p l a c e .
(a) y a n g a n a i n d i c a t e s movement from a p la c e , and f o l l ows the noun
t o wh i ch i t re f e r s .
Examp le s :
vera ka t i n t i yi t awa r yangana
chi ld h e fa l l ( NF ) p a s t aux . tree from
The c h i l d fe l l down from t h e t re e .
kangan i tul k a r awa l a yangana
I go ( N F ) descend rock from
I g e t down from t h e r o c k .
(b) v e n a i n d i c a t e s movement t owards a p la c e , and f o l lows �he noun
t o wh i ch i t r e f e r s .
Examp l e s :
y uwa mere kanga n i wowe vena
there away I go ( NF ) camp to
I am g o i ng t o t h e camp .
kaporo pa r i ku t vena
h e move ( NF ) Europ e a n to
He g o e s t o t h e w h i t e ma n .
When the ob j e c t o f the movement i s a p l a c e name , n o d i re c t i on a l
i s u se d .
Examp l e :
nga ran i n e n yme t e m i n i l i ng
we go ( F ) three Mi n i L i ng
We t h r e e e x c lus i ve s ha L L go t o Mi n i L i ng .

4.1 .1 .3 kak
Thi s p ar t i c le a lway s i mme d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s t h e a ffix uni t . It i s
u s e d i n conj un c t i on w i t h n u n g u and me r e t o i n d i c at e imme d i a t e moveme n t .
64

I t may , h oweve r , b e u s e d a lone w i t h t emp oral overtone s , and may o n l y

b e u s e d w i t h c la s s I a f f i x uni t s una c c ompanied b y a ve rb s t e m .
Examp le s :
kak kanga n i
move I go ( NF )
I am g o i n g now .
kak kangan i t aw u n me r e
move I go ( NF ) town away
I am g o i n g t o t o w n now .
kak n g a ma n i pety i l a
move we two go ( F ) B a t ah e Z o r
W e two inc lus ive are g o i n g t o Ba t ah e Z o r .

4.1 .2 Loca t i Qn
There are two s erie s o f l o c at i onals in Maranungku , the one s p e c i f i c
and t h e o t h e r gene ra l .

4.1 .2.1 S p e c� 6 � c L o cat� v e�

Three spe c i f i c l o c at i v e s in c ommon u s e are y e n a . p e n p e and w a n u n g u ,
meaning on or i n , u n de r , and on top of, respe c t ive ly .
(a) yena
Th i s l o c a t ive may mean o n , o n t o , in, i n t o or a t . I t o c c urs i n
p o s t - p o s i t ion t o the noun t o wh i ch i t r e f e r s . The l o c at i ve phras e
norma l ly p r e c e d e s the a f f i x unit and verb s t em a l t h ough i t s p o s i t i o n
i s not fixed .
E xamp l e s :
k a r awa l a t i pu l yena kaya
s tone tab Z e on h e l 1 e ( NF )
T h e s t o n e i s o n t h e tab Z e .
awa ma l a nge l k i ny yena kaya
meat s na k e ho Ze in h e l 1 e ( NF )
The snake i s i n the h o Z e .
yera ma rwu wa r i r a ka I ka I k a r a wa l a yena
ah i Zd sma H y o u go ( F ) a Z imb s to n e onto
C h i Z dre n , y o u a Z imb up o n t o t h e r o a k s .
n g a ma n i tu tat wu t a mi ri yena
we two go ( F ) fut . aux . s top wa t e r eye at
W e s ha Z Z g o a n d re s t a t t h e s p r i ng .
(b) penpe . . . . . . yena
Unde r o r u n de r n e a t h i s c onveyed b y the u s e o f p e n p e p re c e ding
and y e n a fo l l owing the head noun .
 65

Examp l e :
mi penpe t i pu l yena kaya
dog under tab le at h e l i e ( NF )
The dog i s u n d e r t h e t ab l e .
(c) wa n u n g u . . . . . . y e n a
O n t o p o f i s i n d i c a t e d i n Maranungku b y w a n u n g u p re c e ding t h e
noun , w i t h y e n a in p o s t p o s i t i on .
E xamp l e :
awa p i typ i ty kanan wa n u n g u t awa r yena
meat b i rd h e s i t ( NF ) o n top tree in
The b i rd i s o n t o p o f t h e t re e .

4.1 2 2
. . G en e�ai L o cat� v e6
The most c ommonly u s e d general l o c a t i v e s i n Maranungku are :
ken i here
yuwa there
k e n i wa o n t h i s s i de
y u w a wa on t h a t s i de
ke n i me re t h i s way
y u wa me r e t h a t way
wu t a kumpu l o w down ( i n re lat i on t o a r i ve r )
wu t a ma n t a h i g h up ( i n re lat i on t o a r i v e r )
The s e gene ral l o c a t i v e s are norma l ly p l a c e d b e fore t h e a f f i x u n i t and
ve rb s t e m , a l t h ough the orde r is not rigi d .
E x ample s :
awa werempen ken i kaya
meat a Higator here h e l i e ( NF )
T h e r e i s an a l l i g a t o r h e r e .
w i t ya y u wa k i l i nya
they there t h e y eat ( NF )
They a r e e a t i ng o v e r t h e r e .
ngany k e n i wa n i na y uwawa
I t h i s s i de you t h a t s i de
I s h a l l t a k e t h i s s i de , and you t h a t s i de .

4.2 THE B E N E FA C T I V E
The b e ne fa c t i ve i n Maranungku may take t w o forms , d e p e n d i ng o n
whe th e r t h e b e ne f i c i ary i s a noun or pronoun .
(a) Pronomi n a l Bene f i c i ar i e s
W i t h p r onomi n a l b e ne f i c i ar i e s the forms are as fo l l ows :
ngen i - l a for me
n i mpe- l e fo r y o u s i ngu lar
na- l a for h i m
nga - l a for h e r
66

k i nya - I a for us p lural i n c l us i ve

nge r i ny a - I a for u s p lural e x c l us ive
n i nya- I a fo r y o u p lural
w i nya - I a for t h em p lural
ngangka- I a fo r u s dual i n c l u s i ve .

The s e forms are di-morp h em i c , b e i ng c omp o s e d o f t h e ob j e c t pronoun

p lu s t he s u f f i x - I a . The b e ne fac t i ve form normal l y f o l l ows t h e a f f i x
u n i t a n d v e rb s t e m .
E x amp l e s :
awa mana r r k kanga l a ku r ay i n i mpe l e
meat kangaroo I cut ( NF ) hit p a s t aux . y o u for
I k i H e d a kangaroo for y o u .
wu t a n u ngu anya ku r nge n i l a
water here y o u de s t roy ( F ) g e t m e fo r
B r i ng me s ome wa t e r .

(b ) N ominal Bene f i c i ar i e s
Whe n the f o rm o f the b ene f i c i ary i s a noun , t h e noun i s f o l l owed
b y n a l a fo r h i m . The s e f o l low the a f f i x u n i t and ve rb s tem .
E x amp l e s :
y i m i ny kang a l a ka t ay i y i m i ny na l a
wood I c ut ( NF ) cut p a s t aux . fi re h i m fo r
I c u t t h e wood fo r t h e fire .
awa kanganya ku r ay i mi ngany na l a
meat I des t roy ( NF ) hit pas t aux . dog my h i m fo r
I g o t s ome m e a t fo r my dog .

4.3 T H E PR I VA T I V E
The p r i v a t i ve phras e , meaning ' from someone ' oc c up i e s the s ame
p os i t i on in the s en t e n c e as the b ene fa ct i v e . It has t h e f o l lowing
p ronomin a l forms :
ngen i ra from me
n i mpere from y o u s ingu l ar
na nga ra from h im
nganga ra from h e r
k i nya ra from u s p l ural i n c l u s i ve
nge r i nya ra from us p lural e x c l u s i v e
n i nya ra from y o u p l ural
w i nyara from t h em
n g a n g ka r a from us dual i n c lus ive
 67

E x amp l e s :
k a r a wa l a wi ntyara k e n g a me n ay i n i mp e re
money s te a l I get ( NF ) p a s t aux . y o u from
I s to l e t h e m o n e y from y o u .
ka rawa l a wi ntyara kemen ay i ngen i ra
money s te a l h e get ( NF ) p a s t aux . me from
He s t o le t h e m o n e y from me .
Whe n the head o f the p r i v a t i v e phrase i s a noun , t h e noun i s
f o l l ow e d b y n a n g a r a i n the s ame way a s t h e b e n e f ac t i ve e q u i v a l e n t i s
f o l l owe d b y n a l a .
E x amp l e :
ka rawa l a w i n tya ra kengamen ayi ka n t u y u wa nanga ra
money s te a l I ge t ( NF ) p a s t aux . man that h i m fo r
I s to l e t h e m o n e y from t h a t ma n .

4.4 T H E L I C I T I VE
The l i c i t i ve i s s imi lar t o t h e p r i v a t i ve , b u t w i t h one maj o r
d i fferenc e . W i t h t h e l i c i t i v e , t h e ob j e c t i s g i v e n v o luntari l y , or
the re c ip ie n t i s ent i t le d t o i t b y t r ad i t i on . The p r i v a t i v e , on t h e
o t h e r hand , r a t h e r s u p p o s e s that the ob j e c t i s a s k e d for or e v e n
taken w i t h o u t p e rmi s s i on . The p ronomi nal forms o f the l i c i t i ve are
as f o l l ows :
ngen i - ku r i ny from me
n i mpe-kur i ny from y o u s i ngu l ar
n a - ku r i n y from h i m
nga - ku r i ny from h e r
k i ny a - ku r i n y from u s p lural i n c l u s i ve
nge r i ny a - ku r i ny from u s p lu r a l e x c lus i ve
n i ny a - ku r i ny from y o u p lural
w i n y a - ku r i ny from t h e m
n g a n g ku - ku r l ny from u s dual i n c lu s i ve
E x amp le s :
ngany k a r awa l a ngepe n a - ku r i ny
I money I get ( F ) h i m from
I s ha l l g e t s ome m o n e y from h im .
awa ng u r t y i k i l l nya ngen i - k u r i ny
meat emu t h e y e at ( NF ) me from
T h e y e a t t h e emu t h a t I g av e .

4.5 T H E I NS T R U M E N T O R A G E N T
T h e i n s t rument or agent phras e norma l ly o c c u r s a f t e r t h e a f f i x
u n i t a n d v e rb s t em , a l t h ough i t may p r e c e de t h e m i f empha s i s i s s ough t .
The i n s t rumen t marker i s n u n u , wh i ch a lway s o c c u r s i n p o s t p o s i t i on
t o the noun t o wh i ch i t re fe r s .
68

E x amp le s :
awa mana r r k kanga l a ku r ay i k a r a wa l a nunu
mea t kangaroo I cut ( NF ) hi t pas t aux . s t o n e with
I h i t t h e kangaroo w i t h a s tone .
mi n i mpe kanganya ku r ay i Yi I i nunu
dog your I d e s troy ( NF ) hit p a s t aux . s t i ck with
I h i t y o u r dog w i t h a s t i c k .

4.6 MANNER
Mann e r adverb s norm a l ly pre c e de t h e a f f i x unit and verb s t e m .
The m o s t c ommonly u s e d one s are : w a l k i t i t y L o u d L y ; wa l a r k a s Low L y ;
m e rw u t a q u i c k Ly .
Examp le s :
wa l k i t i ty kama kay
Loud Ly h e s t and ( NF ) ca L L
H e ca L L s o u t L o u d Ly .
ver i wa l a r k a n g a wa n i wa t atu
t omorrow s LowLy I go ( F ) wa L k fut . au x .
Tomorrow I s h a L L wa L k s L o w L y .
me rwu t a ngaporo tu
q u i ck L y I move ( F ) fut . aux .
I s h a L L m o v e q u i ck Ly .

4.7 A C C O M PAN I M ENT

A c c ompaniment ( w i th ) i s expre s s e d b y a noun f o l l owed b y t h e
a c c ompaniment marker w i t y a . The a c c omp animent phrase o c c urs e i th e r
s e n t e n c e i n i t i a l l y or f i na l ly .
E x amp l e :
ve r i ke t i tu mi k i r uwa l i t y w i tya
t omorrow he sit(F) fut . au x . dog sma L L with
Tomorrow h e wi t t s t ay w i t h t h e L i t t t e dog s .
When the s ub j e c t of the sentence i s ' I ' , i f an a c c ompaniment
p h r a s e is us e d , the a f f i x uni t t ak e s the form for e i th e r the f i r s t
p e r s o n p l ural o r dual .
E x amp le s :
yer i ve ra wi t v a ng a r a n i wat atu t awun
t omorrow chi td w i th we p I . go ( F ) wa H fut . au x . town
T omorrow I s h a t t go t o town w i t h t h e c h i L d r e n .
peku n g a ny w i t y a ng a r a n i wa t ma t a t u t y a pa t me
woman my with we go ( F ) wa L k dual fut . au x . s w im s t at e
I s ha t L go s w imming w i t h my w ife .
 69

4.8 TIME
The m o s t c ommon t ime adve rb s and phra s e s i n Maranungku are
as fo l l ows :
ku tya l a t o da y , now
kutya l a w i t i ta l t h i s morn i ng ( pa s t )
nanungu afternoon
atu ngupe l tonight
tya l tyara y e s t e rday
tya l tyara ngupe l �as t nig h t
tya l tya ra w i t i ta l y e s t e rday m o r n i n g
t ya l t y a r a nga n t i t h e d a y b e fo r e y e s t e rday
yiri b e fo re , p r e v i o u s � y
ye r i tomorrow
ve r i w i t i ta l tomorrow m o r n i n g
yer i n g u pe 1 tomorrow nigh t
tye n t i ngent i nex t w e e k
pe l p a �w a y s , sti � �
wany again
t i ng i ny a �w a y s

A l l o f the t ime adve rb s l i s t e d above , e x c e p t t h e l a s t thre e ,

o c c ur norma l l y at the b e g i nning of the s e nt e nce .
Examp l e s :
atu ngupe 1 awa n g awa n y a tur atu
toni g h t meat I de s t roy ( F ) cut fut . aux .
I s h a � � cu t t h e m e a t t o n i g h t .
tya l tyara awa kanganya tur ay i
y e s t e rday meat I des troy ( NF ) cut pas t aux .
I c u t t h e m e a t y e s te rday .
nanungu nungu n g a t ama wu l atu
aft e r n o o n back I s t and ( F ) re t u r n fut . aux .
I s h a � � come b a c k t h i s a f t e r no o n .
The adve rb s p e l p and t i n g i n y u s u a l l y p r e c e de the a f f i x uni t and
verb s tem .
Examp l e :
awa pe l p kang a n i wa t ay i
meat a �w a y s I go ( NF ) wa � k p a s t aux .
I a �w a y s we n t h u n t i ng .
wa n y aga i n norma l ly imme d i a t e l y pre c e de s the t e n s e aux i l i ary part i c le s .
E x amp l e :
kunyoro nungu wany
t h e y move ( NF ) h e re again
They come this way agai n .
70

4.9 I N V I R E CT O B J E C T
The . p o s i t i on i ng o f the i n d i r e c t ob j e c t in Maranungku depends on
whe th e r the i n d i r e c t ob j e c t i s a noun or pronoun .
(a) I f the i n d i re c t ob j e c t i s a p ronoun , the f o l l owing i s the
word orde r :
± S + DO + AU + 1 0 + VS ± Verbal aux i l iaries
I n t h i s c as e , the p ronomi nal i n d i r e c t ob j e c t o c curs b e tween the a f f i x
uni t a n d t h e verb s tem .
Examp l e s :
tya l tyara wun keng i -na wu t ay i
y e s t e rday t o b a cco I ( NF ) h im give p a s t aux .
Y e s t e rday I g a v e h i m s ome t o b a c c o .
ty i n ta ng i ye - n i m pe wu t atu
spear I ( F) you give fut . aux .
I s ha l l g i v e y o u a s p e a r .
(b ) I f the i n d i re c t ob j e c t i s a noun , the f o l low i ng i s the
word orde r :
± S + IO ( i ) + DO + AU + IO ( i i ) + VS ± Verbal aux i l iaries
In this c as e , the i nd i re c t ob j e c t is repre s e n t e d twi ce , first as a
noun , and a l s o as a pronoun .
Examp l e :
ka n t u y uwa ty i nta kanga-na wu t ay i
man that spear he ( N F ) h i m g i v e pas t aux .
He g a v e t h e s p e a r to t h a t man .

4.10 P U R POS E
When purp o s e i s i n d i c a t e d , the cons t ru c t i on depends on whe ther
t h e s ub j e c t o f the two verb s i s the s ame , or not .
(a) I f the s ub j e c t o f b o th verb s i s the s ame , there are two
c o ns t ru c t i ons , dependi ng on wh e ther the s e cond verb is t rans i t iv e
o r i n t rans i t i ve .
(i) I f the s e c o n d ve rb i s i n trans i t i ve , it i s f o l l owed b y
n a l a t o i nd i c a t e p urpos e .
E x amp l e :.
kak kanga n i t y a pa t me na l a
move I go ( N F ) swim s t ate it for
I am g o i ng fo r a swim .
(11 ) I f the s e cond verb i s t rans i t i ve , n a l a f o l lows the
obj e c t o f the verb .
E x amp le :
t awa r k a n g a l a kat ay i nga t t a na l a n g aw a n y a pat atu
tree I cut ( NF ) chop p a s t aux . h o u s e i t for I de s t roy ( F ) m a k e fut .
aux .
I c u t t h e w o o d to ma k e t h e h o us e .
 71

(b ) I f the s ub j e c t o f the two ve rb s i s d i f fe re n t , purp o s e i s

e xp re s s e d b y two independent c l ause s .
E x amp l e :
t awa r k a n g a l a kat ay i nga t ta nankuny kawa nya pa t atu
tpee I cut ( NF ) c u t p a s t aux . h o u s e he h e de s t roy ( F ) m a k e fut .
aux .
I c u t t h e w o o d s o t h a t h e wi L L b u i L d t h e h o us e .

4.11 C A US E
Cause i s e xpre s s e d b y two d i fferent c on s t r u c t i o n s in Maranungku ,
as f o l l ows :
(a) I f the cause i s e xp re s s e d s o le ly b y a noun , the noun i s
f o l lowe d b y y a n g a n a fpom .
E xamp l e :
me t t e r k eme wu t a t u rwu y a ng a n a
tiped h e s ay ( NF ) wa t e p b i t tep fpom
H e is t i pe d b e ca u s e of t h e b e e p .
(b ) I f the cause i s e xp re s s e d b y ano t h e r c lause , then two
independent c laus e s are us e d , t h u s :
mi yuwa we r i k / t a r r kana pa l ay i
dog t h a t bad L e g h e go ( NF ) b p e a k p a s t aux .
T h a t dog i s n o g o o d b e ca u s e h e h a s a b p o k e n L e g .
p i y a we r i k k e n g ame / t y i nta ngany kana pa 1 ay l
head bad I s ay ( NF ) speap my he go ( NF ) b p e a k p a s t aux .
I am angpy b e ca u s e h e b po k e my s p e a p .

5.0 I N T E R R O G AT I V E S
The i n t e rroga t i v e s o f Maranungku are a s fo l l ows :

apa7 wh o ? whom ? wh i ch ?
a p a n a wa n y 7 whos e ?
apa yena7 t o whom ?
apa wi tya7 wi th w h om ?
apa yangana7 fpom whom ?
a n t a ma me r e 7 whepe to ?
a n t a m a y a n g a n a 7 w h e p e fpom ?
ka7 whepe a t ?
mon t o 7 when ?
em i nunu7 how ?
em i 7 why ?
enty i 7 wha t ?
any i n t a ra7 h o w many ?
72

5.1 WHO ? W H O M ? WH I CH ?
(a) Wh o ? - apa?
The i nt e rrogative a p a ? o c c up i e s the i n i t i a l pos i t i o n i n the
s en t e n c e .
Examp le s ?
a pa ka n t u yuwa ?
who ? man that
Who i s t h a t man ?
apa y uwa mi kanya kurkur?
who ? t h e re dog h e d e s t roy ( NF ) hit
Who is t h a t o v e r t he r e h i t t i n g t h e dog s ?

(b ) Wh om ? - a p a ?
Wh o ? and whom ? are i dent i c al in form and p o s i t ion in t h e s en t e n c e ,
e xemp li fi e d by the fo l l owing e xamp le s :
a pa kum i n ya k u r ku r?
who ? t h e y d e s troy ( NF ) hit
Whom are t h e y h i t t i ng ?
apa r e t ye kana ra?
who ? Like y o u hand ( NF )
Wh om do y o u L i k e ?

(c) Wh i t:!h ? a p a + Noun

-

Wh i t:!h ? , i n d i c a t e d in Maranungku by a p a fo l l owed by a noun , o c c urs

i n s en t e n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t ion .
E x amp le s :
apa peku awa kanyanga Yi ?

who woman meat s he c ook ( NF ) pas t aux .

Wh i t:! h woman t:!o o k e d t h e m e a t ?
a pa peku kemen ay i tya l tyara?
who woman h e ge t ( NF ) p a s t aux . y e s t e rday
Wh i t:! h woman di d he g e t y e s t e rday ?

(d) Wh o s e ? - a pa n awa n y ?
E x amp le s :
a pa n awa n y ty i n ta ken l ?
who his spear this
Wh o s e i s t h i s s p e a r ?
apa n awa n y mi ken k l
who his dog this
Who s e i s t h i s dog ?
 73

(e) To w h o m ? - apa yena7

E xamp le :
apa yena kanan i yi7
who to y o u go ( NF ) pas t aux .
To w h om di d y o u g o ?
(f) Wi t h w h om ? -
a pa w i t y a 7
Examp le :
apa wi tya karan i yi7
who with you p I . go ( NF ) p a s t aux .
Wi t h w h o m di d y o u p lural go ?
(g) From w h o m ? - a pa yangana7
E xamp le :
apa yangana k a r awa l a ken amen ay i
who from money you ge t ( NF ) pas t aux .
From w h om d i d y o u ge t t h e mone y ?

5.2 WH E R E ?
In Maranungku tQere are three i n t e rroga t i v e s o f p l a c e , as f o l l ow s :
(a) Wh e re t o ? - a n t a m a me r e 7
a n t a m a me r e 7 w h e re t o ? o c c urs a lway s i n s e n t e n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i on .
Examp l e :
a n t a ma me r e kun i nya7
w h e re to t h e y go ( NF )
W h e re are t h e y g o i n g ?
(b) W h e r e from ? - a n t a ma y a n g a n a 7
a n t a m a y a n g a n a ? w h e re from ? a l s o o c c urs i n s e n t e n c e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
Examp l e :
a n t a ma yangana kanan i nungu yi?
where from y o u go ( NF ) h e re p a s t aux .
Wh e re di d y o u come from ?
(c) Wh e r e a t ? - ka7
Sente n c e s i n wh i ch k a 7 i s u s e d are a lway s non-verb a l , that i s ,
the s e n t en c e does not c o n t a i n a ve rb . Th i s inte rrogat i ve i mme d i a t e l y
fo l l ows t h e noun t o wh i ch i t re fers .
E xamp le s :
me n n e r ka7
s ugar where ?
Whe re i s t h e s u g a r ?
ty i nta ka n i mpe7
spear where your
Whe re i s y o u r s p e a r ?
74

5.3 WH E N ?
Wh e n ? i s conveyed i n Maranungku b y mo n t o ? I t oc c up i e s t h e
i n i t i a l p os i t i on i n the s en t e n c e , a n d t ak e s two forms a c c or d i ng t o
t e ns e , as f o l l ows :
(a) W i th non- fut ure t e n s e , the form m o n t o y i ? i s u s e d .
Examp le :
mo n t o yi ka n a n i t awun me r e ?
when past y o u go ( NF ) town away
Whe n did you g o to t o w n ?
(b) Wi th t h e fut ure t e ns e , the form m o n t o t u ? i s u s e d .
E x amp le :
mon t o tu wa r i t a wu n me r e ?
when fut . y o u go ( F ) town away
Wh e n are y o u g o i ng t o t o w n ?

5.4 WH Y ?
The i n t e rrogat i ve why ? may t ake three forms i n Maranungku , a l l
o f whi ch o c c upy the i n i t i a l pos i t i on i n the s e n t e n c e , a s f o l low s :
( a) em i y i ? i s u s e d w i t h non- future t en s e s .
E x amp l e :
em i yi kanara pa l ty i nta ngany?
why past y o u hand ( NF ) break spear my
Wh y did y o u b r e a k my s p e a r ?
(b ) em i t u ? i s u s e d w i t h the fut ure tens e .
Examp l e :
em i tu a ra pa l tyi nta ngany?
why fut . y o u hand ( F ) break spear my
Why wi Z Z y o u b r e a k my s p e a r ?

N o t e that w i t h the i n t e rrogat i ve s in t h i s s e c t i on and w i t h t h o s e

i n s e c t i on 5 . 3 ab ove , t h e t e ns e aux i l i ary p art i c le s are i n p o s t p o s i t i on
t o t h e i n t e rrogat i v e s thems e lves , and not to the verb s t em , as i s
norma l ly the c as e .
(c) em i n a l a ? w h a t fo r ? is u s e d w i t hout the s t r i c t t ime a s s o c i a t i on
o f ( a ) and ( b ) . I t may a l s o be u s e d wi thout any c omp lement , u n l i ke
the two p re v i ous forms .
E xamp le s :
em i na l a ? peku na l a
what i t fo r woman i t fo r
Wh a t for ? For a woman .
em i na l a kananya-ngany ku r ay i ?
what i t for y o u d e s t roy ( NF ) me hit
Why d i d y o u h i t me ?
 75

5.5 WHA T ?
e n t y i ? w h a t ? a lway s o c c urs in s en t e n c e ini t i al p o s i t i o n .
E x amp l e s :
en t y i keme- n i mpe?
what h e s ay ( NF ) y o u
Wha t do e s h e ca l l y o u ?
enty i kename?
what y o u s ay ( NF )
Wha t are y o u do i ng ?

5.6 HOW ?
The re are two forms for the inte rrogat ive h o w ? in Maranungku .
B o t h o c c up y the f i r s t p o s i t i on in the s e n t e n c e .
(a) em i n u n u 7 h o w ? i s u s e d w i t h the meaning h o w ? w i t h w h a t ?
E xamp l e :
em i nunu anya ka t a t u awa ke n k i 7
w h a t w i t h y o u des t roy ( F ) c u t fut . au x . me a t t h i s
How a r e y o u g o i n g t o c u t t h i s m e a t ?
(b ) e n t y i m e ? f o l l ow e d by y i for non- f ut ure and t u for fut ure
i n di c a t e h o w ? i n w h a t manne r ?
E x amp l e :
e n t y i me wa r i t aw u n me r e 7 n g awa n i wa t a tu
how s t ate you go ( F ) town away I go ( F ) wa l k fut . au x .
How w i l l you go to town ? I s h a l l wa l k .

5.7 HOW M AN Y ?
a n t y i n t a r a 7 h o w many ? may e i t h e r p r e c e de o r f o l l ow the n o un t o
wh i c h i t re fers . More o ft e n i t o c c urs i n p o s t p o s i t i o n .
E x amp le s :
a n ty i n ta ra awa mana r rk kana tan ay i 7
h o w many m e a t kangaroo y o u s e e ( NF ) p a s t aux .
How many k a n g a r o o s d i d y o u s e e ?
me n n e r anty i ntara kana ra paty7
s ug a r h o w m u ch y o u h an d ( NF ) have
How m u ch s u g a r h a v e y o u g o t ?

5.8 Y E S - NO I NT E RROGAT I VE
The y e s -n o i nt e rroga t i ve s imp ly asks a q ue s t i on t o whi ch t h e
answe r i s e i ther ' y e s ' o r ' no ' . In Maranungku there are no ove rt
q ue s t i on marke rs . Th i s type of q ue s t i o n has the s ame form as a
n o rma l s t at e me n t - t y p e s en t e n c e , b ut i s indi c a t e d b y a h i gh r i s i ng
i n t onat ion at the e n d o f the s en t e n c e .
76

E x amp le s :
k a r a t a n - nge r i nya yi7
you pl . see ( N F ) us pas t aux .
Did you s e e us ?
mi n i mpe k i 1 a wuta7 w a y t ome
dog y o u r h e eat ( NF ) w a t e r no a live
I s y o u r dog dea d ? No h e i s a Z i v e .

6.0 NON - V E RBAL SENTENCES

There are s e ve ra l s en t e n c e t y p e s i n Maranungku wh i ch d o not

c o n t a i n a ve rb , b ut wh i ch are c omp l e t e s en t e n ce s . They are o ft e n u s e d
i n e ve ry day convers a t i on .

6.1 NOUN + AVJE cnVE

Th i s f i r s t type o f non-verb a l s en t e n c e cons i s t s o f a noun , whi c h
may or may not b e q ua l i f i e d b y a demon s t ra t i ve o r p o s s e s s i ve adj e c t i ve ,
f o l l ow e d by an adj e c t i ve .
E x amp le s :
mi ken k i na t l a
dog this good
This dog is good .
mi ngany k i ruwa l i t y
dog my sma l l
My dog i s sma Z Z .

6.2 NOUN + N O UN
Th i s s t r u c t ure type forms an equa t i onal s e n t e n c e , and cons i s t s o f
two n o uns i n appo s i t i on .
E x amp l e s :
awa y uwa arrtany
meat that shark
T h a t fi s h i s a s hark .
t awa r y u wa tan
tree that b l oo dwo od
Tha t t r e e i s a b Z o o dwoo d .
t y i n ta ken i tu 1 ut
s p e ar this hook-spear
This spear is a hook-spear.

6.3 N O UN + POSSE S S I VE A V J E C r I V E
A t h i r d t y p e o f non-ve rb a l s e nt e n c e cons i s t s of a noun f o l l ow e d
b y a p o s s e s s i ve adj e c t i ve . The noun may or may n o t b e modi f i e d b y an
adj e c t iv e .
 77

Examp le s :
mi nat l a ngany
dog good my
I h a v e a g o o d dog .
ty i n t a ngany yiri
spear my emphat i c
T h a t i s m y s p ea r .
tyi nta n i mpe yiri
spear your emphat i c
Tha t i s y o u r s p e ar .
N o t e that the emphat i c part i c le y i r i i s o ft e n u s e d i n c onj unc t i on w i t h
t h e p o s s e s s ive a dj e c t i ve i n t h i s t y p e o f s en t e n c e .

6.4 N O UN + N E G AT I V E
Th i s t y p e of non-ve rb a l s e n t e n ce mak e s a ne gat i ve s t atement o f
the t y p e ' there i s n o . . . . . . . ' .
Examp le s :
wu t a way
water no
T h e re i s n o w a t e r .
m i ya way
fo o d no
T h e r e i s n o fo o d .

6.5 VE MONSTRAT I VE + NOUN

Th i s type o f s e n t e n ce corresp onds t o the Eng l i s h s en t e n c e - t yp e
' th i s i s a . . . . . . , that i s a . . . . . . . ' .
Examp le :
ken i tyi nta
this spear
This is a spear.
C ompare : ty i n ta ken i this spear .

7.0 DE P E N DE N T CLAUS E S
I n Maranungk u , Engl i s h dep e n dent c laus e s b e c ome independent
c l aus e s . F o r p e dagogi c a l reas ons they wi l l be c o n s i de r e d from the
p o i nt of view of Eng l i s h .

7.1 V E P E N V E N T S U BJ E CT C L A U S E S
Th i s t y p e o f c lause o c c urs i n a n Engl i s h s e n t e n c e o f t h e t y p e
' I know the man w h o . . . . ' . I n Maranungku t w o independent c laus e s or
s e n t e n c e s are u s e d .
78

E x amp l e :
peku kaya kangatan
woman s h e l i e ( NF ) I s e e ( NF )
I s e e t h e woman w h o i s t y i n g dow n .

7.2 V E P E N V E N T N O N - S U B J E CT C L A U S E S
Thi s t y p e o f c l ause o c c urs i n a n Engl i s h s e n t e n c e o f the t yp e
' I know t h e man wh om he . . . . . ' . Agai n , two s en t e n c e s are u s e d i n
Maranungk u .
E x amp l e :
kana w i r i tya peku kangara pety
s h e go ( N F ) c ry woman I hand ( NF ) get
T h e woman I marr i e d i s cry i n g .

7.3 R E L AT I V E C L A US ES
Th i s c la u s e type o c c urs i n Eng l i s h s e n t e n c e s o f the type ' I know
that . . . . He s ay s t hat . . . . ' . I n Maranungku two i ndepende n t s en t e n c e s
w i t h o ut any re lat i ve i nt ro d u c e r a r e u s e d .
E x amp le s :
akan i keme yi kak n g aw a n i tu t aw u n
my m o t h e r s ay ( NF ) p a s t aux . move I go ( F ) fut . au x . town
M y m o t h e r s a i d t h a t I m u s t go t o town .
tyeng i w i tya kangan i -na M i cky me 1 k keme
ear with I go ( NF ) h im Mi cky s i c k h e s ay ( N F )
I know t h a t Mi c k y i s s i ck .

8.0 U N E L I C I T E D T E XT S
The f o l l owing i s a s e le c t i on o f une l i c i t e d t e x t s i n the Maranungku
l anguage . They are not trad i t i ona l , but deal w i th e very day event s .

8.1 T E X T I - H UNT I NG
yaw awa n g a ma n i 7 yu pa n g a ma n i ; ngamaman tutur
hey meat we dl. go ( F ) ; y e s t e t us we d l . go ( F ) ; we h o l d ( F ) track
k e n i we r em pe n ; kana wa t ay 1 ; kana ka l ay i ken i
h e re a t t i g a t o r ; h e go ( NF ) wa L k pas t ; h e go ( NF ) g o p a s t h e r e
me r e ; k e n i me r e k a n a yi ; ken i me r e y I pe 1 p ;
away ; h e re away h e go ( N F ) p as t ; h er e away p a s t s t i t t ;
k um p u k a n a yi ke n i me r e ; k e n i kaya ; ken i kana
foo t h e go ( N F ) p a s t h e r e away ; h e r e h e l i e ( NF ) ; h e r e h e go ( NF )
t y a pa t a y i ; ng amama n t u t u r 7 ; yu n g amama n tutu r ; kana
s w im p as t ; we h o l d ( F ) tra c k ? ; y e s we h o l d ( F ) t r a c k ; h e go ( NF )
ken i kaya ; y i 7 ; yu ken i kaya ; n gamama n kur ;
h e re h e l i e ( NF ) ; o h ? ; y e s h e r e h e l i e ( NF ) ; we h o l d ( F ) h i t ;
n g a ma n y a kur? ;
we ki t t ? ;
des t roy ( F )
 79

yu ma n t a p a p a I ; m u n t a k k a n g a m a n kur ; pet p e t ; wu t a
y e s go o n s p e a r ; r e a l ly I h o l d ( NF ) get; look out; water
way ken i ; kara-ngangku p e t y me n g k e ; yu wu t a way
no h e r e ; h e hand ( NF ) u s d l . g e t p e rh ap s ; y e s wa t e r n o
i nt i r i ; ng a y t p i r me re n g amama ; ng amaman ku r ;
on ly far away we d l . s t and ( F ) ; we h o l d ( F ) catch;
awa n g a ma n t i a kan i nga I a , n i ka n i na l a , me r e n i na l a ;
m e a t we t ak e ( F ) m o t h e r h e r fo r , fa t h e r h i m fo r , b r o t h e r h im for ;
n g a ma n t i w i nya l a awa ; ma n t a n g a n y y i r l n i na t a r r
we t ak e ( F ) t h em fo r me a t ; go o n I tai l you leg ;
yu pa ngaman i n t a wowe k e n i n t a ; a l a n g , awa k a n g a ma n
y e s l e t us we d l . go ( F ) now camp h e re n o w ; m o t h e r , m e a t I h o l d ( NF )
kur ay i we r e m p e n ; wuman ku r ma t a y i ; re r i ; wuman
catch past a l ligator; we h o l d ( NF ) c a t ch d u a l p as t ; fa t ; we h o l d ( NF )
t u t u r ma t a y i ; kaya ; p a p a I ; waw panpa-na wa r l n mat a
t r a c k dual p a s t h e l i e ( NF ) s p e a r ; ca rry down h im we go ( NF ) dual
n ungu y i awa k e n i ; ya ma n i m n t a ng i r rk i nyanga ;
h e re p a s t m e a t t h i s ; oh g o o d now, we p l . c o ok ( F ) ;
ty l l i l i y i m i ny a ra ng i ; ngama l a tul ty i tu awa
o l d woman fire y o u hand ( F ) l i gh t ; we c ut ( F ) roas t fut . m e a t
we r e m p e n ; yu ka l a t u l ty i ; ngama l a t u l ty i n t a ; wa r a k
a l l i g a t o r ; y e s h e cut ( NF ) roas t ; we cut ( F ) roas t now; remove
w u n ymu ; y uwa nankuny ta rr ; ken i y i r l ng ama tur
cooked; there he leg; here tai l I hold ( F ) cut
tungkur atu waka y ; y u wa me re ka l a n l , kaku l ngen l ,
i n h a lf fut . fi n i s h ; t h e re away u n c l e , g r andfa t h e r my ,
mere n i pan nge n i n g a n g k u ke n i ; y u wana w l t ama t a 7
brother m a t e my ; we two h e re ; y e s w h a t a b o u t t h em t w o ?
awa k u ma n y a kur ma t a y i ; ken l w i tama t a ; yiri
m e a t t h ey de s t roy ( NF ) k i l l dual p as t ; h e re t h em t w o ; tai l
w u n a r a , wu n p uwa I , k a po r o w i nya I a ; yuwa me r e wowe
guts, l u ng s , h e move ( F ) t h em for t h e r e away camp
n g en t i w i nya l a ; yu ma n t a waw p a n p a ; wu r u t me w i nya
other t h e m fo r ; y e s g o o n carry dow n ; give s t at e t h em
awa ng i r r k i l a ; tyi l i l i n g a n g k u n g a ma n i yer i a wa
m e a t we p l . e at ( F ) ; o l d woman we t w o we go ( F ) tomorrow m e a t
y uwa wa k ka r , n g a ma n i t u 7 yu n g a ma n i ; a t i ma t i
t h e r e fi s h , we go ( F ) fut . y e s w e go ( F ) ; h e y b arramundi
ken i kana ; k u k u k , n g a mp ku r ; yu mu n t a k kanaman ku r ;
h e r e h e go ( NF ) ; wa i t , I h o l d ( F ) ca t c h j y e s re a l ly y o u h o l d ( NF ) catchj
pa yuwa r a n g em i n y a n g a t e t i ; yuwa p i y a m e n g k e p u wa l
le t us there w e dl . c ook ( F ) backj t h e r e s hade big
80

yena ; y i m i ny t a p , n g em i n y a n g a ; n g a n g ku t e t i ngem i l a ; w i tya

in; wood p Z e n ty , we c o ok ( F ) ; we two baak we eat ( F ) them
at1a w i tya ; yera n g a n g ku n g a ma n t i w i nya l a tu ; kukuk
b e Z Zy t h e m ; ah i Zdren o u r w e t ake ( F ) t h e m for fut . wai t
p e t y n g a m a ma n ku r ; n g a ma n t i wu l w l nya l a ma t i ;
m o r e we h o l d ( F ) a a t a h ; w e t ake ( F ) r e t u r n t h em for b arramu n d i ;
munty i r , nungku t i ; n g a ma n t i wu l w i ny a l a ; atu n g a ma n i wut
turt Ze, w a t e r - s n a k e ; w e t ak e ( F ) re t u rn t h em for ; s o o n w e go ( F ) g i v e
n g em i - w i ny a ; pirlla;
we ( F ) t h e m ; t h e y eat ( F )
F ree T ra n s l a t i o n

' He y , s h a l l w e go h u n t i ng? '

' Ye s , l e t ' s go . '
' We ' l l track an a l l igat or around here . One has b e e n here . He
c ame past h e re . He went th i s way . He c on t i nue d here . His tracks
pass this way . He is here . Here he went i n t o the wat e r . Sha l l w e
t r a c k h im ? '
' Ye s we ' l l t rack him . '
' He ' s here a l l right . '
' Is he? '
' Ye s he ' s h e re . We ' l l s p e ar him . Sha l l we k i l l h i m ? '
' Ye s , go on , s p e ar him . '
' I got h im a l l r i ght . '
' Wat ch out . There i s n ' t much wat e r here . He might grab us
' Ye s , t h e re i s n ' t much wat e r all right . We ' l l s t and further b ac k
a n d ge t h i m . We ' l l t ake b ac k the me at for our mothe r , father and
b ro t h e rs . We ' l l take s ome me at for them . Come on , I ' l l t ake the t ai l
and you t ake the legs
' Ye s , le t ' s go b ack t o the c amp now
' Mum , we ' ve caught an a l l i gat o r ; w e b oth c aught i t . I t i s fat .
We b o t h t ra c k e d him and sp eare d him . The n we b oth c arri e d t h e meat
b ac k here
' Oh good work . We ' l l c ook i t
' O l d w oman , l i ght the f i re . We ' re going t o roast the a l l i gat o r .
Y e s , h e ' l l b e roas t e d . We ' re g o i ng t o roast him . '
' Take him out . He ' s c ooke d . G i ve him one l e g . I ' l l c ut t h e
t a i l in hal f . Ove r t h e re are m y u n c le , m y grandfat h e r a n d m y mat e .
We two are here . '
' Ye s what ab out t h o s e two . They k i l le d s ome meat . Here t h e y are
' Gi v e them the gut s , and the l ungs , t h em over there in the o t h e r
c amp
' Ye s , go on , t ake t h e me at down a n d gi ve i t t o them and we ' l l e at .
O l d woman , s h a l l we b oth go and hunt f o r f i s h ? '
 81

' Ye s , l e t ' s go . '

' Hey , there ' s a b arramundi here . Wai t a minut e ; I ' l l cat ch i t . '
' Ye s , y o u got h im a l l r i gh t . '
' Le t ' s c o ok the b a c k over there on t h e othe r s i d e whe re there i s
good s hade and p le n t y o f firewoo d . We ' l l c ook a n d e at i t on t h e o t h e r
s i de . We ' l l eat the b a c k a n d we ' l l t ake the b e l ly b ac k f o r our
chi ldre n . Wai t a minut e , we can cat c h s ome more to t ak e b ac k for them .
We ' l l b ri ng b a c k b arramundi , t urt le and wat e r- s nake for them . S o on we
mus t go and give it t o them so they c an eat i t . '

8.2 TEXT 2 - L I FE STORY

ngany yera k i r u wa I i t y y e n a kangan i yi awa wa k ka r ,
I c h i L d sma L L in I go ( NF ) pas t m e a t fiih ,
awa mu n ty i r ; n g a t y awa em i ? yungut ma t i wang ku l
me a t t u r t t e ; k i nd m e a t wh a t ? m u dfi s h b a r ramundi fi s h
ty i l , kangan i p a p a l me yi ; t i ng i ny kangan i yi ;
fi s h , I go ( NF ) s p e a r s t at e p a s t co n t i n uo u s t y I go ( NF ) p as t ;
p i y a wowe y e n a k a n g i n a n ayi ; awa pe l p kangan i
h e a d camp i n I s i t ( NF ) pas t m e a t a lw a y s I go ( N F )
wa t ay i ; kangan i yi tal kengame yi ; nganang u l pa k
wa t k p as t ; I go ( N F ) p a s t g row I s ay ( NF ) pas t youth
kangan i yi , k a ng a n i yi tat t a wu n ; w u r k a k a n g a n i
I go ( NF ) p as t , I go ( NF ) pas t s tay t o w n ; work I go ( NF )
yi ; kanga n i wu r ka m a yi ; tal k e n g a me ; kangama _ wu l
p as t ; I go ( NF ) w o r k s t at e p as t ; grow I s ay ( NF ) ; I s t and ( NF ) r e t u r n
ay i tyertyer n i n i ram t ya n g ku l , pe t y i l a ; tat k a ng a n i
p a s t adu l t now Rum Jung l e , Ba t c h e l o r ; S t ay I s i t ( NF )
yi ; w u r ka k a n g a n i ; kat i n kanga n i w u r k a ma yi ; nin
p as t ; w o r k I go ( NF ) ; g a r d e n I go ( NF ) w o r k s t at e p as t ; we s i t ( N F )
ay i tap i nk i n i po l po l o ; n g a n y k a wa t i ng u l pa k n g a n y ; n l n
p as t many e v e ry o n e o l d p e o p l e ; I s o a du l t me ; we s i t ( NF )
a y i ; wa r i n ay i tat ; t a nma n wu l wa l a n g k u rm l n y ;
p a s t ; w e go( N F ) p a$ s tay ; we s t and ( N F ) re t ur n F i n n i s R i v e r ;
wu I t a nman tyutyena ; t a n ma n wu l petya l a tat ;
re t u r n we s t and ( N F ) 5 1 Mi L e ; we s t and ( NF ) r e t u rn B a t ch e t o r s ta y ;
peku waw kengamen ay i ; peku w i tya k a n g a n i yi
woman t a k e I ge t ( NF ) p as t ; woman w i t h I go ( N F ) past
hamp t i tu tat ; w u r k a ma kangan i pu l l k l ; s t a t i on
Hump ty Doo s ta y ; w o r k s t at e I go ( NF ) c a t t l e ; s ta tion
yena kangan i yi ep i t n a wa n y .
on I go ( NF ) pas t A b b o t his .
82

F ree T r a n s l a t i o n

Whe n I was sma l l , I u s e d t o go hunt ing for f i s h and t urt l e s .

What k i n d o f t h i ngs ? Mudf i s h , b arramundi and other kinds o f f i s h . I
u s e d t o go s p e a r i ng them . I u s e d t o go a l l the t ime . I never s t ay e d
at h ome . I a lway s went hunt i ng . By and by I grew up . Whe n I was a
y o u t h , I went and s t ay e d in t own . I worked there . I grew o ld e r . As
an a d u l t now I c ame b a ck t o Rum J ungle and Bat che lor . I s t ay e d t h e re
and w o rke d . I worke d as a gardene r . We a l l s t ay e d there t oge t h e r
w i th t h e o l d p e o p l e . I was then a f u l l adult . We s t ay e d there . We
went and s t ay e d there . We went b a c k t o F i nni s R i ver and 51 M i l e .
Then we went b ack t o Bat che lor and s t aye d . I t o ok a w i fe . I went
with my w i fe and s t ay e d at Hump t y Doo . I u s e d t o work the c at t le o n
Abb o t ' s s t a t i on .

8.3 T E XT 3 - H UNT I NG
t y i n t a k e n g a me n ; ma n p u k k e n g eme n ; kanga tan pa l a t ;
spear I ge t ( NF ) ; woomera I get ( NF ) ; I s e e ( NF ) o p e n g r o u n d;
ka l ka l kanga l a pa I ; keng i ya - n a pa ra t y ; k a n g a ma - n a paty
l e af I c ut ( NF ) b r e a k ; I l i e ( NF ) h i m sneak; I s t and ( NF ) h i m t hrow
papa I ; k a ng a ra pa ra ty ; kanganya kur ; kangant i wowe
s p e a r ; I hand ( NF ) c h a s e ; I de s t roy ( NF ) k i l l ; I t ake ( NF ) camp
yena ; kangaman pit; keng i n y a n g a wu y i m i ny yena ; kanga ra
on; I h o l d ( NF ) p l u c k ; I cook ( NF ) h e a t fire on; I hand ( NF )
kar ; wun k e n g a me n ye r i ; p e r e l e k e n g ame n ye r i ;
c u t ; g u t s I ge t ( NF ) remo v e ; liver I get ( NF ) remo v e ;
k e n g i n y a n g a ; ma r l n n g a na n g ew i l a k e n g ame ; ke t i tam
I c ook ( NF ) ; h u ng ry I eat ( F ) I s ay ( NF ) ; he s i t ( F ) cook
ngen i l a ; keng i l a , pe re l e keng i l a ; kang i ku r t y a k a l me ;
me fo r ; I e a t ( NF ) , liver I eat ( NF ) ; I s i t ( NF ) e a t s t ate ;
tur nini kangan i , kengame yi ; k a ngam pa ra t y ; wu t a
fu l l n o w I go ( NF ) , I s ay ( NF ) p as t ; I s t and ( NF ) wa l k u p ; wa t e r
keng i l a ; wu l k a n g ama t a ra ; kangan i ; awa waw k e n g a me n ;
I e at ( NF ) ; re t urn I s t an d ( N F ) r u n ; I go ( NF ) ; me a t carry I ge t ( NF ) ;
tu l ty i kanga l a ; kayama ket l tam ; wa r a k kanga ra ; waw
roas t I cut ( NF ) ; h e l i e ( NF ) h e s i t ( F ) c o o k ; remove I hand ( NF ) ; c a r ry
wu t keng i ; kanya pe r ; na i p k e n g a me n ; k a ng a r a ka r ;
put I (NF) ; h e des troy ( NF ) h o t ; k n i fe I h o l d ( NF ) ; I h and ( NF ) c u t ;
keng i l a k i r u w a l i t y ; n g a wa n t i keng ame ; kak kanga n t i wowe
I e at ( NF ) a l i t t l e ; I t ake ( F ) I s ay ( NF ) move I t ake ( NF ) camp
yena ; n i ka n i a k a n i ken g i -wi nya wu t ; me r e n i ka l a n i
on; fa t h e r mo t h e r I ( NF ) t h em g i v e ; b r o t h e l' u n c l e
 83

kaku l nge n i k i l i nya awa ngu r t y i nge n i ku r i ny ;

g randfa t h e r my t h e y eat ( NF ) m e a t emu my fro m ;
yera m i y i t i ny yera nge n i k i l i nya ma t a ; p e k u
ch i L d t w o ch i L d my t h e y e a t ( NF ) d ua l ; woman
ngen i kila.
my s h e e a t ( NF ) .

F ree T ra n s l a t i on

I p i ck e d up a s p e ar and a woome r a . I s aw t h e o p e n groun d . I

b roke o f f s ome l e ave s and s ne aked up on i t . I threw a s p e a r at i t
and gave c h a s e . I k i l le d i t , and t o ok i t b ack t o t h e c amp . There
I p l u c k e d i t and s i nged i t on the f i r e . I cut i t open and remove d
the gut s and the l i ver . I c o oke d i t . Whe n I am hungry I s h a l l eat
s ome , I said t o my s e l f . I t w i l l c o ok for me . I s at down and ate t h e
l i ve r . My s t omach i s fu l l now , s o I sha l l go , I s a i d t o my s e l f . I
w a l k e d up and had a drink o f wat e r . Then I ret urne d . I sha l l go
and t ake the me at w i th me and roast i t . I t lay there c ooking . I
t ook i t out an d p u t i t down as it was t o o hot . I got a k n i fe and
c ut it up . I ate a l i t t le . I t o l d my s e l f that I mus t t ak e it h ome
and g i ve it to my father and mothe r . My b rothe r , un c le and grand­
f a t h e r ate the meat given b y me . My two c h i ldren a l s o ate i t , as
did my w i fe .

8.4 TEXT 4 - T H E GOOS E H UNT

kang i na n ; kuman ty i p ; k a ng a l a kat tyura ; kangama

I s i t ( NF ) ; he hold (NF) set; I cut ( NF ) c u t s t i c k ; I s t and ( NF )
wu l t a ra tat ; kang i nan nanungu ; keng i l a m i ya t i ;
re t u r n r u n s ta y ; I s i t ( NF ) aft e rn o o n ; I eat ( NF ) fo o d t e a ;
yaw kak kangan i ; awa pu l a n m i r i ; yu kak an i n i
h e y m o v e I go ( NF ) ; m e a t we cut ( NF ) e y e ; y e s m o v e now
kangan i ; kangan i t a wa r y e n a . t awa r ma l a k ; ka l ka l kanga n i ;
I go ( N F ) j I go ( NF ) t r e e to, tree b La c k h e a r t ; c L i mb I go ( NF ) ;
kang i ku r wanangu ; t i pu l kang a ra pu r i ty , pu l a n
I s i t ( NF ) o n t o p ; t a b L e I h and ( NF ) ma k e , w e cut ( NF )
miri yena ; kang a ra pur i ty ; tyura p i rke l k a ng a ra ; wu t
eye on; I h and ( NF ) ma k e ; s tick u n t i e I hand ( NF ) ; p u t
keng i ; k a ng i na n ; awa kunyam pa r a t y n u n g u t yo l po r ;
I ( N F ) ; I s i t ( NF ) j m e a t they ( NF ) come here goose;
wo n u n g u k a wo r o ; kanga nya k u r ; ka t i n t i ; kemen wa t t
c Lose h e move ( NF ) j I de s t roy ( NF ) hit; h e fa l l ( NF ) ; h e get ( NF ) man
ngent i y i pere wany ; k a ma - n g a n y k u m p u ; k eme n awa kemen ;
other over there too; h e s t and ( NF ) me fo o t ; he get ( NF ) m e a t h e ge t ( NF ) j
84

awa ngent i kanganya kur ; ka t l n t i ; waw keme n ; m i y i t l ny

meat other I d e s t roy ( NF ) h i t ; h e f a l l ( NF ) ; p i a k up h e get ( NF ) ; t w o
k u y i nya ; kunyoro nungu wany ; kanganya k u r ; waw
t h e y l i e ( NF ) ; t h e y move ( NF ) h e r e agai n ; I des troy ( NF ) h i t ; p i a k u p
keme n ; n e n yme t e n i n i kuy i nya keng ame ; kanganya ku r ;
h e get ( NF ) ; three now t h e y l i e ( NF ) I s ay ( NF ) ; I de s troy ( NF ) hit;
kat i nt i ; waw k e me n ; k u k u k w a y keme - ng a ny ; y i pere
h e f a l l ( NFP ; p i a k u p h e get ( NF ) ' w a i t n o t h e s ay ( NF ) m e ; o v e r t h e re
wany kanganya k u r ; waw kemen ; pengent i n u n u k u y i ny a ;
a g a i n I d e s t roy ( NF ) h i t ; p i a k up he get ( NF ) ; fi v e w i t h t h e y l i e ( NF ) ;
w i na yangana wany kanganya kur ; kat l n t i ; eee kemen
t h e r e from a g a i n I des troy ( NF ) h i t ; he f a l l ( NF ) ; and he get ( NF ) ;
kanganya kur y i pere wa n y ; eee ka t i n t i ; e e e k a n g a ma
I de s t roy ( NF ) h i t o v e r t h e re aga i n ; s o he fa l l ( NF ) ; s o I s t and ( NF )
pot me ; we r e ? k e n g a me - na ; yu ta l a keme - n g a ny ;
t h r o w s t at e ; h o w ' s t h a t ? I s ay ( NF ) h i m ; y e s e no u g h h e s ay ( NF ) m e ;
tul kangan i ; aran tur mata nankuny pengen t i ngany
de s ae n d I go ( NF ) ; w e hand ( NF ) g a t h e r dual h e five I
pengen t i ; p a n p a wa r i n m a t a wowe v e n a ; p i t p i t me ; tyu tyuk me ;
fi v e ; down we go ( NF ) dual aamp i n ; p Z uak s t at e ; r o a s t s t at e ;
awa k e n g i -w i n y a wu t ; awa nin t y a ka l me ; n g u p e l wa n y ;
m e a t I ( NF ) t h e m g i v e ; me a t we s i t ( NF ) e a t s t at e ; n i g h t sti Z Z;
eler kuy i nya l a r r ka ; w l t i t a l w i l a n p e t y ; we r e ?
o t h e r t h e y l i e ( NF ) e n o u g h ; m o r n i ng we eat ( NF ) h a v e ; h o w ' s t ha t ?
keme ka ; yu ta I a ; awa a ra n pety k i rrki l a yI ;
h e s ay ( NF ) t h e n ; y e s e n o ug h ; m e a t we hand ( NF ) h a v e we eat ( NF ) p as t ;
ver i nga r rkanya ku r p e t y wany .
t om o r r o w w e d e s t roy ( F ) h i t h a v e aga i n .

F ree T ra n s l a t i o n

I s at down a s the s un was s e t t ing and c ut s ome s t i ck s . Then I

went b ack home and w a i t e d for the e ve ning . I had a d r i nk o f t e a .
' He y , I am going . We can l o o k for s ome game . Yes I am going now . '
I went t o a t r e e , a b la ckheart t re e and c li mb e d up . I s at i n t h e t op
and made a p lat f o rm t o wat ch from . Whe n I had f i n i s he d , I unt i e d my
b un d l e o f s t i ck s , put t he m down and wai t e d . The ge e s e c ame t owards
me . They c ame c l o s e . I h i t one and i t fe l l down . The o t h e r man
unde rne ath p i c k e d i t up . He was p os i t i on e d underneath me . I hit
anoth e r b i rd and i t fe l l down . He p i c k e d i t up . There are two
k i l le d now . They approach aga i n . I h i t one and t h e o t h e r man p i c k e d
i t up . N ow t h e r e a r e t h r e e ly i ng there , I say t o mys e l f . I hit
anot h e r one and i t f a l l s d own . H e p i ck s i t up .
 85

' Wa i t . Wait a minute ' , he s a i d t o me .

I s t r i k e again on the o t h e r s i de . He p i ck s them up . Now t h e r e are
five lying t h e re . From there I s t ru c k another one . I t fe l l d own .
And so he p i ck e d i t up . I s t ru c k agai n . And s o anoth e r fe l l down .
And s o I c o n t i n u e d t hrowing .
' How ' s that ? ' I s ai d t o him .
' Ye s , that ' l l do ' he s a i d to me .
I c ame down from the tree , and we p i ck e d t h em up , he f i v e and me f i v e .
We went b a c k d own t o the c amp and p l u c k e d and roas t e d t hem . I gave
the meat to them . We s at down and ate i t . I t was s t i l l n i ght . There
is e no ugh l e ft t o eat i n the morn i ng .
' How ' s that ? ' he s ai d .
' Ye s , that ' s e n ough ' . We a t e the meat we had . ' Tomorrow we c an go
and cat ch s ome more . '

8.5 T E X T 5 - C I R C UM C I S I O N
k a ng a n i yi v e ra k i r u wa l i t y y e n a ; ta I k e n g ame yi ;
I go ( NF ) pas t c h i l d sma 'L 'L in; grow I s ay ( NF ) p as t ;
kangan i mere y i n g u l pa k n ta ; n i kan i keme - w i n y a yi : yaw
I go ( NF ) away pas t y o ung man n o w ; fa t h e r h e s ay ( NF ) t h e m p as t : h e y
me re ngen i l a t u kawan i pu I ; yu kum i nya-na ; tyeng i
away me for fut . h e go ( F ) re s t ; y e s t h e y s ay ( N F ) h i m ; e a r
ngun kang i na n ; kunyum paraty ngany nungu waw ; waw p a n pa
i gn o r a n t I s i t ( N F ) ; they ( NF ) come me towards take ; t a k e down
kun i nya- ngany ; a l am u n y n g a n t aw a n y k u n t : n y a - ng a n y wu l ;
t h e y go ( NF ) m e ; mouth one t h e y move ( NF ) me re t u r n ;
puwa l kanga n i ngu r ; kat kungunya y uwa ; kang i nan wa k a y ;
big I go ( NF ) p e n i s ; t: u t t h e y des t roy ( N F ) t h e re ; I s i t ( NF ) fi n i s h ;
kangan i wa t ; kut i nya - ngany t y a pa t ; kangan i wat ; kut i nya-ngany
I go ( N F ) wa n ; t h e y caus e ( NF ) me b a t h e ; I go ( N F ) wa l k ; t h e y 1 0 0 k ( NF ) m e
peku , wunnga ra ; waw k e n g ame n ; ka k k a ng a n t i ; kang a r a pety ;
woman, s we e t h e a r t ; t a k e I get ( NF ) ; m o v e I take ( NF ) ; I hand ( NF ) get;
tat wowe y e n a n i n ma t a ; wa r i n pu l pu l mata ;
s tay camp i n we s i t ( NF ) dual ; we go ( NF ) c o p u 'L a t e dual ;
kum i nya - ngany ma r a n y : y a w wu n i mpe kava ; em i na l a ?
t h e y s ay ( NF ) me news : h e y t r o u b 'L e y o u he lie (NF) ; w h a t i t fo r ?
k e n g a me - w i n y a ; peku na l a ken k i kanara pety ka ;
I s ay ( NF ) them; woman i t fo r t h i s y o u hand ( N F ) g e t so;
kum i ny a - n ga n y ; yu ke n g a me ; mo n to t u ? S a t u rd a y Sunday
t h e y s ay ( NF ) m e ; y e s I s ay ( NF ) ; w h e n fut . S a t urday S u n day
wuma r a - n i nya tara ma t a t u ; yu kengame ; kang i na n S a t u rd a y ;
y o u hand ( F ) y o u fi gh t dual fut . ; y e s I s ay ( NF ) ; I s i t ( N F ) Sa t ur da y ;
 ,

86

pet I e keng i l a ; paraty k a n g a ma ; p u wa l ka n g a n i na l a ;

p a i n t I eat ( NF ) ; s n e a k up I s t and ( NF ) ; b i g I go ( N F ) h i m fo r ;
kaya - ngany pa t y ; kang a n i p i r n i yungku ; kaya - n g a n y paty ;

he l i e ( NF ) me t h r ow ; I go ( NF ) dodge h a n d ; he l i e ( NF ) m e t h r o w ;
kangan i p i r n i yungku ; way p i ya k a n g l y a - na paty

I go ( NF ) dodge h a n d ; n o t h e a d I l i e ( NF ) him throw

wa ka n ; n a n k u ny i nki n i ; k a n g a n i - na nungu n t a ', kum i n y a - n g a ny

back; he only; I go ( NF ) h im t o wards n o w ; t h e y s ay ( NF ) m e

yaw wa k a n po l o p o l o t kum i nya - ngany ; kanga l a po l o t ;

hey back t h row t h e y s ay ( NF ) m e ; I cut ( NF ) throw;

kanga l a ku r ta r r ; wa k a n ka l a - n g a n y ku r tar r ; tal a ;

I cut ( NF ) h i t thigh; back h e cut ( NF ) m e h i t t h i g h ; e n o ug h ;

n i n ma t a l a r r ka ; nan kuny ka n a pu l ; ngany kangan i •

w e s i t ( NF ) dual e n o u g h ; h e he go ( NF ) re s t ; I I go ( NF )
•

pu l ; wi t i ta l wuma n y a n tara ma t a wany ; wuma n y a n t a ra

res t ; morn i n g we re c . ( NF ) fi g h t dual ag a i n ; we re c . ( NF ) fig h t

mata wany wakay ; y aw k e n g a me - n a ; wakay ka n a r a ; kangara retye

dual a g a i n fi n i 8 h ; h e y I s ay ( NF ) h i m ; fi n i 8 h you ( NF ) ; I h an d ( NF ) want

•

peku ken i ; way p l ya k e n g i - n i m pe wu t , ke ngame - n a ; yu

•

woman t h i s ; n o t h e a d I ( NF ) you I say ( NF ) him; y e 8

a ra pe t y k e me - n g a n y ; p l ya k e n g l - n i m pe wu t k e n g a me - n a ;

y o u hand ( F ) g e t h e s ay ( NF ) m e ' ,
h e a d I ( NF ) y o u g i v e I say ( NF ) him;

•
wa r i r a ma t a , k em e - n g a n y ; k a ng a r a pety pe l p nang a r a ;

y o u go ( F ) d ua l , h e s ay ( NF ) m e ; get s t i n from h i m ;
-

I hand ( NF )

ka n a - n g a n y wa t pe I p ; m i ya awa wowe wa r i n tattat

8 h e go ( NF ) m e wa l k s t i Z l ; fo o d m e a t camp w e go ( NF ) s tay
me ma t a ; peku p i ya keng l - na wu t way ; wa r i n ma t a

s t at e dua l ; woman h e a d I ( NF ) h i m g i v e n o t ; w e go ( NF ) dual

y i ; peku ya l a k ka n g a r a y i ; wa k a y ; t i m ka n g a r a .

p as t ; woman l 0 8 e I hand ( NF ) p as t ; fi n i 8 h ; b u ry I hand ( NF ) .

F ree Tran s l a t i on

I was s t i l l a y oung b o y growing up . Then I b e c ame a y o ut h .

My father s a i d t o the other men : ' Hey , he must go and b e c i r c umc i s e d . '
' Yes ' , they said to him .
I knew not h i ng of a l l t h i s . They came t o t ake me away . They t ook me
away for one month and then b rought me b ack . I had b ee n i n i t i at e d .

They had cut my p e ni s . I s t ay e d at home . They washed me a l l ove r . I

w a l k e d ab out , and women s t art e d t o not i ce me . I s t ar t e d t o t ake t hem .
I got one and we s t ay e d at home t ogeth e r . We c op u l at e d . Then t h e y
t o l d me the news .
' He y , t h e re i s t roub le b rewing for y ou . '
' What for? ' I asked them .
 87

' Be c au s e o f t h i s woman that you have h e re ' , they t o ld me .

' Ye s ' , I s a i d . ' Wh e n ? '
' On Sat urday and Sunday you two are going t o f i ght i t o ut . ,
' Ye s ' , I s a i d .
I s t ay e d h ome on Sat urday and app l i e d p aint t o my s e l f . I c r e p t up on
him and s t o o d up t a l l . He threw a s p e ar a t me and I d o d ge d . He
threw aga i n and I d o dge d . I d i d not throw b ac k at h i m . O n l y he
t hrew . I approached him then . They s a i d t o me :
' Hey , you had b e t t e r th row b a c k at h im . '
I threw b ac k and h i t h im i n the t h i gh . He threw b a c k and h i t me i n
t h e th igh . That i s enough . W e s at down agai n . He went o f f t o
re s t and I went o f f t o o t o re s t . The next morning we fought again .
We f i n i s h e d the f i ght .
' He y ' , I s a i d t o h im , ' y ou are f i n i s h e d . I want t h i s woman . I wi ll
n o t give h e r b ac k t o y ou . '
' Al l r i ght , y o u c an k e e p he r ' , he s a i d t o me .
' I wi l l not give h e r b a ck ' , I s a i d t o h im .
' Yo u two c an g o now ' , he s a i d t o me .
I s t i l l k e p t h e r a l t h ough she was h i s . She s t i l l w a l k e d w i t h me .
We had vege t ab l e s and meat and we l i ve d t ogether the n .
I d i d not g i ve the woman b a c k to him . We went o f f t oge the r . Then I
l o s t my woman and had t o b ury he r .

8.6 T E X T 6 - D E ATH
yaw ; m i ya n g a ma n i pa ; a n t a m a m e r e ? ; y u wa yera
hey; fo o d we go ( F ) l e t u s ; where to ? ; t h e re c h i Z dr e n
atu n g a wa n t i - w i n y a m i ya na l a ; yu m i ya mimi,
fu t ure I t ake ( F ) t h em food i t fo r ; y e s fo o d y am
wa r r k u y a n g a wa n t i -w i n y a tu yera ; yu n i n a k i n k i wa
l o ng yam I take ( F ) them fut� c h i Z dre n ; y e s y o u t h i s s i de
n g a n y k i n i wa ; yera n g a wa n t i - w i n y a ; n i na k i n k i wa
I t h i s s i de ; c h i l d r e n I t ake ( F ) them; you t h i s s i de
a n t i -w i nya yera ; ngama n i tu wu t a w i t y a ka
y o u take ( F ) t h e m c h i l d r e n ; we go ( F ) fut . wa t e r w i t h so
yuwa m i ya m i m i yena nta ; w i n i n ta n g em i k u r atu
t h e r e foo d yam in now; t h e re n o w we s t ay ( F ) fut .
wa r r k u y a n a l a w i tya ; yu ninin y i pere nta ;
l o ng yam i t fo r wi t h ; y e s crow - b a r t h e re now;
n g a ma n i tu tat wu t a yena ; k i n i wa y wu t a yiri ; ke t i
we go ( F ) fut . s tay wa t e r a t ; h e r e n o t wa t e r b e fo r e ; h e s i t ( F )
p i n y p i n y wa k a y wu t a ; wuta pe wi tya w I n I n i nk i n i n g em i k u r ;
dry u p fi n i s h w a t e r ; wa t e r arm w i t h t h e re o n l y we s it ( F ) ;
 •

88

yu y i pere nta n g a ma m a tyutyuk me ; yera n g em i k u r Y l pere

•

yes t h e l' e n o w we s t and ( F ) 1' 0 a s t s t at e c h i tdren we s i t ( F ) h e l'e

nta ; yu n g em i k u r atu y i pe r e nta wu t a yena ; wu t a w i t ya y u wa nta

now; y e s we sit ( F ) rut . there n o w wa t e l' a t ; wa t e r w i t h t h e l' e now

m i ya mimi yena ; k i n i way wu t a awa w l tya yuwa nta nganan i ;
•

fo o d y a m at; h e re n o t wa t e l' b e fo re ; m e a t w i t h t h e r e now we go ( F ) ;

yu awa mu p i n i n g k a awa men i n g e t y awa nga ran n u n g ku t i wa k k a r

y e s m e a t ro c k s n a k e m e a t p O l' c u p i n e m e a t go a n n a wa t e r - s n a k e fi s h
y u wa kaya nta w i n i n k i n i ngaman I ; yu win i n nta ngaman i ;
•
•

t h e re he l i e ( NF ) n o w ; t h e r e h e re we go ( F ) yes t h e l' e now we go ( F ) ;

Y l pe r e nta tu
•

ngem i k u r ; atu nanungu nungu n g a mama

t h e l' e now we slt (F ) ; t a t e r aft e r n o o n b a c k we s t and ( F )

w u I .• yu nanungu nungu n g amama wu l wowe yena na l a ;

l' e t u l'n ; yes a f t e l' n o o n b a c k we s t and ( F ) l' e t urn camp i n i t fo l' ;

w i n i n nta n g em i ku r ; awa k i n i munty i r ngaran n u n g ku t i mu p i n i n g ka

t h e re now we s l t ( F ) ; m e a t t h i s turt te go a n n a w a t e l' - s n a k e r o c k s n a k e

men l ng e t y ; k i n i nta ; pe
•

w i n i n nta n g em i k u r ; wu l t anma n

p o r c up i n e ; h e re now; c re e k that now we slt ( F ) re t U l' n we s t and ( NF )

ma t a ; a n t l n-w l nya wu I
•

ma t a yera
•

wa k a y ; war l n wowe
•

dual w e t ake ( NF ) t h em l'e t u rn dual ch i t dr e n a t t ; we go ( NF ) camp

yena tat ; m l ya awa
•

y e n - w l n ya wu r u t e l e r ; wowe yena k i nya ku r

•

to s tay; fo o d m e a t we ( NF ) t h em g i v e s o me ; camp a t t h e y s i t ( NF )
ay l akan i n i kan i me r e n l ;
•

yu wa r a ? ; pety
• •

ma r a n y t yeng l ;

p a s t m o t h e r fa t h e r b r o t h e r ; y e s how ' s th a t ? ; n e w s get e a r ,'

ku r i nya wakay ay I ; tya I tya ra y l
•

t i m; y i ? yu ; apa y l
• •

t h e y hand ( NF ) fi n i s h p a s t y e s t e rday p a s t b u ry ; o h ? y e s ; w h o ? p as t
t i m? ; panan n l m pe nta ; n l t a ma t a e r u we ; karan i
•

ma t a wakay
• •

y l ;

b u l'y ? ; mate y O U I' now; you t wo taugh; y o u go ( NF ) dual p as t ; fi n i s h

p i t l am n I n I k a y am a ;
•

y i ? ; yu ; pa n ng e n i
•

n g e n l ya ; n g a t a ma t a wl n l n
• • •

g l' o u n d n o w he l i e ( NF ) ; o h ? ; yes; ma t e my m 'l. n e ; we two

•

nta wa r l n ma t a Y I ;
•

e r uwe w l n l n nta wa k a y ye n a ; kana -ngany

• • •

n o w w e go ( NF ) t a u g h dual pas t ; t h e l' e now fi n i s h h e go ( NF ) m e

P I r ; ye r I kak
•

an I n I tu
•

n g a wa n i ; kanga n t i -wi nya yera

• •

teave; t o mol'l'ow m o v e now rut . I go ( F ) ; I t ake ( NF ) t h em c h i t dl' e n

wowe ngen t i ; kana w i r i tya m e n g ke y i r i peku k i n i ngany

camp an o t h e l' ; s h e go ( NF ) cry s h a de b e fo l'e woman this my

kanga ra pety me r e n i na I a ; n g a wa n t i tu wowe ngent I ; tat
•

I hand ( NF ) get b l' o t h e r h i m fo l' ; I t ake ( F ) rut . camp a n o t h e l' ; s t ay

nga r i na n mata ; nget i m i t t i ny nta ; n g a t ama wu l k i n i ; yu

we slt ( F ) dua l ; I s i t ( F ) forg e t now; I s t and ( F ) l'e t u rn h e l'e ; yes

a n t l -w l nya wowe ngen t l ; n l nga
• • •

m i t t i ny ; t a n g ama
•

y o u t ake ( F ) t h e m camp a n o t h e l' ; y o u s i t (F) fo l'g e t ; y o u s t an d ( F )

 89

wu l nungu ; yu mama k va ; yu atu a n t i -w i nya wu l

re t urn b a c k ; y e s g o o d - b y e t h e n ; y e s l a t e r y o u take ( F ) t h e m re t u r n
nu ngu ; n i n y a l a n g a wa n t i - w i n y a wu l ; yetara-wi nya mi ri ; t ya pa t
back; y ou f o r I take ( F ) t h e m re t u rn y o u s e e ( F ) them eye; bathe
pu r i n i ; maw u n y nga r r kama t y u t y u k me naku r i ny ; yu atu
t h e y go ( F ) c l o t h e s we s t and ( F ) b u rn s t ate h im from; y e s l a t e r
n g a t a ma - n i n y a wu l ; kayu m i t t i ny t u r ; a t u n t a n g a t ama - n i n y a
I s t and ( F ) y o u r e t ur n ; h e l i e ( F ), forg e t cu t ; l a t e r now I s t an d ( F ) y o u
wu l ; k u ma n - n g a n y n t a ma r i yiri pan nge n i na 1 a ; e r uwe
re t u r n ; h e ho 1 d ( N F ) me . now s t omach b e fore ma t e my h i m fo r ; laugh
y a n g a n a wa r i n e r uwe ma t a y i ; vera k a n g a n k a nma n a l a yi ;
from we go ( N F ) l a u g h dual p as t ; c h i l dr e n I k e e p ( NF ) h i m fo r p as t ;
kak anini kangan i ; manta p i ny n t a va ; yu kak ani n i kanga n i ;
move now I go ( NF ) go on go now t h e n ; y e s m o v e now I go ( NF ) ;
mu n t a k p i r kangan i - n i nya n t a ; yu wa r i n n ta ; yu wo yiri
rea l l y l e a v e I go ( NF ) y o u now; y e s w e go ( NF ) n o w ; y e s c r y before
vera ma r w u k i n y a n t a t e r i p i r i n y ke l i me n a l a 7 ; yu k u k u k wa r i
c h i l dr e n s ma l l o u r now s k i n uncle h im fo r ; y e s wa i t y o u go ( F )
p i n y ; wowe n g e n t i n i nga ; atu n i nga ; n i na nta
go; camp a n o t h e r y o u s i t ( F ) ; later you sit ( F ) ; you now
t a n g a ma - ng e r i n y a wu l nungu ; t y a pa t me na l a mawu ny ; t y u t ,v u k
y o u s t and ( F ) u s re turn b a c k ; wa s h s t a t e i t for c l o t h e s ; b ur n
me na l a ngaporo- n i nya n u n g u ; ma r a n y wu t i r a tyuk ngen i l a ;
'
s t at e i t fo r I p r oj e c t ( F ) y o u b a c k ; news y o u cause ( F ) s e n d me for ;
ya yu ma r a n y wu t i r a tyuk nta ; n g a wa n i - n i n y a ; v e r a
y e s y e s news y o u cause ( F ) s e n d n o w ; I go ( F ) y o u ; ch i l dr e n
n g a wa n t i -w i n y a ; pur i n i t y a pa t v e r a ; yu way y a n g a na n i ka n i
I t ake ( F ) them; t h e y go ( F ) b a t h e c h i ldr e n ; y e s n o t from fa t h e r
wu t i ra tyuk ngen i l a ; kaporo yuwa nta ; kava kepe - n g a ny ;
y o u c aus e ( F ) s e n d me for ; he go ( F ) t h e re n o w ; ca l l he s ay ( F ) m e ;
vera w i t y a kava kepe-nge r i ny a ; panpa nungu nga ra n i para ; yu
c h i l dr e n w i t h ca l l h e s ay ( F ) u s ; down back w e go ( F ) t og e t h e r ; yes
w i na ma r a n y n t a ; wu l t a r r a y u wa .
that news now; re t u r n run there .

F ree T r a n s l at i on

' He y , l e t � go and find s ome food . '

' Where s h a l l we g o ? '
' I s h a l l t ak e the ch i l dren ove r there for s ome food . Y e s , t h e re are
' ch e e ky ' y ams and l ong y ams . I s ha l l t ake the ch i l dren . '
' Ye s , you go t h i s s i de and I ' l l go that s i de . I ' l l take the ch i l dren
this s i de and y ou ' l l take y ours that s i de . We s h a l l go to t h at
wat e rh o 1e whe re there are y ams . We sha l l s t o p there for s ome l ong yams . '
90

' Ye s , here i s a c rowb ar . W e s h a l l s t op a t the wat erhole . '

' There was no wat e r b e fore . I t wi l l have a l l d r i e d up . We h a d b e t t e r
c amp a t a cree k . We c an do o ur c o o k i ng there . '
' We c an c amp the c h i ldren there . '
' Ye s , we s h a l l s t ay there at the wat e r , at the p la c e b y t h e wat e r
whe re t h e r e are y ams . There i s n o wat e r here . We sha l l h unt game
there t oo . '
' Ye s , r o c k s nake s , p o r c u p i ne s , goannas and wat e r - s nake s ; there are
fish t h e re as we l l . That ' s the p la c e we ' l l go t o . '
' Ye s , w e s h a l l go and c amp there . Lat e r i n the aft ernoon we c an
go home . '
' Ye s , we c an go home t o the c amp i n the a f t e rnoon , and s t ay t h e re .
There i s game here : t urt le s , goannas , wat e r-snake s , roc ks nak e s and
p o r c up i ne s . We s ha l l s t ay here at the c re ek . '
Then we went b a c k and t o ok the ch i ldren home aga i n . We gave
them s ome me at and vege t ab le s . Our mother , father and b ro t h e rs
w e re at t h e c amp .
' Ye s , h ow ' s t h at ? '
Then they heard the news .
' They f i n i s h e d b urying h i m y e s t e rd ay . '
' Di d t h ey ? '
' Ye s . '
' Wh o d i d they b ury ? '
' Your mat e was the one . You two were friends and u s e d t o go about
t oge the r . Now he is unde r the ground . '
' I s he ? '
' Ye s . '
' Oh my p o or b e l o v e d mat e . We w e re great friends . Now i t is a l l ove r .
He h a s l e ft me . Tomorrow I s h a l l go away . I sha l l t ak e the chi ldren
to ano t h e r p l a c e . My w i fe cries all day for h e r b ro t he r . I shal l
t ak e h e r t o anoth e r p l ace . We s h a l l s t ay there s o that I c an forge t .
Then I s h a l l come b ack here t o y ou . '
' Ye s , t ak e them t o ano t h e r p l a c e . When y o u h ave forgo t t e n y o u c an
c ome b a ck . '
' Ye s , good-bye the n . '
' Ye s , l a t e r on y ou c an b ring the ch i l dren b ack . '
' I s h a l l b ri n g t h em b a ck t o you . Y o u w i l l s e e them . They wi l l b e
washed . '
' We s h a l l b urn a l l h i s c l ot h e s . '
' Ye s , l a t e r I s h a l l ret urn t o y ou whe n I have forgot t e n . Then I s h a l l
c ome b a c k t o y o u . I am very d i s t re s s e d ab out my friend . We u s e d t o
'
b e great friends . I l o o k e d a ft e r h i s c h i ldren . Now I s h a l l go . '
 91

' G o on then . '

' Ye s , I am going now . Th i s t i me I s h a l l re a l ly l e ave y o u . Y e s , we
are going now . Yes our l i t t le ch i l dren are cry i ng for t he i r un c l e . '
' Ye s , you go f i rs t and s t ay at ano t h e r p la c e . S t ay there and then
c ome b ack to us t o c le an up his t h i ngs . '
' I s h a l l c ome b a c k t o you t o b urn h i s t h i ngs . Y e s , you c an s end
word and t h e n I shall c ome b ack to y o u . I s h a l l b ring the ch i l dren .
They wi l l b e washe d . I f y o u l i ke , you c an s e n d my fathe r for me . He
wi l l c ome up there and call me and the chi l dren . He w i l l c a l l u s and
we shall c ome b a ck t o g e t he r . Y e s , that ' s the way ; that ' s h ow we ' l l
ret urn . '
92

9.0 L E X I CO N I

9.1 MARANUNGKU - ENGL I SH

akan i m o t h e r ( p os s . by 1 s t eme t u k path, track

person )
emi w ha t ?
m o t h e r ( po s s . by 2nd
w ha t ?
ala
enty i
p e rs on )
g o a n n a ( dry co u n t ry )
a l a p u nak e d
e r emp i
e r k i n g a m o t h e r ( p o s s . b y 3rd
a l amuny moon , mon th
person )
m o t h e r ( addre s s t e rm )
e r u w e fri e n d ; to l a u g h 5
a l ang
p lain, l e v e l ground; t o wa l k l
to l au g h ; t o p l ay
amma 5
e r uw i yo
a n g i ny mu lga
where ?
all, e v e ry o n e , on l y
a n t am a
i nk i n i
h o w many ?
a l l righ t , i n fa c t , t ru l y
a n y l n t a ra
i nt i r i
ap p e rhap s
who ?
t h e re fore , so
a pa
ka
ara k i n d o f g um t r e e
kak p a rt i c le indi c at i ng movement
meat-ant
come o n t h e n ( e x c lamat i on )
a ra n y
ka kaw
tibia, lower leg
g randfa t h e r ( p at e rna l )
a r ra
kaku l
to g o round and roundl
to l e a v e , t a k e o u t of t h e
a r ra r
ka l
a r r tany s hark wa t e r l a
a t a ra b e fo r e , p r e v i o u s ly ka l a l a k w h i t e co c k a t o o
ati hey ( e x c l amat i on ) ka I anguk a fly
atla b e l ly ( o f � fi s h ) ka l a rang t h i n ( o f a p e rs on )
a t l amu b lackheart tree ka l e n i u n c l e ( po s s . by 1 s t
14 p e rs on )
a tnga l to answer
l e a f ( generi c ) ; t o c l imb l
l a te r, later on
ka l ka l
atu
b rown duc k
urine, t o u r i na t e l
ka l ka r i
a t y awa
whir lwind
me a t ( pre f i x t o a l l e d ib le
kaman t e r r p u pu
awa
anima l s ) kana h e re , take it ( e x c l amat i on )
aya no ( emphat i c ) k a n a r k i n d of sma l l l i z a r d
ka n p l l e n g t h o f bamb o o ;
d i dg e r i do o
ek vomi t , t o v om i t l
r o c k w a l laby
m o t h e r ( po s s . by 2nd
k a n po n i n
e ke l e
person) k a n t i pe t day l ig h t , fi r s t l i g h t
e l er s ome , a few ; s o m e . . . o t h e rs kan t u m a n ; adu l t
e l me t t e r h a rd, t ou g h k a r awa l a s to n e ; m o n e y

l
Th e n umb e r i n s u p e r s c r i p t wh i c h f o l l ow s v e rb s t e m s i n d i c at e s t h e
v e rb c l a s s t o wh i c h t h e s t em b e l o n g s .
 93

to c u t up s ome t h �. n g 8 9
ka r r k u r paw to k i Z l
ka r ra s ho u l de r ku r i a s ho r t s p e a r
l
karrkarr to bite O kur i ny from ( b ene fac t i ve )
0 0
kat to c u t 1 j t o chop (wood) 1 ; t o h i t , s tr i k e
9
S
kurkur
to p i ck
0 kurp to s t and s ome t h i ng Up j t o
ka t u r to h u n t , c h a s e away 1 p u t s ome t h i n g down 1 6
kaw come h e r e j come o n ( e xc l amat i on ) ku r ruwu b ro l ga ( n a t i v e Com-
kay t o ca l l o u t 3 p an i o n )
6
kayangk i k i nd of b l a c k du ck kut l u t o ro Z l u p ( o f a s n a k e ) 1
6
kaykay t o ca l l o u t 3 ku t l uk t o cough

ke l i un c l e kutur a s ma Z l mudfi s h

ken i t h i s demon s t rat i ve ) kutya a s ma l l b r e am

5
ken g i nyanga I cook 1 a kutya l a t o day
9
kenk i this ( de mon s t rat i ve ) ku tyuk t o s w a Z Z ow

kenyapuy white
ki I it t o s p. p a ra t e , s p l i t up , l a l arngan co l d ( o f w a t e r )
di s p e r s e 8 l a l aw t o s w e l l u p ( i nt rans . )
6

kini this ( va r i an t o f k e n i ) l an g ka r a t e t i p rawn

k i nya o u r p lural i n c l u s i ve ; us l a r rka e n o ug h , s Uffi c i e n t j
p l ural i n c l u s i ve around about
s ma l l , l i t t le 5
k i r u wa l i t y l e kme t o b e we t j g re e n ( o f gras s )
we p l ural i n c l us i ve 5
k i tya leri to b e h appy
8
k i ty i l i l i to t i ck le s om e o n e I i I i I in t h e m i dd l e , in t h e
kiyik sun c e n t re

k i y i ktuk day t i me , now l i rm i m a bat

kompe l oran g e , y e l l o w j y e l l ow l o r rm i n ribs

o ch r e l umpu p o s t e r i o r, b o t t o m
ko r rpo rong w h i t e k a ngaroo l ungu l ungu k i n d o f g a l ah
k o r uw e k o o k a b u rra l urr be l ly , s t omach
kuka ra r e d o c h re
kukuk wai t a m i n u t e ma k a t ri v e r , r i v e rb a n k
k u k u kw a y later, aft e r a wh i l e maku l pa n u l l an u l l a (with a knob )
kukun na t i ve b e e ma l a s na k e ( ge n e r i c )
and 9
ku l to fi l l 3 ma l a k b l a c k h e a r t t re e
ku l ku l to i n h ab i t l ma l a ya a sore, wound
ku l uk b lind ma l i k i t a long ( ad j e c t i ve )
k um p u fo o t ma l k i n s p i n i fe x
k u m p u m a r i s o l e of t h e fo o t ma l k i n m i r i s p i n i fe x s e e d
k u m p u ma rwu toe mama k good-bye
k um p u n g a r a r t o e - nai l mamu w i l d t ur k e y
hee l 4
k umpu po r ma n a n ka to a s k for
kunam b lack snake mana r r k re d k a n g a r o o
2
kur to catch 7, spear7j to s h o o t lO , ma n g a n a t o l o o k fo r 1
h i t9
94

ma n g k a na a but terfly me r r hair of the head; hair­

s tring; hair-b e l t
ma n g k a r a t o h a v e a a o l d5
me t I e s tringy -bark
ma n i m g o od; this is good; e x a� l l e n t
6
ma n p u k wo ome r a me t t e r to be t i red; to be sad

ma n p u k m i r i hook o n a woomera
mi dog

ma n t a n e a k , t h ro a t ; a o r r o b o r e e 4 m i km i k a k i n d of p o s s um
( s i n g i ng ) ; to w a i t , w a i t fo r m i ku t dingo
ma n t a t e t i nape of t h e n e a k m i l ng i n hi l l, moun t a i n
ma n t i y a t o s i ng 5 mimi a r o u n d y am ( ' Cheeky Yam ' )
ma r a n u n g k u Ma r a n u n g k u lang uage m i mp i louse
ma r a n y news ; to speak 6 (a l anguage ) m i n ta r ra fi r e - s t i a k
ma r i s t o ma a h ; i n s i de ; b o t tom m i nty i rk b laak ant
(of a boa t ) ; bed 6
6 mir t h un de r ; to t h u n de r
ma r i n n g a n a to be h u n g ry
mi r i aae , e y e s ; s e e d; to look
{
ma r i ny good ( th a t i s good) fo r 0 ; t o l o o k a t 1 2
ah e s t 6
ma r i t empe r r mi r imi r i to b e aonfu s e d
ma r r k a t re e - f l ower mi r i tuk o a t opus
ma rwun p i g my - g o o s e mi r i ty i f l y i n g - fox
ma rwu t a q u i ak ly m i r i t yu n heart
ma t a mark e r i n d i c at i ng dua l i t y m i rongko a w h i t e p ig e o n
ma t i b a rramun di mi t t o find9
mawuny i ronwood; a lothes m i tana a k i n d of w a t e r y am
ma y a n b l a a k duak mi t l i thiak ( o f a damp e r )
me p ar t i c le i n d i c at i ng a s t ate , mitti wi l d h o n e y
w i t h s ome ve rb s
m i t t i ny t o fo rge t s om e t h i n g 5 ;
me l e b ro t h e r ( p o s s . b y 2nd
t o run off (of liquid) 5a
p e rs on )
6 m i t y i t y Euro p e a n w o m a n
me l k t o fe e Z s i a k
m i ya v e g e t a b l e food ( ge n e ri c
memme axe term)
menen a s h o r t s na k e mi y i r a k i n d of b r e am
me n g k a 1 i g ra n dm o t h e r (paterna l m i y i t i n y two
a n d ma t e r n a l )
m i y i t i ny m i y i t i ny four
me n g ke s h a de ; p e r h ap s
mon t o when ?
me n g k e n fr i e n d , mate
m o r ame r r p ub i a h a i r
me n i n g e t y p or a u p i n e
mo r a t y i f l y i ng fox ( va r . o f
me n n e r s a nd, sugar m i r i ty i )
10
me r e p art i c le i ndi c at i ng movement mo r k to aove r, a o v e r up
away from t h e s p e aker 8
mo r mo r to b r e a k , arush
m e r e n a b ro t h e r ( p os s . by 3rd
p e r s on ) mo r m o r o n t y e r m u l du g o n g

me r e n i b r o t h e r ( p o s s . by 1 s t mo r o s tar
p e r s on ) m o r u n g mo r u n g a k i n d of b re am
me r e n y a gras s l i ly mu b o ne
me r e pe t b e a r d ; b ro t h e r ( addre s s mu l e r e t y aheeky person
t e rm )
 95

mumuya to wa t c h , b e wary ( o f an n i n t y i ma l a b a d l u c k ( e x c l amat i on )

anima l ) 3
n i ny a y o u r p l ural ( p o s s . adj . )
mungay i I a padd l e
n i p i t y i ma n t a green ant
m u n t a k o l d; c e r t a i n l y , i n fa c t ,
r o o t of t r e e or p la n t ; v e i n
rea l ly ; s ome t i me ago
nir
fa t h e r ( 3rd p e r s on p o s s . )
ank le
n i r ka n a
mun t u l k
n i r ka n g a fa t h e r ( 3 rd p e r s on fern .
mun ty i r k i n d of t u r t l e ( generi c
poss . )
term)
ni ti son
mun ty i rny i rung k i nd o f s a l t -w a t e r
turt le n i t ya y o u p l ural s ub j e c t
mup i n i ngka r o c k - s na k e n i y am grandson
5 and 7
mu r i n t e ren s we a t ; to sweat n i yu ng ku h a n d , fi n g e r
mu r u egg ; tes ticles n i y u n g k u ma r i pa lm o f t h e h a n d
mu r uw i t y a bu l lock n i yung ku nga r a r fi nge r n a i l
mu t l y i ng k i n s a l t - w a t e r t ur t l e nompo mous e , ra t
0
mu t un g k u r co l d ; t o be co l d 1 -nta s u f f i x i nd i c at i ng imme d i a t e
action
mu t y u n g s wag
wa t e r - s n a k e
s h o r t - n e c k e d fre s h wa t e r
n u n g ku t i
m uw i y i
t ur t l e nungu p art i c l e i nd i c at i ng move ­
me nt t owards the s peaker
n u n u wi t h , b y ( i ns t rume n t a l
- na him
part i c l e )
fo r h i m ( b ene fac t i ve ) ;
to fi g h t ( cf .
na l a
- nya n t a ra 2.14)
abo u t , concerning
6
n y .l p m .l r .l t 0 w �. n k
M i 7 ,k y Way
8
na I an
t o 8 c ra t ch
c l ap - s t i ck s
ny i r i k i
n a ng ka
n y i rkaka r to rub ( t o re t i e v e
nephew
Dain) 8
n a n kany
nankuny he ( 3 rd p e rs o n s g . ) 6
nyuk to te l l lies
nanungu aft e rn o o n ; i n t h e 5
afternoon nyunyuk to sme l l s ome t h i ng

n a r a t a ra t o run ; f l e e , run
a r o u n d1 7 -nga her
nat l a good; t ha n k y o u nga l mou t h , do or
n aw a n y his ( p o s s . adj . ) nga l tet i lip
nen t u horse nga l a fo r h e r ( b e n e f a c t i ve )
n e n yme t e three nga l awanan fi s h i ng l i ne
n i ka l a fa t h e r ( 2 nd p e r s o n p o s s . ) nga l t i r i t i r i tongue
n i ka n i fa t h e r ( 1 s t p e rs on p o s s . ) n g a l wa n k a short- necked turt le
n il a fa t h e r ( 2nd p e r s o n p o s s . ) ngana w h e n , from, like, as
n i l ang fa t h e r ( addre s s t e rm ) nganang u l pa k b o y or g i r l (5- l0
- n i mpe y o u s i ngular ob j e c t y e ars )

n i na y o u s i ng u l ar s ub j e c t n g a n g kany n i e ce

n i ng i ny t o t a l k , c o n v e rs e ; to ngangku we two i n c l us i ve
speak a language 8 ngankuny she ( pr on . s g . )
n i n i ny d i g g i ng - s t i c k n g a n t aw a n y one
ninl n o w , a t t h e p r e s e n t t i me n g a ny I , p ronoun s ub j e c t
96

nga ran g o anna ( ge n e r i c t e rm ) pan ma t e , fri e n d

n g a t a ma t a we t w o e x c lus i ve panan ma t e , fri e n d
ng a t t a house pangant i fi v e
2
ngaty to run away ; p art i c le panpa under
i nd i c at ing ne c e s s i ty
panpana b ranch
ngatya we p l ural e x c l u s i v e
panpat i fi e l dmo u s e
ngay t p i r r far away , distant
pany p o s s um
a un t i e
to s p e a r 1
nge I i
papa l
nge l k i ny cave
papu sma l l l i z ard
n g ememe deaf
pa r to g e t co l d ( o f s ome t h i n g
ngen i my ( p a s s . adj . ) heated) lO
nge n p i m u dfi s h para toge ther
n ge n t i one, o t her, an o t h e r paraty t o c h a s e away 8 ; t o fo l l ow 8 ;
15a
nge tyanga I s ha l l cook to c r e e p up on 8 ; to g o 3 a
nge t i daugh t e r paraty tarra to run away 3
8
ng i to l i gh t a fi re park i ny a l one; on ly
6 9
ng i r t o r e fu s e pat t o ma k e , b u i l d; ki l l
ng u l a n youth, s i ng l e man patpat gras s h opp e r
ng u l pa k youth paty t o t h row a s p e a r o r
ngunawany n o t h i ng s tone 2 and 8

ngunguk t o b re a t h e , pan t
5 patypaty to t h row 3
6 6
ngunyp i r k i n d of s n a k e paw to l a c k ; to be dead ; tired
co l d
nguppe l n i g h t - t i me
pe arm, upp e r arm ; cre e k
early
t o rema i n , s ta y 5
nguppe I te t i
pek
penis
to b a r k 3
ngur
pekpek
ng u r i nym i n b l a c k h e a d, p imp l e 15
4 pekper to roas t
ngurkur to s l e e p
peku woman ( general t e rm )
ngu r t y i emu
4 pekwu y t y fu l l
nguruk to c lose ( t he e y e s ) 8
pe l ma n t a to t i e up
pe l e l e k i nd of h a w k
pa l e t us ( e xhort at i ve p art i c le )
pe l p sti l l, a lway s ; t o c o n t i n ue
pa I t o b re a k , t o c u t down ; t o
l i l y - ro o t
c h op down 9 ; t o b r e a k ( t rans i ­
pe l t y i m i r i
t i ve ) 8 , 9 , 1 5 ; ( i nt rans i t i ve ) l penku ru dawn
p a l ma n t a t o break someone ' s penpe down , u nde r ( var . o f p a n pa )
neck 9 pen t e r e n o w ; fo r a l o ng t ime
4
pa l tet i to b e n d down perakut wh i t e man
pa l ak a ' b o n y ' b r e am pe re l e liver
pa l a p i ya round perety t o j ump 5
pa l a t o p e n g r o u n d, p lain; flat pe r i ya wa t e r - l i l y
pa l pa l b a s k e t ; t o fo l d o n e ' s p e r ke s h a rp
o n e ' s a rms ; to break a
s p e a r 8 and 9 p e r ke t i r r s h arp
 97

and 1 0
perku r i ny rotten ( o f mea t ) po l o t to take revenge 7
p e r re rat ponno dus t
pet to open7 ponopon a water-snake
pet I e to p a i n t o ne s e lf l l pon t o r e l b ow
pe t m i r i t o w a k e up 1 po r r but tocks
pet tet l to f l e e . r u n away 1 7 pot t o t h row a s p e a r o r
peterr k i n d of l i l y b o omerang 2
4
pe t p e t look o u t ; g e t out ( e x c l ama­ potung t o re s t . s le e p
tion) pu l to r e c u p e ra t e ; to re s t
petur t o r i p s ome t h i ng B ; t o s p l i t l O aft e r e ffo r t l
pety to g e t . h a v e h o l d carry . pu l a n g pu l a ng a swe l l (of t h e s e a )
marry B ; t o s ta n d o n l � ; t o wa t c h 1 2 pu l i t o c h a n g e d i r e c t i on 3
pe t y ma r i t o fo l d o n e ' s a rms B
pu l I pu l i r a i nb ow
pety nga l t o l e ad B
pul i rk s t i n g - ray b a rb
p l l me h a l f- ca s t e
pu l p u l h o t ( o f fi re o r s un ) ;
p l n g ka r r a knee t o be ho t 3
p i nngar k i n d o f r os e l l a pul tyen e ag l e hawk
p i nt y i nga tpe p a s s i onfru i t pu r i ty t o fix. m e n d . r e p ai r B
p i ny fi r s t . fi r s t of a l l ; g o pu r i typu r i ty s mo o t h ( o f a
a w a y ( e x c l amat i on ) s u rfa c e )
p i ny p i n y dri e d up ( adj . ) pu r i ya w h i s t l e - du c k ; w i l d
plr t o t h ro w away 3 . to leave l , o range
5
rej e c t 3 • m i s s 3 purungpurung to boi l1 a
1 5
p l r l rngu k i nd of wa l l a b y purup t o dan ce
p i rke l to un t i e . u n do B puruppu rup t o dan c e a
corroboree 1 5
p l rkl ty t o rub one ' s eyes ) ; to
S
w r i ng w a s h i ng pu rwu r b lood
pit to washB; t o p l u c k a b i r d7 pu t u r t o c l e a n s om e t h i ng l O
p l t l am g r o u n d. e a r t h puty to rub B
p i t l a m e l me t t e r c laypan pu t t i m o s q u i to
p l tp l t t o p l u c k a b i r d7 ; a k i n d p u wa l big. l a rg e
o f b i rd 9
puyty n o t t o know
p i t p i tme cy c l o n e
p i ty i t o w rap up ( p a r c e l ) ; to
ra k i nd o f b rown p i g e o n
r o Z Z u p swag 1 3
re r i fa t . g r e a s'e
p i ya h e a d ; t o w a i t for 5 a
retye t o l i k e . wan t B
p i y a me r r h a i r of t h e h e a d
6 rimi fo r e h e a d
p l ya p i ya to h e ap up 1
p i yawer i k to b e angry ; t o b e
6
w o rr i e d 7 ta I t o g r o w up
4
po to smo ke 1 tala enough. s u ffi c i e n t
po l o o ld man ta l a tany n e v e r m i n d ( e x c l ama­
t i on )
po l opo l ot to take revenge; to
t h r ow s ome t h i ng b a c k lO tam t o c o o k ; t o b e h o t ( i nt ran­
s i t i ve ) 5
98

t a ma n rabb i t - b a n d i c o o t t i nme white cockatoo

ta n b l o o dw o o d t r e e t i npur mang r o v e
9 l
t a n p i ng ka r ra to cross one ' s legs t i nym i n t o drown
to s i n k ;
8
tanka yabb i tip to c a t ch s ome t h i n g
tanngan cheeks t i ra l k s a l i v a ; sp i t t l e
t a n n g a n me r e p e t b e a rd; w h i s k e r s t i ri vagina
tantur m i Z kw o o d t r e e t i r i ny p u k b l oo dw o o d t r e e
tap man y ; a l o t t i r i tetl i r c l i toris
tap i nk i n i a l l ; e v e ry t h i ng ; t l rr tooth
e veryone
tirr t h e e dg e o f; t h e s i de o f
t a ra l a s low; s lowly
9 t i r rw u t t a r seashore; beach
ta rapu dry ; t o w i p e dry
t i rwe b lack cockatoo
ta r l ya r r p e l i can
t i t i rr nave L
tarr thigh
l t i t y i mu ripe ( o f fru i t )
tarra t o run
t i ya a sma l l bamb o o cane
ta r ra t y u t yu t u r r co l d a s h e s
toma a live; l i v i ng
trous ers
to l o o k fo r 1
t a r rw i t y a
4 t ra t ra y
ta r u ng t o s nore
l to s u e e z e b e tw e e n t h e
�
r e s t ; to s tay 5
t r aw
tat t o s i t dow n , fi n g e r s
tat tat t o ma k e a fi re l 6 ; t o l i v e t rup
O
to ex t �o n g u � s h a f � re
8
l l6
0

t og e t h e r ; t o b e fr i e nds
t r u r � p r i n worm; to have
�
t awa r tree ( generi c t e r m ) r� ngworm
t a w a r t a wa r thi cke t, c l ump o f tu/atu fut ure t e n s e aux i l i ary
t re e s marke r
tem i s i de o f t h e b o dy ; s i de t U kyangana p o l i c eman
l and 3
tem i wu n n g a r a k i dn e y s tu I to de s ce n d ; c ome down
l
t em i l a g ra n dfa t h e r (ma t e rna l ) tu l ty i t o roa s t O
ten i ku l ku l k i n d of rab b i t tu l u t hook-spear
8 and 1 3
ten tem t o s ew 7 t u n g k u t i t o p u s h s om e o n e
t e r em e r ro t t e n (of wood) tunun p r e g n a n t woman
8
t e r i p i r i ny s kin tur t o p �o c k , p �o c k up ; t 0 h e ap
up 1 6 ; to c u t l O
t e r u we Tiger-s nake
tet i the back; t o p s i de c o u n t r y ;
t u r t e m i b lunt point (on a spear)
t o g e t up l 7 t u r t ungku r t o c u t i n h a lf 7
te t i m i l a fin of a fi s h turru around, around t h e re
a k i nd o f b e e t l e tut t i rr b l u n t ( o f a k n i fe )
.
te t i nanga ra r r
ti lk paperbark tutur to s e t a fire 1 6 ; t o
t o b u ry 8 ; t o s h u t 7 and 9 ; t r a c k 7 and 1 ; t r y o u t 1 3
to
4 ,15
t im
forg e t 7 t u t uy t o s t raig h t e n 1 3 , 1
t i m tyeng i t o fo rg e t 3
t l ng i ny con t inuous ly t y a ka I to eat5
4
t i nk i rk to be sick tya l pak d e w ; fog
 9
9

t y a l t ya ra y e s t e rday ; �as t n i g h t t y i pme b �aak; vein

. 0
tya l wu aanoe t y l. r t0 sque e z e ; t 0 J. o '!. n 1
tyam t o eat ( o f a n anima � ) l l t y i r k i n g r e e n ( o f fru i t ) ; raw
tyampu l a k i n d of yam (of meat )
6
tyant a l t o �ean o n 9 ty i rnga to sneeze

tyapat t o b a t h e 5 ; t o was h ; to t y i r u ng t y i r u n g t o make b u b b � e s i n

swiml the waterl

tyat to dig9 tyo l po r goose

t y a t yawu y t y � e ft hand t yumu smoke

t y e l me r sma � � b arramundi tyot i ny w i n d b r e a k ; s h e l te r

tyem i l a g ra n dfa t h e r (ma t e rna � ) tyo t yo t u r a o � d (of water)

tyen t i a ta ra las t w e e k ; i n t h e tyuk t o a h a s e away 1 3 ; t o s e nd 1 3 ;

pas t t o b urn 5 ; t o p u t down 1 6

tyeng i ear; tea; tea - leave s ; to t y u ngo t t y u ngot k i n d of o w l

l i s t e n t o l and 1 4 tyura a s tiak
tyeng i ngun t o be i g noran t ; n o t tyu tyena 5 1 Mi l e
t o k now s ome t h i ng 5 tyutyuk to aook meat 5
tyeng i wer i k t o t h i n k abou t ; to
wo rry a b o u t l
wa . . . . . w a o n e s i de . . . . t h e o t h e r
to k n o w ; to know
s i de
t y eng i w i t y a
about l
wak arow
tye reny hand �e ( o f an axe )
wa k a t t h e s am e ; t o do the s ame
to s t ra i g h t e n o u t (of a
t h i ng
t y e r e re
� i mb ) 5 8
to fi n i s h ; fi n i s h e d
t o b e fri g h t e n e d 1
wa k a y
tye r i
wa k k a r fi s h ( ge n e r i c t e rm )
tyertyer an a du � t m a l e
wa l a n g ku r m i n y Finnis R i v e r area
tyet shirt
wa l a n t a n a w h i t e g um t r e e
tyetak ro a k - ao d
wa l a r ka s �owly
t ye t i ma r i w i n di ng ( o f a road)
wa I k i t i ty �oud; l o u d ly
t y e t me r i g h t h a n d ; s t rai g h t ;
righ t wama n g k a n wa � �aby ( ge n e r i c t e rm )
ty i rope; aord wana w h a t abo u t ?
ty i l a k i n d of fi s h wana r r l ig h t n i ng
ty i l i l i o l d woman wangka a o rr o b o r e e ( dan a i n g )
ty l l i ny ty i l i ny parro t wangku l k i n d o f fi s h
6
tyl l k to h u r t ; t o be s o r e wa n t i �ate ; too late
t y i ng t o i tah; t o fe e l i t ahy 7 wa n u n g u o n , u p , o n t o p of
ty i nta s p e a r ( ge n e r a l t e r m ) wany aga i n , a l s o , too
t y i n t a tem i s ha rp p o i n t wa r to f � o a t ; t o l i ft l a
t y i n t a t e t i m i y i t i n y s p e a r wi t h wa r a k t o u n a o v e r ; t o r e mo v e from
b ar bs o n b o t h s i de s fire 8
ty i nta y i r i b u t t e n d of s p e a r wa r a n w a t el'fa � l
ty i p to set (of t h e sun ) 7 wa rkuya l ong yam
6 and 7
t Y l p a k t 0 s p '!.· t
.
wa r m a l a w i n d; t h e D ry
100

wa r r k a t i di L L y - b ag w o n g ow u t a n a w a n y t h un de p h e a d
wa t to go; to wa L k 1 wonongo a Lose; neap
wa t i - pre fi x t o male s e x p e rs ons wo n t o p o r shopt
wa t p a r thin; tight wo r o gpass
wa t t a n fe a t h e p ; fUp wowe aamp ; h o u s e
waw p a n p a to t a k e ; aappy 1 wowe t a n g k a m e w up Z e y ; g p a s s h o u s e
wawu n y a venemous snake wowe n e nes t (of a b i pd)
way no; not wow i r a k i nd of gum t p e e
we l e wing wu fe a t h e ps ; t p o ub t e , s t p i fe ; to
we l e p e n e m a n t a k i nd of d u a k h e a t up 1 5
an ow t
f L a t waddy
w u kw u k
wem p e k
to aome b a a k 3 , pe t upn 3 ;
apmp i t
wu l
we n t e r
6a to b p i n g b a a k l a , b a a k ( adv . )
we r t o h u ppy ; h a s t e n
wu l p i l a a t fi s h
we r e m p e n a L Ligatop
wu l i va wa t e p - g o a n n a ; t o da n a e (of
we r e p e l fe ma L e kangapoo a woma n ) 5
w e r e t y we r e t y sma L L R o s e L L a wu l u l to p u n
we r i k bad, e v i L ; wrong wu l me l e n p e tpe Z ; s e a - g u Z Z
we r i r a note (mo n e y ) wun exapeme n t ; tobaaao
werre h ow ' s t h a t ? wu n p uwa l Z ungs
we t t i r i n y sa L t wu n a r a v i s ae p a ; g u t s
w i l i kw i l i k k i n d of g a L ah wungka l a s i s t e p ( p o s s . b y 2nd
k i n d of b re am ( gene r i c
wi lmi r p e r s on ) ; addre s s t e rm
t e rm ) wungka n i s i s t e p ( poss . by
t h a t ( demons trat i ve )
w i na 1 s t pers o n )
s i s tep ( poss . by
a L o s e fpi e n d ?
wu n g ka n g a
w i nanta
3rd p e r s on )
winin thepe; that p Laae; ovep
s t i ngpay
t h e pe
wungku

t h e We t ; s ummep
wung ku- p r e fi x to female s e x
win i n i rr
p e r s ons
a moth
u nmappi e d g i p Z ;
w l n i pe r
wungkungu l an
w i nka name s i ng Z e g i p L
6a
w i n tya ra to s teaL wungku t y i pe l g i p L a t p u b e p ty
w l nya t h e i p p l ural ; t h e m wu n i n i r r h e a t mi page
w i ny i ng k i ny b o om e pa n g ; a po u n d wunm i r i anus
5
w i r i tya t o apy wu n ng a r r g i p L - fp i e n d ; s we e t h e a p t
4
w l rw i r t o b L ow ( w i n d ) wun t yengka an e di b L e g pub
wi t I taI mopn i ng ; e a p L y wu nymu pipe (of fp u i t ) ; a o o k e d
. 1 ( of fo o d )
w i t l yu k t o e n t e p, go 1- n
b L u e - t ongued Li zapd
k i nd of p i n e t p e e
w i tty i n wu r i
9
to aposs one ' s L e g s
t h e y p l u ra l ; wi t h
w i tya ( ac c om- wu r i t a r r a
panime n t ) wu r i wu r i red
w i t y a ng u r s ao p p i o n wu r k a to w o p k l
wo teaps; L a me n t a t i o ns wurng i n wi L d p L um
wo n g o a Loud wu r u m yeap; t h e We t
 101

14
wu r u t to give ( s evera t obje ats } y i ? is that s o ?
wut to g i v e ; t o p u t do wn o n t h e y i l i p re f i x t o w o o d e n i n s t r u m e n t s ;
ground1 4 stiak
11
wuta wa t e r ; ra �, n ; t 0 d �' e y i I i a r a t a wa r gun , rifte

wu t a k a r a wa l a roakho te y i I i n i l i b un d t e of s t i a k s

wuta kumpu t o w down ( i n re t a t i o n y i I i ta wa r d i g g i ng s t i a k

to a r i v e r )
y i m i ny wood; fi re
r�ver
fi re s t i a k
wuta ma k a t
,

y i m i ny po r
h igh er up ( i n re t a t i o n
hot ashes
wuta ma n t a
y i m i ny t a r ra
to a river)
y i n nose
,

wuta b i H a b o ng ; soak
y i ng i b re a s t s ; mi t k
wu t a pe are e k
y i nngu l i r i a r o aodi t e
wuta tet i a s p n ng
,

y i pere th ere ; o v e r t h e re
b i t t a b o ng ( af ,
•

1
wuta t u r ru t u r ru)
y i r i tai t ; t o t u rn b a a k ; b e fore ;
wu t a t u r wu beer
emphat i c p art i c le
s a t t - wa t e r
a e n t i p e de
wuta wu t t a r
y i r i ya
b i H a b o ng
to aros s , e n tw i n e ,
wu t e t i
y i rmi ty i rmi t
wu t t a r sea i n t e rw e a v e l
wu t t a r k i r t o w t i de y i t to weave 8

wu t t a r h i g h t i de
p uwa l y i t l y i t l righ t ; aorre a t ; v e ry
8 and 1 '
wuty to pour out 3 , t0 yu yes
give birth t09; to rain8 yukuy o h g o o d ( e x c l amat i o n )
wuy t o p a dd t e 9 yungut k i nd of mudfi s h
wuy i bark o f a t re e y u rma l a n g hea
��
wuy i t y to pour o u t ; to ra i n 3 y u rwu to b u rn
yuwa that ( demon s t rat i ve ) ; there
ya l ak to t o s e s ome t h i n g ; to untie 8 y uwa r a up t h e r e
yangana from ( prepos i t i on ) yuyu a H righ t ,
y a n g a rma t a a mor p o k e ; t h e P t e i a de s
yangu new
ya rung t o s t and up s t ra i g h t 3 ;
s t ra i g h t
vena to, on, onto; a t ways
vera b ab y ; ahi t d
vera ma r w u a h i t dr e n
v e ra ngul pak t i t t te boy
ve r i t o morrow ; t o dre am; to
remov e , t a k e o u t 4
yerp to s h a v e , a tean, a o mb t h e
h a i r9 .
y e r ra pandanus
, 7 and 1 2
yet a n t a ra to be J ea tous
y i / ay i p as t t e n s e aux i l i ary
marker
102

9.2 E NG L I S H - M A R A N U N G K U

a du l t m a l e ka n t u ; ty i rty i r be e r wu t a t u r w u
afternoon nanungu bee t le ( k i n d of) t e t l nanga r a r r
again wany b e for e a t a ra
a live t oma b e Z Zy lurr
aZZ i nk i n i b e l ly ( o f fi s h ) at l a
a l l r ig h t
4
yuyu b e n d down ( t o ) pa I tet i
a l l igator we r em p e n b ig p uwa l
a lone p a r k i ny b i l l a b o ng wutet l ; wuta t u r ru ;
a lso wany wu t a m i r i
13
a lw a y s pe l p b i r t h ( to g i v e ) wuty
lO
angry ( to b e ) p i ya we r i k
7 bite (to) karrka r r

ank le mun t u l k b lack t y i pme

another n ge n t i b lackhead ngu r i nym i n

a n s w e r ( to ) a t nga l
14 b lackheart tree ma l a k ; a t l a m u

ant ( g re e n ) n i p i t y i ma n t a b lind ku l uk

ant (b lack) m i nty i rk b lood pu rwu r

anus wunm i r i b l o o dw o o d t i r i ny p u k ; t a n

a rm pe b lunt tur
boi l (to)
15a
a rmp i t we n t e r pu rungpu rung

around turru bone mu

ashes (hot) y i m i ny tarra b oomerang w i ny i ng k i ny

ashes (co ld) t a r ra t y u t y u t u r r boy y e r a n g u l pa k ; n g a n a ng u l pa k

a s k for ( t o )
4
ma n a n k a b r a n ch panpana
8 and 1 5 8
aun t i e nge I i b re a k (to) pa l ; mo r mo r

axe m e mme b r e am w i l m i r ( generi c ) ; k u t y a ;

m i y l r ; mo r u n g m o r u n g ; p a l a k
( ' b ony b re am ' )
baby yera b re as t s y i ng i
back tet i breathe (to)ngungu k
5

bad we r i k b r i ng b a c k ( to ) wu l
la

b amb o o kanp i ; t i ya bro lga k u r r uw u

b a n di c o o t t am a n b ro t h e r m e r e p e t ( addre s s ) ; m e r e n l
bark wuy i ( 1s t p e r . ) ; m e l e ( 2nd p er . ) ;
3 me r e n a ( 3rd p e r . )
bark ( to) pekpek 3
b u i l d ( to ) pat
b arramundi ma t i ; t y e l m e r ( smal l )
bu Z Z o c k mu r uw i t y a
b as k e t pa l pa l 18
b ur n ( t o ) y u r w u
5
tyuk ( i nt rans . )
bat l i rm i m 8
l and 5 b ury ( t o ) t im
bathe (to) tyapat
b u t t er f l y ma n g k a n a
b e ar d me r e pe t ; t a n n g a n me r e pe t
b u t t of s p e a r ty i nta y i r i
bed ma r i
b u t tocks po r r
bee ( na t i v e ) kukun
by nunu
 10 3

3
ca Z Z o u t (to) kay ; kay kay corroboree wa n g k a ( danc i ng ) ; m a n t a
camp wowe ( s i ng i n g )
6
canoe tya l wu cough (to) kut l uk
lO
carry (to) waw
1 cover ( t o ) mo r k

carry down ( t o ) waw p a n p a

1 cre e k w u t a pe

c a t ch ( to ) ku r
7
; tip
8 c r o c o di L e y i nngu l i r i
9.
c a t fi s h wu I p i I cros s L e g s ( to ) wu r i t a r r a ,
9
cave nge l k i ny t a n p i n Q k a "r r a
crow w a k
c e n t i p e de y i r i ya 8
8 crus h (to) mo rmo r
chase ( to ) paraty
cry (to)
5
lO w i r i t ya
chas e away (to) ka t u r 9 lO
3 cut ( to ) kat ; tur
c h a n g e di r e c t i o n (to) pu l i 7
cut down ( t o ) pa l
cheeks tanngan 8
cut up ( t o ) ka r r
c h e e ky p e rs o n mu l e re t y
cy c L o n e p i t p i tme
ches t ma r i t empe r r
chi L d yera
dance ( to )
15
purup
c h i L dr e n
y e r a ma r w u
dance ( t o , w oman )
5
9 wu l i ya
c hop ( to ) ka t
9 daug h t e r nge t I
c h o p down ( t o ) pa l
day L i g h t ken t i pe t
c L ap s t i c ks nangka
day t ime k i y i ktuk
c L aypan p i t l a m e l me t t e r
dawn penku ru
c Le a n ( t o )
10
putu r
l deaf ng ememe
c L i mb ( t o ) k a l ka l 3
de s c e n d ( t o ) tul
c L i toris t i r i te t l i r
dew t ya l pa k
c Lose wonongo
7 di dg e r i do o ka n p i
c Lose (to) tim ll
4 die (to) k i l a wu t a (he died)
c Lo s e e y e s (to) nguruk
d i g ( to )
9
tya t
c Lo t h e s mawuny
digg i n g - s t i c k yil I t a wa r ; n i n i n y
c Loud wongo
di L L y bag wa r r ka t i
cockatoo (wh i t e ) t i nme ; k a l a l a k
dingo m i ku t
cockatoo (b Zack) t i rwe
disperse (to)
c o L d ( to b e )
10
p a r ; m u t u n g ku r
( imp e r s ona l ) dog mi
co L d l a l a rngan ; tyu tyuturr door ng a l
come o n k a k a w ( e x c l amat i o n ) down penpe
4
dre am ( t o )
6
confu s e d ( to b e ) m i r i m i r i yerI
dri e d u p
8
converse ( t o ) n i ng i ny p i nyp i ny
drown ( to )
5 1
cook ( t o ) t a m ; t y u t y u k ( b ot h t i nym i n
i nt rans i t i ve ) dry ta r a p u
cook (I)
15a
keng i nyanga dry s e a s on wa rma l a
cook e d wu nymu dua L m a r k e r mata
cop u L a t e ( to )
1
pu I pu I duck (b Lack ) k a y a n g k i ; ma y a n
10 4

du a k (b rown ) k a l k a r i ; we l e p e n e m a n t a fLat parat

dugong mo r mo r o n t y e r m u l tree (to) pet te t i
17

dus t ponno fLoat ( t o ) wa r

la

fLower ma r r k a
e ag L e hawk pu l tyen fLy ka l a n g u k
ear tyeng i f L y i ng fox mi r i ty i
earth p i t l am fog tya l pa k
eat ( to ) t y a ka l 5 ;
11
tyam (of fo L d a rms ( to )
animal s ) 8
pa l pa l
e dg e t i rr fo H o w (to) paraty
8

egg muru fo o d m i ya
e Lbow pon t o r fo o t kumpu
emu ngu r ty i fo r e h e a d rimi
e no u g h l a r rka ; ta l a fo rg e t t i m tyeng i
3
; m i t t l ny
�a
l
enter ( to ) w i t l yuk fo u r m i y i t i ny m i y i t i ny
e v e ry o n e i nk i n i fr i e n d p a n ; p a na n ; m e n g ke n ;
e x a r em e n t wun e r uwe
fr i g h t e n e d ( t o b e )
8
e x t i ng u i s h (to) trup
eye miri from yangana
fu H p e kw u y t y
fa a e miri fur wa t t a n
far ngay t p i r r
fa t re r l g a L ah w i l i kw i l i k ; l ungul ungu
8
fa t h e r n i l a n g ( addre s s ) ; n i k a n i get ( to ) pety
( 1 s t pe r . ) ; n i l a ( 2 nd p e r . ) ; girZ ( s i ng L e ) wu n g k u ng u l a n
n i k a l a ( 2nd p e r . ) ; n i r k a n a
( 3r d p e r . m . ) ; n i r k a n g a ( 3rd g i r Z (puberty ) wu n g k u t y i pe l
per. f . ) g i r L fr i e n d w u n n g a r r
fe a t h e r wa t t a n .
g 1- v e ( t o ) wu t
14
; wu r u t
14

fie Z dmo u s e panpa t i go ( t o ) paraty

3a

fig h t ( to ) tara ( af . 2 . 1 4) go anna ( generi c ) ngaran

9
fi H (to) kul goanna wu l i y a (water ) ; e r emp l
fi n tet imi l a ( dry c ount ry )
fi n d (to) mit
9 good n a t l a ; m a n i m ( e xce l le n t )
fi n g e r n i yungku good-bye mama k
goose
8
fi n i s h (to) wa k a y t y o l po r
fi r e y i m i ny grandfa t h e r t y em i l a ( ma t e rn a l ) ;
16 k a k u I ( p a t e rna l )
fire ( t o mak e ) tattat
g ra n dmo t h e r me n g k a l I
fi r e s t i a k y i m i n y p� r ; m i n t a r r a
grandson n i yam
fi s h awa wa k ka r
gras s wo ro
fi s h i ng Z i ne n g a l awa n a n
gras s ho p p e r patpat
five pangant l
8 green ( o f fru i t ) ty i rk i n
fix ( t o ) pu r l ty
 105

6a
g re e n l e kme h urry (to) we r
6
ground p l t l am hurt (to) ty 1 1 k
(6)
g row up (to) tal
grub ( e di b l e ) wu n t y e n g ka I ngany
g um t r e e
9
wa l a n t a n (white ) ; a r a ; ignorant (to be) puyty
wow l r
in yena
gun yll l a r a tawa r l
i nh a b i t (to) ku l ku l
i n s i de ma r l
hair (head) p l yame r r ; me r r l
i n t e rw e av e (to) y l rm l t y l r m l t
h a i r (pubi o ) m o r a me r r
i ro n w o o d ma w u n y
h a i r - s t r i ng me r r 7
i t oh ( t o ) ty I ng
h a l f- oa s t e p 1 1 me
hand n l yungku 7 and 1 2
j e a l ou s ( to b e ) yetanta ra
h a n d ( le f t ) t y a t y aw u y t y lO
join (to) ty I r
hand (righ t ) tye tme 5
j ump (to) perety
han d l e tyereny
happy ( t o b e )
5
lerl
kangaroo ma n a r r k ( re d ) ; w e r e p e l
hard e l me t t e r ( fema l e ) ; k o r r p o r o n g ( wh i t e )
8
have (to) pety k i dn e y s t e m l wu n n g a r a
hawk
9
pe l e l e ki l l (to) ku r paw
he nankuny knee p l ng ka r r a
head
l
p l ya k n ow (to) tyeng I w i tya
16 16
h e ap up (to) tutur ; p l ya p l ya k o o k a b u rra ko r uwe
heart m l r l tyun
heat (to)
15 6
wu laok (to) paw
h e a vy y u rma l a ng l arge p uwa l
hee l k um p u po r later a t u ; k u k u kw a y
her - nga laugh (to) e r uwe
5

hey 8
atl lead ( to ) pety nga l
him -na leaf ka l ka l
his
9
nawany l e an o n (to) tyant a 1
9
hit (to)
9 la
kur ; ku r k u r l eave (to) ka l
honey (wi ld) m i tt I leg a r ra
h o o k o n w o om e r a ma n p u k m l r l l e v e l gro u n d amma
h o o k - sp e ar
la
tulut l ift (to) wa r
horse nent u light wa t pa r
hot (to b e )
3 8
pu l pu 1 l i g h t fi r e ( to ) ng l
ho t p u l pu l l i g h t n i ng wana r r
house 8
nga t t a like (to) retye
h o w many ? a ny l n t a ra 7 l i ly p e te r r ; me r e n y ( gr as s )
6
h u ngry (to be ) ma r l n n g a n a li ly-root pel ty lm i r l
lO
hunt (to) ka t u r lip nga l tetl
106

l and 1 4
Lis ten ( to ) tyeng i naked a l apu
Li tHe k i r uwa l i t y name w i nka
Liver pe r e l e nape ma n t a t e t i
L i z a r d w u r i ( b l ue t ongue ) ; p a p u nave L t i t i rr
( small ) ; k a n a r
near wonongo
Long ma I i k i ta
. . 12 ne c k ma n t a
Look at (to) ml r l
l 12 nephew n a n kany
L o o k for ( to ) t rat ray ; mangana ;
m i r i lO ne s t wowe n e

Lose ( to ) ya l ak
7 new yangu

Loud wa l k i t i t y news ma r a n y

Louse m i mp i n i e ce ngangkany

L un g s w u n p uwa l n i g h t - t ime ng u p p e l
no way ; aya ( emphat i c )

make (to) pat

9 nose yin

man ka n t u ; p o l o ( o l d man ) note (mone y ) we r i r

mangrove t i np i r n o t h ing ngu nawany

many tap now ninI ; pen t e r e ; a t u ken i

mate pan ; panan nu L Lanu L La maku l pa

meat awa
meat-ant a rany o ch r e (red) k u ka r a

me L t ( to ) tyi r
5 ochre (y e r r o w ) k om p e l

middLe I i i i l o c tupus l1) i r i t u k

mi Z k y i ng i oLd mun tak

m i L kw o o d tantur on yena

Mi Z ky Way naI an o n top o f wa n u ng u

mi rage wun i n i r r one n g a n t a wa n y

7
mon e y ka r a wa l a open ( t o ) pet

mon t h a l amu n y our pl . inc . k i nya

moon a l amuny our p l . exc l . nge r i nya

m o rn i ng w l t i ta l owL wu kwu k ; tyungott yungot

m o rp o k e y a n g a rm a t a
9
m o sq u i t o put t i p a dd L e ( t o ) wuy

mo t h w i n i pe r p a dd L e mungay i l
ll
mother a l a n g ( ad d r e s s ) ; a k a n i paint (to) pet l e
( 1s t p er . ) ; ala ( 2nd p e r . ) ; pandanus ye r ra
e k e l e ( 2nd pe r . ) ; e r k i n g a ( 3rd
per . ) p ap e rb a r k tilk

moun t a i n m i l ng i n p ar r o t t y i l i ny ty l l i ny

mou t h nga l p as s i o nfru i t p i n t y l ng a t pe

mu dfi s h y u n gu t ; ngenp i ; ku t u r path eme t u k

mu Lga a ng i ny p e L i can ta r i ya r r

my ngen i ; ngany penis ngur

 10 7

p e rhaps meng ke ; a p ri g h t yltlyitl

8
piak ( to ) kat r i n g w o rm t r u rup
8
piak u p ( t o )
8
tur rip (to) pe t u r
p ig e o n ra ( b rown ) ; m i r o n g k o ( wh i t e ) r i p e t i t y i m u ; wun ymu
pine tree wi tty i n river ma ka t ; w u t a ma k a t
p Lain amma ; p a l a t roas t ( to ) t u l ty i
10
; pekper
15

P L e i a de s y a n g a rma t a ro a k - ao d tyetak
8
p L uak ( t o ) Pit roakho Le w u t a k a r a wa l a
p L um ( w i L d ) wu r ng i n ro n up ( t o ) p i t y i
13
; kut l u
16

p o L i aeman tUkyangana ( i n t r ans . )

p or a u p i n e me n i n g e t y roo t nir

p o s s um p a n y ; m i km i k rope ty i

pos terior l umpu ro s e L L a p i nnga r ; w e r e t ywerety

8 and 1 3 . 3 ( sma l l )
pour ( t o ) wu t y , wuy i ty
rot ten p e r k u r i n y ( o f me at ) ;
p rawn l angka ra tet i t e reme r ( of wood )
p re g n a n t tunun round pa l ap i ya
p re v i o us L y a t a ra round and round ( to g o ) a r r a r
1

pu L L (to)
1a 8 8
wu l wu l ru b ( t 0 ) P I r k I· t Y ; n Y I r k a k a r ;
.

8 and 1 3 8
push ( to )tungkut i puty
14 run ( t o )
1 17
p u t down ( t o ) wut t a r ra ; na ra t a r ra
17
r u n away ( to )
3
pygmy - g o o s e ma rwun pa r a t y ; p e t t e t i
n g a t y2

q u i ak Ly ma rwu t a 6
sad ( to be ) me t t e r
s a L i va t i ra l k
rab b i t ( k i n d of) te n i ku l ku l
sa L t we t t i r i n y
rain wu ta
3 8 s a L t - wa t e r wu t a wu t t a r
rain ( to )
.
wUY l t y ; wuty
sand me n n e r
r a i n b ow pu l i pu l i
s ao rp i o n w i t y a ng u r
rat p e r re t nompo · ·8
s ara t a h ( t0 ) ny l r l k I
raw
.

ty i r k i n
sea wu t t a r
rea L Ly muntak
sea-gu L L wu l me l e n
re a u p e r a t e (to)
1
pu 1
send ( to )
13
tyuk
red wu r i wu r i 8
6 s e para t e (to) kil i t
refuse (to) ng i r
set ( to )
7
3 t y i p ( o f t h e s un ) ;
rej e a t ( t o ) pir
tutur ( a fi re ) 7
4
y e r I. ; w a r a k
8
remove ( t o ) 7
8 sew ( t o ) t e n t em
repair ( t o )
s h ade
pu r i ty
mengke
4
res t ( t o )
1
shark
tat ; potung
a rrtany
3
re t u rn ( t o )
s h arp
wu 1 pe r ke
revenge ( to take)
10 9
shave ( to )
po l o po l o t
yerp
ribs
she
l o r rm i n
ngankuny
10 8

lO
shoo t ( to) kur s p r i ng wuta tet i
lO 8
s hore t i r r wut t a r s q ue e z e (to) ty i r t r aw
3
s hort wo n t o p o r s tand up (to) yarung
16
s hou Zder ka r ra s t and s . t h . up (to) ku rp
7 an d 9
shut (to)
15
tim s t and o n ( to ) pety
4
s i ck (to be) t i nk l rk s t ar mo r o
6
s i ck ( t o fe e Z )
l
s tay (to)
me l k 5
tat ; pek
6a
s i de t em i s teaZ (to) w i n t ya ra
s i ng (to)
5
ma n t i y a s tick y11 I ; tyura
l
sink ( to ) t i n ym i n s t ingray wungku
s i s ter w u n g k a n i ( 1st per . ) ; s t i ng ray barb pu l I rk
w u n g k a l a ( 2nd p e r . ) ;
w u n g k a n g a ( 3rd p er . ) s t oma c h l urr ( s t omach ) ; m a r l
l ( ins i de )
s i t ( to ) tat
s t one k a r a wa l a
s kin t e r i p i r i ny
s trai g h t ya r u n g ; t y e tme
s Zeep ( to )
4
ngurku r .
s tr a � g h t e n ( t o )
1 3 1 4 15
tutuy , • ;
s Z ow t a ra l a t y e r e r e ( a 1imb ) 5
s ZowZy wa l a r k a s tr i ng y b a r k me t l e
sma H k i r uw a l i t y s ug a r me n n e r
5
sme H (to) nyunyuk s ummer winini rr
s mo k e t y um u sun klylk
14
smoke (to) po swag m' u t y u n g
s mo o t h p u r i t y pu r l t y s w a Z iow ( t o ) kutyuk
9
snake a w a m a l a ( gene ri c ) ; t e r u we sweat (to) mu r i n t e ren
7
( t i ge r s nake ) ; p o n o p o n ( wat e r 6
s nake ) ; n u n g k u t i ( wat e r snake ) ; s we Z Z (to) l a l aw
m u p i n i n g k a ( ro c k snak e ) ; k u n a m awe H (aea) pu l angpu l ang
( b l ack snake ) ; w aw u n y ( po i s on 1
s nake ) ; m e n e n ; n g u n y p i r a w i m ( to ) tyapat
6
sneeze (to) t y i rnga
s n o r e ( to ) ta rung
4 t a i l- yirI
1
s o Z e of foo t k u m p u ma r I take (to) waw
8
s ome eler taZk ( to ) n l ng l ny
son niti tea tyeng i
tears
6
sore ( to b e ) ty i 1 k wo
6
sore ma l aya te H U e s (to) nyuk
te s ti c Z e s
6
apeak (to) ma r a n y muru
spear t y i n t a ; k u r l ( s h o rt s p e ar ) ; t hank you nat l a
t u 1 u t ( hook s p e a r ) that y u wa
7
spear ( t o )
1
ku r ; papa l their w i nya
s p i ni fez ma l k l n them -wi nya
s p i n i fez s e e d ma l k l n m l r i there yuwa ; y l pe r e
6 and 7
spit (to) t y i pa k t h e refore ka
10
sp Z i t ( to ) pe t u r they w l tya
 109

thick mitl i una Z e ke l i ; ke l e n i ( 1 s t p er . )

8
thicket t a wa r t a wa r uncov e r ( t o ) wa r a k
thigh ta r r under penpe
8
thin
7
wa t pa r ; ka l a ra ng untie (to) ya l ak ; p i rkel
this
1
ken i ; kenk i urinate (to) a t yawa
three nenymete urine a t yawa
throat manta
t h row ( t o ) p o t ( s p e ar o r b oomer- vagina ti ri
ang ) 2 ; p a t y ( s t one ) 8 vein nir
th row away ( to ) p l r3
v e ry yitIyitI
t h unde r mi r
v i s ce ra wu n a r a
t h un d e r h e a d wongow u t a n awa n y l
vomi t ( t o ) ek
tibia a r ra
8
tick Le (to) k i ty i l i l i
w a ddy we m p e k
t i de (high) wut t a r puwa l 4
wa i t (to) ma n t a
t i de ( � ow ) wu t t a r k i r
w a i t fo r ( t o )
5a
8 p i ya
t i e up (to) pe l ma n t a
6 6 wai t a minute k u k u k ( e xc l amat i on )
tired (to be) me t t e r ; p aw l
wake ( to ) pet m i r i
tobacco 1
wa � k ( to )
wun 1
wa t ; amma
t o day kutya l a
wa � � a b y w a m a n g k a n ( ge n e ri c ) ;
toe k u m p u ma rwu p i r i r n g u ; k a n p o n i n ( ro c k
toenai �
wal l ab y )
kumpu nga rar 8
want , ( t o )
toge ther
retye
p a ra
3
wary ( t o b e )
t o m o r row
mumuya
ye r i 8
wash ( t o )
tongue
pit
nga l t i r i t i r i
watch ( t o )
3
tooth
mumuya
tirr
water
tough
wu t a
e l me t t e r
w a t e r fa � �
t ra c k
wa r a n
e me t u k
l and 7 water- � i �y
t ra c k (to)
per i ya
tutur
we p I . k i tya
tree
i nc I .
tawa r
we pl . excl .
t r o ub � e
nga tya
wu
we dl .
t r o u s e rs
i nc l . ngangku
t a r rw i t y a
we d I . e x c I .
tru �y
n g a t a ma t a
i nt i r i 8
l weave ( to )
turn back (to)
yit
yiri
we t I e km e
t ur t � e m u n t y i r ( ge n e ri c ) ;
m u t l y i n g k i n ( s a l t wat e r ) ; we t s e as o n wu rum ; w l n i n i r r
m u n t y i r n y i r u n g ( s a l t wat e r ) ;
w ha t ? em i 7 ; e n t y i 7
m u w i y i ( fre s h wat e r ) ;
n g a l wa n k a ( fr e s h wat e r ) when? mo n t o 7
two m i y i t i ny w h e re ? a n t ama 7
w h i r � wi n d kama n t e r r p u p u
w h i s k e rs t a n n g a n me r e p e t
whi s t � e -duck pu r i ya
wh i t e kenyapuy
llO

w h i t eman parakut
who ? apa7
wi Ld turkey mamu
wind wa rma l a
w i n db r e a k tyot i ny
wing we l e
wink (to) ny i p
with w i tya
w om a n p e k u ; t y i l i l i ( o l d woman ) ;
m i t y i t y ( Europe an )
wood y i m i ny
w o om e r a ma n p u k
l
work ( t o ) wu r ka
7
w o r ry ( to ) t y e n g i we r i k ; p i ya
we r i k7
wound ma l a y a
l3
w rap ( t o ) p i ty i
8
w r i n g w a s h i ng (to) p i rk i ty
wrong wer i k
w u r L ey wowe t a n g k a m e

yabbi t a n ka
yam w a r k u y a ( l ong y am ) ; m i t a n a
( w a t e r y am ) ; m i m i ( ' cheeky '
y am ) ; t y a m p u 1
y ea r wu rum
y e n ow kom p e 1
yes yu
y e s te r day tya l tyara
y o u s ing . s ub j . n i na
y o u s i ng . obj . - n i mpe
you pl . s ub j . n i tya
y o u p I . ob j . - n i nya
youth ngu l an ; ngu l pak
 B I B L I OG R A P H Y

CAPELL , A .
1937 "The S t ruct ure o f Aus t ra l i an Language s " , O c e a ni a , 8/1 ,
2 7- 6 1 .

1940 " The C l as s i fi c at i on of Language s i n North and North-We s t

A u s t r a l i a " , O c eania , 1 0 / 3 , 2 4 1- 7 2 , and 1 0 / 4 , 4 0 4 - 3 3 .

1942 " Languages o f Arnhem Land" , O c eani a , 1 2 / 4 , 3 6 4 -9 2 , and

1 3/ 1 , 2 4 - 5 0 .

1963 L i ng ui6 ti c Su� v e y 0 6 AU6 t�ati a , A u s t r a l i an I ns t i t ut e o f

Ab original S t udi e s .

HOLME R , N . M .
1963 O n th e Hi6 to � y a n d St�uctu�e6 0 6 t h e AU6 t�ati an L ang uag e6 ,
Aus t r a l i an E s s ay s and S t ud i e s I I I , Lund , Carl 8 1 oms .

S TANNER , W . E . H .
1 9 33 " The Daly R i v e r T r i b e s - A Report on F i e l dwork i n N o rth
Aus t ra l i a " , O c eani a , 3/4 , 3 7 7- 4 0 5 .

TRYON , D.T.
1968 "The Daly River Language s : A Survey " , Paci 6 i c L i ng ui6 tic6 ,
S e r i e s A , O c c a s i onal Papers , No . 1 4 , pp . 2 1 - 4 6 .

I n Pres s " The Daly Language Fami ly : A S t ru c t ural Surve y " i n T � e n d6 i n

A U6 t�atian L i ng ui6 tic6 , E d . D . C . Lay c o ck , A . I . A . S .
( Lingui s t i c S e r i e s 9 ) .

WURM , S .A .
I n Pre s s The C l as s i fi c at i on o f A u s t r a l i an Language s , C ur rent Trends
i n Li ngui s t i c s , V o l . 8 , Lingui s t i c s i n O c e an i a .

III
Tryon, D.T. An introduction of Maranungku (Northern Australia).
B-15, x + 121 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. DOI:10.15144/PL-B15.1
©1970 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.