ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

FACULITY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES
REMOTE SENSING AND GIS STREAM

MODELING SITE SUITABILITY FOR WIND

FARM USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS:
THE CASE OF ADAMA WOREDA

BY
EYAYA BELAY

June, 2009
 MODELING SITE SUITABILITY FOR WIND FARM USING REMOTE
SENSING AND GIS: THE CASE OF ADAMA WOREDA

By
Eyaya Belay

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University to the Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Masters of Science in GIS and Remote
Sensing

June, 2009
 SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING STREAM

MODELING SITE SUITABILITY FOR WIND FARM USING

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS: THE CASE OF ADAMA
WOREDA

By
Eyaya Belay
Department of Earth Sciences
GIS and Remote Sensing Stream

APPROVED BY EXAMINING BOARD: SIGNATURE

Balemwal Atnafu (Ph.D.) ____________________
Chairman, Department Graduate Committee
Asfawossen Asrat (Ph.D) ___________________
Advisor
Dagnachew Legesse (Ph.D) ___________________
Examiner
Tarun Kumar Raghuvanshi (Ph.D) ___________________
Examiner

June, 2009
 Declaration

I the undersigned declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a
degree in any other university and that all sources of relevant materials taken from books and
articles have been duly acknowledged.

Eyaya Belay Bisewur

School of Graduate Studies
June, 2009

This Thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as university advisor.
Asfawossen Asrat (Ph.D.) ______________________________

i
Dedicated to the memory of my Mother and my Sister

ii
 Acknowledgments

First and foremost I would like to thank the Almighty God for all the things he has done
for me.

My sincere thank goes to all my instructors and staff members of the Department of
Earth Science, Addis Ababa University for sharing their experience, materials and
unreserved cooperation during this thesis work. I wish to express my deepest thanks to
EEPCO’s Wind Project Office, National Meteorological Service Agency and Ethiopian
Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center.

I am very much indebted to thank respectfully my Advisor Dr. Asfawossen Asrat, for his
scientific guidance which helps me to identify the research problem and accomplish this
thesis research work in particular and to work hard in all aspects of life in general.

I would like to thank my Co-advisor Ato Esayiyas Sahlu for his patience in critically
reviewing the study and sharing his valuable GIS and Remote Sensing experiences
throughout the study.

I am greatly indebted to my brothers Solomon Asres and Tariku Belay whose endless
encouragement and support were the source of my inspiration during my entire academic
career. Special thanks go to my friend’s Shibabaw Amene, Kelemu Teshome, Adera
Getaneh, Wogene Getachew and Abduselam Akmel for their material and moral support.

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 ABSTRACT

Adama Woreda has good wind resource potential for grid based wind farm establishment.
But, selecting sites for wind farm in the study area is a complex process involving not only
technical but also physical, economical, social and environmental considerations. This study
focuses on mapping wind farm suitability in Adama Woreda. The major data used were
topographic map (1:50,000), Landsat image (2005), and GIS data layers such as roads,
towns, transmission line, geology, land use and slope. The factors were developed in the GIS
and Remote Sensing environment then weighted and overlaid by the principle of pairwise
comparison. Once the wind farm suitability map has been completed, sites were evaluated
with respect to the factors. The finding of this study shows that there is sufficient area for
wind farm establishment in Adama Woreda with the most suitable sites located in the
southeastern, northeastern and southern parts. 85% of the most suitable sites are laid on
agricultural land which is relatively compatible with wind farm. 38.5 and 21.24 % of most
suitable area are laid on recent aphyric basalts and ash flow tuffs respectively which are most
suitable and moderately suitable areas from engineering point of view.

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Acronyms

AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process

a.m.s.l. Above Mean Sea Level
CSA Central Statistical Authority
DEM Digital Elevation model
EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
ERDAS Earth Resources Data Analysis System
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Project
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
GCP Ground Control Point
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
IDW Inverse Distance Weighted
MCDA Multi Criteria Decision Analysis
MCE Multi Criteria Evaluation
NMSA National Meteorological Service Agency
SNNP Southern Nations Nationalities and peoples
SWERA Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment
TM Thematic Mapper
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
WAsP Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program
WLC Weighted Linear Combination

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page
Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................ii
Abstract ..............................................................................................................................iii
Acronyms...........................................................................................................................iv
Table of contents................................................................................................................ v
List of tables....................................................................................................................... vi
List of figures.....................................................................................................................vii
List of annexes ...................................................................................................................viii
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Statement of the Problem and Justification ................................................................... 1
1.2. Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1. General objective .................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2. Specific objectives .................................................................................................. 3
1.3. Data Source, Materials and Methods ............................................................................. 4
1.3.1. Data Source............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.2. Materials and Software ........................................................................................... 5
1.3.3. Methodology ........................................................................................................... 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 7
2.1. The Essence of Energy................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Energy in Ethiopia ......................................................................................................... 9
2.3. Renewable Energy Resources in Ethiopia ................................................................... 10
2.4. Wind Energy Resource Potential in Ethiopia .............................................................. 12
2.5. Wind Farm Site selection............................................................................................. 15
2.6. GIS in Land Suitability Modeling................................................................................ 16
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ......................................................................... 19
3.1. Biophysical Setting ...................................................................................................... 19
3.1.1. Location ................................................................................................................ 19
3.1.2. Topography ........................................................................................................... 20
3.1.3. Geological setting ................................................................................................. 20
3.1.4. Land use/ land cover ............................................................................................. 21
3.2. Climate......................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.1. Rainfall.................................................................................................................. 22
3.2.2. Temperature .......................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3. Wind speed............................................................................................................ 23
3.2.4. Humidity ............................................................................................................... 24
3.2.5. Sunshine hours ...................................................................................................... 25
3.3. Socio-Economic Setting............................................................................................... 25
3.3.1. Population ............................................................................................................. 25
4. DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 26
4.1. Data Processing............................................................................................................ 26
4.1.1. Personal Geodatabase Creation and Field Survey ................................................ 26
4.1.2. Satellite Image Processing .................................................................................... 26
4.1.3. Image Classification.............................................................................................. 26

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 4.1.3.1. Unsupervised Classification............................................................................... 27
4.1.3.2. Supervised Classification................................................................................... 27
4.1.4. Maximum likelihood Classification...................................................................... 27
4.2. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 28
4.2.1. Wind Resource Data Analysis .............................................................................. 28
4.2.2. Land use/Land Cover Analysis............................................................................. 30
4.2.3. Site Selection Criteria Analysis ............................................................................ 31
4.2.4. Factor Development.............................................................................................. 32
4.2.4.1. Roads.................................................................................................................. 33
4.2.4.2. National Grid ..................................................................................................... 34
4.2.4.3. Geology.............................................................................................................. 35
4.2.4.4. Slope .................................................................................................................. 35
4.2.4.5. Wind Speed........................................................................................................ 36
4.2.4.6. Distance from the towns .................................................................................... 38
4.2.4.7. Land Use/ Land Cover ....................................................................................... 39
4.3. Techniques for Weighting............................................................................................ 40
4.3.1. Multi Criteria Evaluation ...................................................................................... 40
4.3.2. Analytical Hierarchy Process................................................................................ 41
4.3.3. Pairwise Comparison ............................................................................................ 42
4.3.3. Weighted overlay analysis .................................................................................... 42
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSION .......................................................................................... 44
5.1. Evaluation of the Proposed Sites ................................................................................. 45
5.1.1. Area of suitable sites............................................................................................. 45
5.1.2. Road and Electric Transmission Lines Accessibility............................................ 46
5.1.3. Land Use ............................................................................................................... 46
5.1.4. Terrain Orientation to Prevailing Wind ................................................................ 47
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 49
6.1. Conclusions.................................................................................................................. 49
6.2. Recommendations........................................................................................................ 50

References ...................................................................................................................52
Annex...........................................................................................................................58

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List of Tables page

Table 1.1: Data and their source ..........................................................................................4

Table 2.1: Ethiopian Energy Resource Potential ..................................................................9
Table 2.2:- Categories of wind resource favorable for grid based wind electricity
Generation ............................................................................................................................12
Table 2.3:- Regional distribution of wind resources favorable for grid based wind
electricity generation. ............................................................................................................14
Table 2.4: Economic analysis of wind turbine installation in Ethiopia ................................14
Table 2.5: Relationship between wind speed and electric power..........................................16
Table 3.1: Area of land use/land cover classes .....................................................................21
Table 3.2: Monthly average wind speed of Adama Woreda at 2, 10 and 40 meters .............24
Table 3.3: Population Data of Adama Woreda and Adama Special Zone ............................25
Table 4.1: Scaled and waited flood hazard inducing factors ................................................32
Table 4.2: weights calculated by IDRISI Software ...............................................................42
Table 5.1: Suitability Category classes .................................................................................44
Table 5.2: Cross-Tabulated Areas of Land use and Wind Farm Suitability
in Adama Woreda ..................................................................................................................46
Table 5. 3: Cross-Tabulated Aspect and Wind Farm Suitability area in Adama
Woreda
Table 5.4: Comparison of suitable sites based on the criteria used...................................... 48

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List of Figures page
Figure 1.1: Work flow chart of wind farm suitability modeling -----------------------------6
Figure 3.1: Location map of the Adama Woreda---------------------------------------------19
Figure 3.2: Geological map of the Adama woreda -------------------------------------------20
Figure 3.3: Land use land cover of map the study area -------------------------------------21
Figure 3.4: Mean monthly rainfall distribution of the study area -------------------------22
Figure 3.5: Mean monthly temperature of the study area------------------------------------23
Figure 3.6: Mean monthly humidity of the study area----------------------------------------24
Figure 3.7: Mean monthly sunshine duration of the study area-----------------------------25
Figure 4.1: Mean monthly wind speed of Adama (at two meters height) -----------------28
Figure 4.2: Mean monthly wind speed of Adama (at 10meters height) --------------------29
Figure 4.3: Mean monthly wind speed of Adama
(EEPCO’s 40 meters height) --------------------------------------------------------------------29
Figure 4.4: Wind speed and rainfall compatibility at Adama ------------------------------30
Figure 4.5: Road proximity map of Adama Woreda -----------------------------------------33
Figure 4.6: Transmission line proximity map of the study area-----------------------------34
Figure 4.7: Reclassified geological map of the study area ---------------------------------35
Figure 4.8: Reclassified slope map of Adama woreda ---------------------------------------36
Figure 4.9: Reclassified Wind speed map of Adama woreda --------------------------------37
Figure 4.10: Wind map of Adama woreda (WAsP software) --------------------------------38
Figure 4.11: Built-up area proximity map of the study area --------------------------------39
Figure 4.12: Reclassified Land use/land cover map of the study area ---------------------40
Figure 4.13: AHP weight derivation matrix for wind farm suitability ---------------------41
Figure 4.14: Weighted overlay table function for wind farm suitability
modeling -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
Figure 4.15: Wind farm suitability model ------------------------------------------------------43
Figure 5.1: Potential suitability map for Wind farm in Adama woreda--------------------45
Figure 5.2: Area of the proposed sites----------------------------------------------------------46
Figure 5.3: Aspect Map of Adama Woreda ----------------------------------------------------47

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List of Annexes page

Annex 1: Adama wind speed at 2 meters height ....................................................................57

Annex 2: Wonji wind speed 2 meters height ..........................................................................57
Annex 3: Melkassa wind speed 2 meters heigh) ....................................................................57
Annex 4: Adama monthly sunshine duration ........................................................................57
Annex 5: Monthly mean rainfall of Adama ...........................................................................58
Annex 6: Adama monthly maximum temperature).................................................................59
Annex 7: Adama monthly minimum temperature...................................................................60
Annex 8: Adama monthly mean relative humidity ................................................................61
Annex 9: Summery of Wind speed and Power Generated at Adama 10m Height
Anemometer------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62

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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Statement of the Problem and Justification

In this age, we are so heavily dependent on power for industry, agriculture, and in almost
every aspect of our daily life and work, that the level of a country’s energy consumption is
now commonly accepted as a measure of its prosperity or its degree of development.
Electricity plays an ever-increasing role in the provision of much needed power, and
widespread interest is taken in all the possible sources of energy from which it can be
generated (Golding, 1955).

In view of the exhaustibility and short life span of fossil fuels, and as a consequence, if the
world’s state of industrialization is to survive from the decline of fossil fuels, alternative
sources of energy and power of comparable magnitude must be found (National Academy
of Sciences,1969).

The promotion of alternative energy is not only for the provision of “energy security” by
reducing reliance on foreign source of fossil fuels, but also for their environmental benefits.
One of the possible sources of renewable energy is wind. Wind power is a secondary solar
source, and like wood it is an old source rediscovered. Power from wind has been used for
centuries to pump water for crop irrigation, to propel sailing ships across the oceans and to
turn windmills. Now, interest in the wind power has revived. Oil and natural gas are no
longer inexpensive competitors and coal and nuclear power plants are struggling with
environmental, social and political problems (Fowler, 1975).

Due to the lack of energy resources, special regard to environmental protection and the
need of national energy supply security, wind energy, clean and renewable, now receives
increasing popularity all over the world (Zeng Xuelan, 2006).

In the Ethiopian case wind distribution in many sites is governed by the strong solar
radiation and the resulting thermal wind. This is especially the case on the high land
plateaus where updrafts cause strong wind. The calculation of the capacity credit in

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Ethiopia with its strong diurnal wind characteristic implies not only technical advantages,
but wind energy would reduce the Ethiopian need for conventional peak load capacity and
thus would reduce investment costs for the expansion of the power system (Umbach,
2006).

Roughly 95 percent of Ethiopia’s electric energy system is dependent on hydropower.

However, due to siltation of the reservoirs, some of the hydropower plants are losing
storage volume resulting in reduced energy output throughout the year. Another restriction
of the hydropower system is caused by the variability of rainfall episodes and amount. In
years of low rainfall and drought the amount of water available during the rainy season
from July until September does not allow for the reservoirs to be filled up to the required
level. These extreme changes in water availability indicate the problems of the Ethiopian
electricity supply. On the other hand the energy sector in Ethiopia is expanding rapidly, and
there is a need to supplement the power supply from the hydropower plants (including the
new ones) by alternative energy sources, such as wind as the fluctuating water availability
is a long term problem. Thus, in order to guarantee security of supply, the power generation
system has to be diversified (Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, 2006).

The necessary increase of the electrification rate and the corresponding grid expansion
needs additional capacity in the short-run to support the hydropower system throughout the
year and especially at the end of the dry season, when water levels are low and demand
remains constant (or increasing). Therefore, a fast-track implementation capacity increase
is necessary. One of the solutions to cover the increasing and suppressed demand is
generating electricity from wind farms (Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, 2006).

Many areas located in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia are identified as the high wind resource
potential areas. Adama because of its location in the Rift (high wind resource potential) and its
significant geological structure (good for wind farm establishment) for the establishment of
grid-based wind farm attracts stakeholders. But, selecting sites for wind farm is a complex
process involving not only technical but also physical, economical, social and
environmental requirements. Such complexities necessitate the use of several decision
support tools such as GIS and multi-criteria analysis (MCA). GIS is a tool that does not

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only reduce time and cost of site selection but also provides a digital data bank for future
monitoring programs of the selected sites.

This thesis research attempts to synthesize the relevant database in a spatial framework to
evolve a wind farm suitability map for Adama Woreda. The basic aim of this effort is to
identify the area which are suitable for wind farm establishment and create wind farm
suitability map based on topographical, meteorological, and socioeconomic data. The study has
also focused on the identification of factors controlling wind farm establishment in the study
area. A wind farm suitability map based on administrative units is at hand for the stakeholders
which will have interest to establish wind farm in the area.

1.2. Objectives

1.2.1. General objective

The main objective of the study is to identify and delineate using remote sensing and
GIS techniques, the most suitable spots for establishing wind farm turbines in the study
area.

1.2.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this study are to:

™ propose the most suitable sites for wind farm establishment in
Adama Woreda.
™ identify the factors responsible for wind farm site selection in the
study area.
™ develop a land suitability model for wind farm suitability in Adama
Woreda.
™ assess the availability of wind resource potential for grid based
wind farm establishment in Adama Woreda.

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1.3. Data Source, Materials and Methods

1.3.1. Data Source

To achieve the intended objectives the availability of reliable data is essential. Therefore,
the study was made based on both primary and secondary data. In the field, GPS readings
were gathered to generate primary information about the land use/ land cover of the study
area. The table below contains the data sources used in this study.

Table1.1: Data and their sources

Area

Data Data Type Scale Data source

1. Boundary Woreda Shapefile --- CSA(2008)

2.Land Digital Lab
use/ land cover Landsat Image 28.5m (ETM,2005)

3. Rainfall Rainfall records Monthly average NMSA

4. Temperature Temperature records Monthly average NMSA

NMSA(2003-2007)&
5. Wind speed Wind speed records Monthly average
EEPCO(2006-2008)
Adam Woreda

6.Humidity Humidity records Monthly average (1996-2005)

Sunshine
7.sunshine duration records Monthly average (1998-2004)
Geological Survey
8. Slope SRTM 30m of Ethiopia
Geological survey
9. Geology 1:250,000 of Ethiopia (1978)
Toposheet

10.Population Population records Total population CSA

11. Ground truth GPS Point data - Field survey

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 1.3.2. Materials and Softwares

The Softwares used in this study were chosen based on their capability to work on the
existing problems in achieving the intended objectives. Therefore, ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1
was used for image processing activities to make the satellite images ready for further
processing. The factors map preparation was carried out using ArcGIS 9.2 software
package. For the preparation of the wind data WINDPLOT software was used. The factors
that are used to undertake multi-criteria analysis were preprocessed in accordance with the
criteria set to develop wind farm analysis. Therefore, using Spatial Analyst and 3D Analyst
extension in the ArcInfo environment, GIS analyses were undertaken to process the
collected shapefiles and other data. Eigen vector for the selected factors was computed
using Weight module in IDRISI 15.0 software. GPS was used to collect information on
training sites for land use/ land cover classification.

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. The Essence of Energy

For all practical purposes energy supplies can be divided into two classes: renewable
energy - energy obtained from the continuing or repetitive currents of energy occurring in
the natural environment and non-renewable energy- energy obtained from static stores of
energy that remain bound unless released by human interaction (Twidell and Weir, 1986).

Nothing influences our living style more than the availability and utilization of energy.
Hence, energy is an essential ingredient for our everyday tasks (Priest, 1979). The
advancement of human civilization, including the process of industrialization,
improvements in standard of living, public health and even the development of arts and
recreation have historically become dependent on a steadily increasing supply of energy
(Pryde,1983). Moreover, for most of the world, including the western industrialized nations
and the less-developed, the most urgent and fundamental prerequisites for economic,
political, social, and military stability is the availability of the adequate supply of secured
and reasonable priced energy (Goever, 1974). As a result, the availability of adequate
forms of energy to balance the demand of the economic sectors is crucial for sustained
economic growth. In turn, the availability of energy is determined by the existence of local
resources or the capacity to acquire the energy resources abroad required to supplement
national production (Alonso, 1982).

Today, most of the world’s energy demand is met by fossil fuels, mainly from petroleum
and natural gas. But, their production is not in harmony with the demand. The production
of fossil fuels will start to decrease in the next 20 to 30 years. Therefore, all the people of
the world are common victims of what we call the energy crisis. The crisis will be the main
threat of the world’s people until we free ourselves from dependence on imported oil and
then provide adequate energy from realistic sources. If we do not start introducing
alternative energy sources, a proportional reduction in the living standards and economic
growth would result. In addition, if the world’s state of industrialization is to survive from
the decline of fossil fuels, other sources of energy and power of comparable magnitude
must be found (National Academy of Sciences, 1969, A Global View of Energy, 1982).

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Fortunately, there are many options before us: solar, geothermal, wind and other energy
sources. However, before these energy alternatives can be utilized, it is necessary to
conduct extensive research and development works (Veziroglu, 1981). Besides, the global
energy problem could not involve an absolute shortage of potential energy resources for
there are several non- conventional sources of energy available on earth that could supply
all human needs, if they could be harnessed. The problem is that these energy resources, as
they exist in nature, are not in a form that is useful for meeting human needs. Thus, another
aspect of long term energy challenge is to find ways to efficiently and inexpensively affect
the conversion of this non-conventional energy into useful form (Pryde, 1983).

As the world realizes that our reserves of fossils are limited and have rapidly been running
out, much attention has been directed toward renewable energy resources (International
Conference on the Photochemical Conversion and Storage of Solar Energy, 1976).

Sheehan (1982) classified renewable energy Resources into three broad categories: biomass
in its traditional form (wood and agricultural residues), biomass in non traditional forms,
and solar, wind and mini-hydro installations.

Renewable energy currently is a minor contributor to the energy supply of eastern and
southern Africa, accounting for less than two percent of the total supply. However, its
potential in relation to the decentralized energy needs of the rural population and its
environmentally compassionate nature makes it an attractive option for meeting the future
energy needs of the region (Karekezi and Ranja, 1997).

One of these energy sources is wind. The use of wind as a source of power has a long
history. Until a century ago, wind was the main motive force for ships and a major source
of energy for homes, industry and agriculture. In recent times, wind power has been largely
supplanted by the use of coal and oil for ship propulsion and then by electricity. But now,
because of the rapidly increasing demand for electrical energy accompanied by inadequacy,
high and rising cost of generation in newly constructed hydro-stations and energy security,
interest for the wind power has been revived (Goever, 1974).

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2.2. Energy in Ethiopia

One of the manifestations of a country’s development and economic progress is the level of
use of commercial energy. Ethiopia in this respect has a long way to go. Nowadays,
electricity and oil are critical energy inputs in Ethiopia. For economic and financial
reasons, these modern energy sources have been made available largely to urban areas.
Rural energy requirements (i.e. domestic, rural-based cottage industries and handicrafts)
are mainly supplied by traditional energy sources. In 1991, the commercial energy
consumption per capita of Ethiopia was 1Giga joules (GJ) while consumption per capita of
traditional fuel was 8GJ (ESMAP, 1996 as cited (Woldeghiorgis, 2000; Araya Asfaw,
2002).

Table 2.1: Ethiopian Energy Resource Potential

Exploitable
Reserve
Potential (‘000TJ)
Energy Source Exploited (%)
Reserve(‘000TJ)

Woody Biomass 3,748 1,123 53.3

Hydro 2,293 573 0.9
Solar 7,466,232 7,432 None
Wind 18,049 901 None
Geothermal 12 No data 8mw
Dung 387 99 58.1
Agri-residue 322 161 31.8
Coal 40,650ktons No data 0
Natural gas 108 million m3 108 million m3 0

Source: The global energy trends in the 21st century (2002)

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Ethiopia has significant energy resource potential. However, except for biomass energy
sources the exploitable reserves far exceed the exploited levels. Based on the estimated
resources, a national energy policy was adopted in 1994, giving priority to harnessing of
the immense hydropower potential in the country and exploiting renewable energy
resources (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 1994).

As in many other countries in Eastern Africa, fuel supply in Ethiopia is mainly biomass
based (94.7 percent of total energy supply). Household consumption constitutes 89 percent
of the total energy supply. The other sectors of the national economy, notably agriculture,
transport, and industry account for only 7.2 percent of total energy consumption and the
level of grid electrification is extremely low (Ministry of Mines and Energy, 1994).

Given the immense hydropower potential, and renewable energy resources, by the end of
the twentieth century, Ethiopia’s electricity generating capacity should have exceeded 2000
MW. However now, the generating capacity stands at around 450 MW. This places
Ethiopia at the bottom of electricity generating capacity per capita, with about 7 watts. This
is well below that of India (about 100 watts), Egypt (about 230 watts), and far below that of
Brazil (about 366 watts). Moreover, not only is the electricity generating capacity relatively
low, but the pace has also been very slow. Currently, with a production of about 1670 GWh
per year, the per capita electrification level is roughly 23 kWh per year (EEPCO, 2000).

However, there are ongoing projects that will increase generating capacities. Still, this will
leave the electrification level at 25 kWh per capita as the population would have increased.
Therefore, in order to meet the demand for electricity other energy resources should be
searched (Woldeghiorgis, 2000).

2.3. Renewable Energy Resources in Ethiopia

The global energy trend in the 21st century shows that fossil fuels will be replaced by
renewable energy sources gradually. Therefore, renewable energy offers windows of
opportunities for the least developed countries to alleviate poverty, modernization, growth
and restoration of the degraded ecosystem. Ethiopia as one of the least developed and poor
countries in the world can benefit from the non renewable energy resources (Araya Asfaw,
2002).

10
The provision of energy services has a central role in economic development. Economic
development of both rural and urban societies could be accelerated and achieved if energy
is made available. Both small and medium scale industries can be grown and provide
potential for employment along farming if modern energy supply and improved technology
are used. Hence, renewable energy which is suitable for clean and sustainable development
should be developed, exploited and promoted so as to bring a fundamental and desired
change on the living standard of Ethiopian population (Asres Woldegiorgis, 2002).

Ethiopia has immense renewable energy resource potentials. These include biomass, hydro,
solar, wind and geothermal energy. The exploitable reserve potential of biomass, hydro,
solar, wind and geothermal energy in tera-joule is estimated at 1, 129, 7,432,573, 901 and
12 respectively. However, except the biomass which is 53.5 percent, hydropower 0.9
percent and negligible amount of geothermal (about 8MW) energies from the potential
reserve are exploited, no significant efforts have been undertaken especially to exploit the
solar and wind energy potential of the country (Asres Woldegiorgis, 2002).

Meeting the demand of a developing economy by hydropower plant alone causes some
problems. Since only medium or larger hydropower systems can be implemented
economically, they cause something what the energy planners call ‘’the famine and feast’’
phenomenon. That is during the planning and construction period of a medium sized
hydropower plant; the demand is growing and starts to outgrow the supply. Power rationing
is the unavoidable result; this will be aggravated when it happens at the time of draught
(‘famine’). Once the new hydropower plant is operational, suddenly more power will be
available, but not needed. The plant is running far under its capacity with the result of
generating relatively expensive electricity (‘feast‘). Under this situation, wind power can
contribute to the smooth expansion of the generating capacity and can help to avoid the
worst effects of ‘famine and feast’ situation. Due to the wind plants’ short lead time for
planning and construction, smaller plants can be put into operation gradually; in doing so,
the country can keep the pace with the growing electricity demand (Asres Woldegiorgis,
2002).

In Ethiopia, such a strategy makes sense, since the seasonal variation of wind and
hydropower availability is complementary. This means that at times when the country runs

11
a high risk of facing power shortage (at the end of dry season) in April or May, wind
speeds are generally high. On the other hand, when there is relatively little wind power
available (during the rainy season) in July and August, the reservoirs of the hydropower are
normally full (Asres, 2002). In addition, even though Ethiopia has a huge hydropower
potential, there are serious limitations with regard to further expanding the capacity of
electricity supply in the conventional system. To name some: high financial requirements
for increasing generation capacity and grid expansion, long term planning and construction
periods, and social and environmental impacts of dam construction (Konemund, 2002).

2.4. Wind Energy Resource Potential in Ethiopia

Wind speed generally decreases as one moves from higher latitudes towards the equator.
The energy transported to a higher altitude gets stronger as the latitude increases (i.e., as
the area decreases flow of energy density increases). However, local effects like presence
of geographic structures such as mountains, valleys and costal areas might significantly
enhance wind speed. Ethiopia located close to the equator, therefore has limited wind
resource potential.

There are few promising windy areas in Ethiopia located at the escarpment of the main East
African Rift, the northeastern escarpment of the country near Tigray Regional State and the
eastern part of the country (near northeast of the Somali Regional State) (Ethiopian Rural
Energy Development and Promotion Center, 2007).

Table 2.2:- Categories of wind resource favorable for grid based wind electricity
generation.

Potential
Wind Wind Wind speed Total area Percent windy
for installed capacity
Resource Category Power density(W/m2) at 50m (m/s) (km2) land
(MW)
Good 400-500 7.0-7.5 15,175 1.3 75,875
Excellent 500-600 7.5-8.0 3,729 0.3 18,645
Excellent 600-800 8.0-8.8 985 0.1 4,925
Excellent Above 800 Above 8.8 401 0.04 2,005
Total 20,290 1.8 101,450

12
 Source: Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center Final Report (2007)

At a national level, the estimation of land area suitable for grid based wind electricity
generation is around 20,000 square kilometers. In terms of generation capacity assuming an
installed capacity of 5MW per square kilometer, the total national potential for grid based
wind electricity system will be about 100 GW. Assuming 80 percent operating time for the
turbines (i.e., the time the turbines should be producing power), the total wind resource
potential for wind regions with Good-to-Excellent categories is estimated to be 10.6 million
Tcal per year (890TWh per year).

The wind energy potential of the country varies from place to place and from season to
season, as the energy is absolutely seasonal and dependent on wind velocity. In the western
part of the country, the average wind speed at 10m a. m. s. l. is 3.5 m/s. In the rift valley,
and eastern part of the country, the average values range between 3.5 - 5.5 m/s. From this
wind speed, an estimated power level of 65 w/m2 and 200 w/m2 can be obtained (Asres
Woldegiorgis, 2002).

The total wind resource of Ethiopia is estimated at 20.064 million TJ/year. Wind energy is
one of the resources which are virtually unexploited in Ethiopia. Only intermittent attempts
were made by a few organizations to harness this source of energy (Teferi Taye, 1999).

The Rift Valley and the Eastern lowlands have a moderate wind regime well suited for
medium machines. The Western province around the Sudanese border is generally poor in
wind energy. The rest of the country (mainly the Central highlands) is suitable for low or
medium running machines, especially if careful site selection is employed (Ethiopian Rural
Energy Development and Promotion Center, 2007). Concerning the existence of wind
resources favorable for grid based wind electricity in Ethiopia Oromiya is leading followed
by Tigray and SNNP.

13
 Table 2.3:- Regional distribution of wind resources favorable for grid based wind
electricity generation.
Wind resource category and land area under category
(Km2)
Region
Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Total
Addis Ababa 207 --- --- --- 207
Afar 12 --- --- 12
Amhara 1614 328 --- --- 1942
Harer 109 108 143 --- 360
Oromiya 9074 1726 754 401 11955
SNNPR 1589 819 10 --- 2418
Somali 271 19 --- --- 290
Tigray 2299 729 77 --- 3105
Total 15175 3729 985 401 20290
Source: Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center final report (2007)

Electricity producing wind turbines are of far greater importance nowadays. This is not
only because with the electricity produced, but mainly because they have far better
efficiency and allow economies of this scale. For Ethiopia, modern electricity generating
grid connected wind turbines constitute a promising technology, to supplement
hydropower, especially because the correlation of wind resource and hydrology availability
is very good (EREDPC, 2003).

Table 2.4: Economic analysis of wind turbine installation in Ethiopia

Installed cost 1,500($/kw)

Land coast 1000($/km2)
Land required 0.11(km2/turbine)
Installed capacity 1500($kw)
Energy cost $0.492/kwh
Required area 776(km2)

Source: EEPCO and Acres international (2002)

14
2.5. Wind Farm Site selection

Electricity generation from wind for grid-based system basically refers to wind farms.
Turbines are tall – but they are also relatively slim. Generally each tower base is only 8
meters across and each turbine spaced 250 meters apart. Rows of turbines are set 1/2
kilometer apart, making for a lot of space in between each tall thin tower. Therefore, wind
farms and agriculture have a well-established and harmonious relationship. Farmers and
ranchers should realize that they can use their land to raise cattle and grow crops (Canadian
Wind Energy Association, 2006).

The energy output from wind is very much dependent on wind speed. Identification of
locations for wind energy generation depends on several factors besides the speed of the
wind. To list some, proximity to electric transmission line, exclusion of restricted areas
such as national parks and visual impacts on areas of outstanding beauty are some of the
factors that need to be taken into consideration (Conover, 2000).

The size of individual wind generators that are usually considered for medium to large size
wind farms have rated power outputs that range from few hundred kilo watts to mega
watts. Optimal size of each individual turbine is determined according to factors such as
access road, crane capacity, and land use. The factors used for wind farm site selection are
not uniform throughout the world since the factors are unevenly distributed spatially. Wind
speed, proximity to Airports, transportation access, and distance to
transmission/distribution lines for power distribution are considered (University of
Massachusetts, 2007). Factors responsible for wind farm site selection are wind speed,
distance from main roads, the nature of the ground itself, distance from electricity supply
line (Golding 1978).

In line with the explanation of Alpine Wind harvest Partnership (2005) the required and
recommended parameters are: wind speed, DTM/Slope, forests, settlement areas, access to
roads, landscape, protection areas, and electricity grid and soil stability. In addition,
according to Hansen (2006) site selection criteria for wind farm establishment are listed:
proximity to forests, lakes, settlements, roads, power lines, airports, and churches, and wind
speed (Hansen, 2006).

15
 Table 2.5: Relationship between wind speed and electric power

Wind speed m/s

diameter
(meter)
Blade
2.2 4.5 10 20
1 1 watt 6 watt 70 watt 560 watt
2 3 watt 25 watt 280 watt 2,300 watt
3 7 watt 60 watt 630 watt 5,000 watt
4 12 watt 100 watt 1,120 watt 9,000 watt

Source: The Global Energy Trends in the 21st Century (Kirby, 2000)

2.6. GIS in Land Suitability Modeling

Decision Analysis is a set of systematic procedures for analyzing complex decision making
problems. These procedures include dividing the decision problems into smaller and more
understandable parts; analyzing each part; and integrating the parts in a logical manner to
produce a meaningful solution (Malczewski, 1997).

Land is one of the limited resources in the world. The uses of the land are not only
determined by the user, but by the land capability. Land capability refers to the types of
soil, underlying geology, hydrology, etc. that limit the extents of land available for various
purposes. The common way of determining land characteristics is mainly through assessing
and grouping the land types in order of suitability ranging from "suitable", that
characterizes a land with good quality for a given purpose to "not suitable" which indicates
a land with low qualities for the considered type of use. These land qualities can be derived
from their characteristics. Some of the land characteristics are slope angle, and length,
rainfall, and soil texture (FAO, 1985).

One of the techniques which have been used to identify a suitable land for a specific
purpose is multi-criteria decision support system. This means that several criteria need to
be evaluated to identify a suitable land for a specific objective. Criteria that can be
measured and evaluated are the base for a decision (Voogd, 1983; Carver, 1991).
Therefore, in a Multi-Criteria Evaluation, an attempt is made to combine a set of criteria to

16
achieve a single composite basis for a decision according to a specific objective. For
example, a decision may need to be made about what areas are the most suitable for
industrial development. The criteria might include proximity to roads, slope gradient,
exclusion of reserved lands, and so on. Through a Multi-Criteria Evaluation, these criteria
may be combined to form a single suitability map from which the final choice will be made
(Eastman, 2001).

GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) is a process that transforms and

combines geographical data (map criteria) and value judgments (decision-makers’
preferences) to obtain relevant information for decision-making. The main rationale behind
integrating GIS and MCDA is that these two distinct areas of research can complement
each other. While GIS is commonly recognized as a powerful and integrated tool with
unique capabilities for storing, manipulating, analyzing and visualizing spatial data for
decision-making, MCDA provides a rich collection of procedures and algorithms for
structuring decision problems, designing, evaluating and prioritizing alternative decisions.
It is in the context of synergetic capabilities of GIS and MCDA that one can see the
benefits for advancing theoretical and applied researches on the integration of GIS and
MCDA. The integration of GIS and MCDA facilitates participation in spatial decision-
making by allowing participants to explore different aspects of a decision problem and
express their preferences (Malczewski, 2006). spatial multi-criteria analysis results depend
not only on the geographical distribution of attributes, but also on the value judgments
involved in the decision making process. Therefore, two considerations are of paramount
importance for spatial multi-criteria decision analysis: (1) the GIS component (e.g., data
acquisition, storage, retrieval, manipulation, and analysis capability); and (2) the MCDM
analysis component (e.g., aggregation of spatial data and decision makers’ preferences into
discrete decision alternatives: Carver, 1991; Jankowski, 1995).

Spatial multi-criteria decision-making problems typically involve a large set of decision

alternatives that are evaluated on the basis of multiple, conflicting and unequal evaluation
criteria. The alternatives are usually evaluated by a number of individuals (e.g., planners,
stakeholders, interest groups). The individuals are characterized by unique preferences
(value judgments) with respect to the relative importance of the criteria on the basis of
which the alternatives are evaluated (Malczewski, 1999).

17
Rank for the criteria can be given using the preferences of professionals in each criterion
and by reading literature pertaining the significance of the criteria for the objective of the
suitability modeling. Therefore, the ranking methods are very attractive due to their
simplicity. However, practical usefulness of these methods is limited by the number of
criteria to be ranked. In general, the larger the number of the criteria used, the less
appropriate is the method. It has been demonstrated empirically that in many decision
making situations the rank order approximations provide a satisfactory approach to weight
assessment. They suggest that the techniques might be used to simplify multi-criteria
analysis (Stillwell et al., 1981 in Malczewski, 1999).

18
 3. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1. Biophysical Setting

3.1.1. Location

Adama woreda is located about 100km Southeast of Addis Ababa along the main road to
Harar, between 80 10' 00'' to 80 50' 00'' North latitude and 390 5' 00'' to 390 30' 00'' East
longitude. It is one of the 278 districts (woredas) in the Oromia National Regional state of
Ethiopia and is part of then East Shewa Zone located in the Great Rift Valley. It is bordered
on the southwest by Koka Reservoir. Awash River defines the boundaries of this woreda on
the east. Notable local landmarks like the Sodere and Gergedi hot springs, and Boku
Fumoral are found in this woreda.

Figure 3.1: Location Map of Adama Woreda

19
 3.1.2. Topography

Adama woreda has an extensive flat land. However, in its northwest part there is a rugged
topography. The altitude of this woreda ranges from 1380 to 2430 meters above sea level.

3.1.3. Geological setting

Quaternary volcanic rocks and sediments association with rift formation outcrop in the
Adama Woreda (Seid, 2007). Ash flow tuffs, pantelleritic ignimbrites and unwelded tuffs
which constitute either extended pyroclastic deposits or acidic complexes (e.g. the ridge)
outcrop in the western part of the area, while the northern, northeastern and southern parts
of Adama town (including Wonji plantation) are occupied by lacustrine deposits. Recent
apyric basaltic lava flows and scoriaceous basalts and scoria cones occupy the eastern part
of the study area. NE-SW aligned normal faults are the dominant tectonic features in the
area, forming numerous grabens and horsts. Adama town, for example lies within one of
such grabens.

Figure 3.2: Geological Map of Adama woreda

20
 3.1.4. Land use/ land cover

The total land size of the woreda is 90,502.76 hectare. The land use types found in the
study area can be classified in to six classes. These are shrubland, bareland, built-up,
plantation, agricultural land and water bodies.

Figure 3.3: Land Use Land Cover Map of the study area

Table 3.1: Area of land use/land cover classes

Land use Area (Hectare) Percentage

Water bodies 515.79 0.5
Built-up area 4692.87 5.1
Shrub land 4570.2 5.05
Plantation 7610.94 8.4
Bare land 3912.84 4.3
Agricultural land 69211.9 76.46
Total
90514.54 100 %

21
3.2. Climate

3.2.1. Rainfall

Thirty years (1977-2007) rainfall record at Adama Meteorological Station shows an

average annual rainfall of 883.27 mm. The maximum monthly average rainfall is 218.92
mm in the month of July. Most of the rain occurs in summer (June to September).

Long Year Average Monthly Rainfall Distribution

(1977-2007)
250

200
Rainfall (mm)

150

100

50

0
ch
M r

ay

ov er
il

A ly
Fe ry

ec er
ne

O er
pt st

r
ua

pr

be
Ju

S e u gu

N ob
ar

M
a

D mb
b
Ju
br
nu

em
A

em
ct

e
Ja

Month

Figure 3.4: Mean Monthly Rainfall Distribution of the Study Area

3.2.2. Temperature

The mean annual temperature of the woreda is 21.26°C. It can be classified as semi-humid
to semi-arid climate, which characterizes the altitude range between 1,500 to 2,400m a. m.
s. l. In Adama the hottest month with the maximum mean temperature of 23.52°C is June.
The coldest month with minimum mean temperature is December with the temperature of
19.36°C. Overall, the area is characterized by nearly constant temperature.

22
 Average Monthly Temperature
(1977-2007)
25

Temprature(0c)
20
15
10
5
0
M ry

M l
br y

em t

e r
ne

O ber

ec er
ch

A ly
i
ay

r
pt us
F e uar

ov e
pr

be
ua

Ju

N tob
D mb
Ju
ar

Se ug
A

em
n

c
Ja

Months

Figure 3.5: Mean Monthly Temperature of the Study Area

3.2.3. Wind speed

The available wind speed measured at Adama (EEPCO’s 10 meters station) indicates that
wind with minimum speed occurs during August (6.61m/s), while the wind with high
velocity occurs during November, December and January (9.95, 10.29, 9.27 and February
9.65 m/s respectively). The values calculated over 3 years (2006 to 2008) indicate that
mean wind speed is 8.33 m/s.

Wind speed at Adama (National Meteorological Service Agency 2 meters station)

illustrates that wind with minimum speed occurs during August (1.76), while months which
receive high wind speed are November, December and January (2.65, 2.74, and 2.47 m/s
respectively). The wind speed at Adama (EEPCO’s 40 meters station) shows that a month
which gets minimum wind speed is August (6.04) and months of high wind speed are
November, December, and January (11.15, 11.05, and 10.56 m/s respectively). Generally,
data from all stations show that the wind speed at Adama is high throughout the year but
there is decreasing trend during summer months. The wind direction recorded every ten
minutes a day in the past three years (2006-2008) indicates that there is seasonal variation
of wind direction. However, the prevailing wind direction is Northeasterly.

23
 Table 3.2: Monthly Average Wind Speed of Adama Woreda
at 2, 10 and 40 meters

2 meters
10 meters 40 meters Power generated
(2003 -2007)
Month (2006-2008) (2007) at 10 m (kwh)
January 2.4 9.2 10.5 351.0
February 2.5 9.6 9.5 435.2
March 2.0 7.8 10.8 300.4
April 2.0 7.5 7.0 271.1
May 1.9 7.3 7.7 178.6
June 2.0 7.5 7.8 216.2
July 2.2 8.2 7.1 290.4
August 1.7 6.6 6.0 257.3
September 2.0 7.5 7.9 216.7
October 2.1 8.1 10.4 296.1
November 2.6 9.9 11.1 309.9
December 2.7 10.2 11.0 393.8
Average 2.2 8.3 8.9 293

3.2.4. Humidity

Humidity measured at Adama indicates that lowest humidity is recorded in November,

December and February (65, 67 and 65%) respectively. Months which receive maximum
humidity are July, August and September with 81 % each. The mean humidity of Adama is
72.4 %.

Mean Monthly Humidity

(1996-2005)
90
80
70
Humidity ( %)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
il

ay

S e us t

r
y
ry

ch

r
ry

r
No er

be
be

be
pr

l
Ju

b
ua

M
ua

ar

Ju

ug
A

m
em

em
to
M
n

br

ve
Oc
A
Ja

pt

ec
Fe

Month

Figure 3.6: Mean Monthly Humidity of the Study Area

24
 3.2.5. Sunshine hours

The mean monthly sunshine duration of the study area is 8.45 hours with minimum
sunshine hours in July (6.5) and maximum sunshine duration recorded in November is
10.1.

Mean Monthly Sunhine

(1998-2004)

12
10
Sunshine hours

8
6
4
2
0
il

ay

Se ust

r
y
ch
ry

ry

r
e

r
ov r
be
be

be
e
pr

l
Ju

ob
M
ua

ua

ar

Ju

ug
A

em
em

em
M
n

br

ct
A
Ja

pt

ec
Fe

D
Month

Figure 3.7: Mean Monthly Sunshine Duration of the Study Area

3.3. Socio-Economic Setting

3.3.1. Population

The total human population of Adama Woreda is 155,321. The rural population is
estimated at 129,003. Urban dwellers are estimated at 76,324. In addition, Adama special
zone is also included in this study.

Table 3.3: Population Data of Adama Woreda and Adama Special Zone

Male Female Total

Adama woreda

Rural 66,255 62,748 129,003

Urban 12,742 13,576 26,318
Total 78,997 76,324 155,321
Adama
Special Zone 109,659 112,376 222,035
Source: Central Statistics Authority

25
 4. DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
4.1. Data Processing

4.1.1. Personal Geodatabase Creation and Field Survey

In this study, personal geodatabase was created to store the necessary data that could be
used for the final analysis to achieve the intended objectives. Then, prior to the field
survey, relevant secondary data have been organized in a GIS environment. Satellite image
of the year 2005 TM has been geometrically corrected and a supervised classification has
been accomplished in order to check and verify the existing situations of the land use/land
cover in the study area. During field survey, required data have been gathered. In addition,
GCP’s have been collected for the ground verification to produce the land use/land cover
map of the study area.

4.1.2. Satellite Image Processing

Before image classification, preprocessing of satellite images was made. The first duty in
image data processing is selecting appropriate satellite imagery. The selection is often
limited to the resources that are available. Since the thesis budget is limited, this work is
restricted to use free or inexpensive imagery, which in turn affects the level of information
that can be extracted for the map. Satellite image of Landsat 2005 TM, path 168 and row
054, has been used for the land use/land cover mapping. This image was stacked in the
ERDAS IMAGINE 9.1 software and subset by the boundary of the Adama Woreda.

4.1.3. Image Classification

Image classification serves a specific goal: converting image data in to thematic data. In the
application context, one is rather interested in thematic characteristics of an area (pixel)
rather than in the reflection values. Thematic characteristics such as land use/land cover
can be used for further analysis and input into GIS based models. In addition, image
classification can also be considered as data reduction: the n multi spectral bands result in a
single band raster file. Image classification is the most important part of digital image
analysis. It is very pleasant to have an image, showing a magnitude of colors illustrating
various features of the underlying terrain, but it is quite useless unless we know what the

26
colors mean. Classification methods can be mainly categorized into two. These are:
Supervised Classification and Unsupervised Classification.

4.1.3.1. Unsupervised Classification

Unsupervised classification is a method which examines a large number of unknown pixels

and divides into a number of classes based on natural groupings present in the image
values. Unsupervised classification does not require analyst-specified training data. The
basic premise is that values within a given cover type should be close together in the
measurement space (i.e., have similar gray levels), whereas data in different classes should
be comparatively well separated (i.e., have very different gray levels) (Lillesand, 1994).

4.1.3.2. Supervised Classification

With supervised classification, we identify examples of the Information classes (i.e., land
cover type) of interest in the image. These are called "training sites". The image processing
software system is then used to develop a statistical characterization of the reflectance for
each information class. This stage is often called "signature analysis" and may involve
developing a characterization as simple as the mean or the range of reflectance on each
bands, or as complex as detailed analyses of the mean, variances and covariance over all
bands. Once a statistical characterization has been achieved for each information class, the
image is then classified by examining the reflectance for each pixel and making a decision
about which of the signatures it resembles most (Eastman, 1995).

4.1.4. Maximum likelihood Classification

Maximum likelihood Classification is a statistical decision criterion to assist in the

classification of overlapping signatures; pixels are assigned to the class of highest
probability. The maximum likelihood classifier is considered to give more "accurate"
results than parallelepiped classification; however, it is much slower due to extra
computations.

27
4.2. Data Analysis

4.2.1. Wind Resource Data Analysis

The greatest advantage of wind power is its potential for large-scale, though intermittent,
electricity generation without emissions of any kind. When wind energy is introduced to
power systems, the question of the capacity credit of wind energy is of great interest. Wind
energy does have a capacity credit with a height dependent on the daily and seasonal wind
distribution and its correlation with the load. Assessing wind as a generation resource with
an intermittent, but predictable characteristic is a central issue in future energy system
planning in Ethiopia. Due to the existence of strongly solar governed winds, Ethiopia has
varying wind speeds throughout the year (high wind speed during winter and low wind
speed during summer season). In contrary to the wind, the availability of water shows the
opposite pattern in a year. This is observed at Adama.

Ave rage Monthly Wind Spe ed

(2003-2007)

2.5
Wind Speed (m/s)

1.5

0.5

0
ly

t
ay
r
y

r
ne
il

r
ch

r
us
a

be
be

be
r

pr

Ju
ru
ua

Ju

ob
ar

ug

em
tem

m
A
b
n

ct
Fe

e
Ja

ec
O

ov
p
Se

D
N

Month

Figure 4.1: Mean Monthly Wind Speed of Adama (at two meters height)

28
 Mean Monthly Wind Speed
(2006-2008)
10
9
8

Wind Speed (m/s)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

r
ril

De ber
No ber
Au y

Oc r
ry

ne
Fe ry

ch

ay

pt t

be
be
s
l
Ju
Ap
ua

gu
a

Ju
ar

m
to

m
em
nu

br

ce
ve
Ja

Se
Month

Figure 4.2: Mean Monthly Wind Speed of Adama (at 10meters height)

Mean Monthly Wind S peed m/s (2007)

12

10

8
Wind Speed(m/s)

0
ly

t
r

ay
y

r
ne
il

r
ch

r
us
a

be
be

be
r

pr

Ju
ru
ua

ob
Ju
ar

ug

em
tem

m
A
b
n

ct
Fe

e
Ja

ec
O

ov
p
Se

D
N

Month

Figure 4.3: Mean Monthly Wind Speed of Adama (EEPCO’s 40 meters height)

29
As we can see from the above figures, the wind speed at Adama is high during the dry
season and it declines in the wet season. Consequently, November, December, and January
are months with high wind speed whereas May, June and August are months with low wind
speed. This shows how well hydro and wind power complement each other.

Average Monthly Wind Speed

Long Year Average Monthly Rainfall Distribution (2003-2007)
(1977-2007)
3
250

Wind Speed (m/s)

2.5
200
Rainfall (mm)

2
150 1.5
100 1

50 0.5
0
0

Fe ary

M r

il
ay

A ly
ch

ne

pt st

ov ber
O er

em r
r
ua
ch
M r

ay

pr
ov er
il

A ly
Fe ry

ec er

D mbe
ne

O er
pt st

be
Ju
r

Se ug u
ua

ar

M
Ju

b
pr

be

nu
Ju

S e u gu

br
N t ob
ar

A
D mb
a

o
em
Ju
br
nu

em

ct
A

em

Ja

e
c

ec
Ja

N
Month Month

Figure 4.4: Rainfall and Wind Speed Compatibility at Adama

When the wind speed at Adama 10m EEPCO’s station is getting higher during the dry
season the rainfall becomes lower and vice versa during the wet season. The correlation
coefficient of wind speed at EEPC’s 10 meter station and the rainfall data of Adama is -0.4
which shows that they are negatively correlated.

4.2.2. Land use/Land Cover Analysis

For image classification Landsat image of the year 2005 with 7 spectral bands, ground
resolution (pixel size) of 28.5 × 28.5 meters and a scene size of 185 ×185 kms was used.
Supervised classification of the 2005 image, using maximum likelihood classifier
algorithm, resulted in the generation of land use/land cover map of the study area. From the
classification the following land use/ land cover classes are produced. Accordingly,
agricultural land is occupying larger area, followed by plantation, built-up area, shrub-land,
bare-land and water bodies with 76.46%, 8.4%, 5.1%, 5.05%, 4.3%, and 0.5%,
respectively.

30
 4.2.3. Site Selection Criteria Analysis

Site selection process requires detailed analysis of the factors to be involved in the
selection process and how to weigh these factors according to their influence. The selection
of suitable wind farm sites involves different factors drawing from physical, environmental
and economical perspectives. Therefore, different factors are considered to develop the
wind farm suitability model in Adama woreda. These are: wind speed, roads (since roads
are essential for the transportation of the turbines and other equipments needed to the wind
farm), slope, transmission lines, land use and geology. Therefore, based on the information
gathered from literature and consulting the stakeholders of wind energy resource in
Ethiopia, the following criteria have been identified to select suitable wind farm spots in
Adama Woreda.
• The proposed site should be on a slope of less than 10%.
• The proposed sites should be placed on bare (open area) followed by
agricultural land.
• For the transportation accessibility, the proposed site should be found not more
than 5 kilometers distance from the main roads.
• To make the wind farm economical, the proposed spots should be located not
more than 5 kilometers away from the National grid (electric transmission
line).
• Wind turbine foundations are typically reinforced concrete blocks. The most
cost-effective designs typically require excavations 10-15 m deep. In addition,
wind energy projects require roads and equipment pads sufficient to get the
turbines to the sites and accommodate the cranes required to install the
turbines. In addition the area is found with in the Rift Valley where there are
earthquake occurrences Thus, the geological structures which are good from
the geological engineering point of view and not easily affected by erosion are
required.
• The proposed sites should be located not less than 2 kms from towns.
• Wind duration should be considered as a factor for wind farm site selection
since the efficiency of wind turbines is dependent on wind speed and its
duration. But, in this study because of the unavailability of data wind duration
is not included.

31
4.2.4. Factor Development

The site selection criteria were developed by discussing with the stakeholders and reading
literature about wind farm site selection. For this study, based on data availability and their
economic and environmental significance the following factors were incorporated.

Table 4.1: Scaled and waited wind farm inducing factors

FACTOR WEIGHT SUB-FACTOR SCALE

2.2-2.5 m/s 4 (Most Suitable)
1.9-2.2 m/s 3 (Moderately Suitable)
0.3543 1.6-1.9 m/s 2 (Least Suitable)
Wind speed (m/s)
1.2-1.6 m/S 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
Recent aphyric basalt 4 (Most Suitable)
Pleistocene subrecent basalt 3 (Moderately Suitable)
Geology Ash flow tuffs 2 (Least Suitable)
0.2399
Lacustrine sediments 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
Bare land 4 (Most Suitable)
Land use
Agricultural land 3 (Moderately Suitable)
(Based on
Shrub land 2 (Least Suitable)
land cost) 0.1587
Plantation 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
0-1.5 km 4 (Most Suitable)
Road (based on the
1.5-4.5 km 3 (Moderately Suitable)
cost
4.5-8.5 km 2 (Least Suitable)
of construction n) 0.1036
8.5-16 km 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
0-10 km 4 (Most Suitable)
National grid 10-21km 3 (Moderately Suitable)
(based on the cost of 21-31km 2 (Least Suitable)
0.0676
construction) 31-42 km 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
0-12 % 4 (Most Suitable)
12-34 % 3 (Moderately Suitable)
34-58 % 2 (Least Suitable)
Slope (percent) 0.0448
58-89% 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
0-3 km 1 (Permanently not Suitable)
3-6 km 4 (Most Suitable)
Towns (based
6-10 km 2 (moderately suitable)
on their proximity) 0.0312
10-17km 1 (Least suitable)

32
 4.2.4.1. Roads

For technical and commercial purposes, access to a road network is essential in wind farm
modeling. This will generally mean that the site must be within a minimum distance from the
national road network to allow for construction vehicles to enter the site and for delivery of
materials and general access for construction and maintenance purpose. As indicated in Table
(4.1) reclassification was made based on the distance from the major roads (areas near to the
main road were reclassified as most suitable and those which are located far from the main road
were considered as permanently not suitable). Distances between 1.5-4.5 and 4.5-8.5 are
considered as moderately suitable and least suitable respectively. .

Figure 4.5: Road Proximity Map of Adama Woreda

33
4.2.4.2. National Grid

Having a good wind energy resource will only be beneficial to wind farm developers if the
energy generated by the project can be delivered to the purchaser in a cost-effective
manner. It is usually physically possible to connect a site to a transmission system.
However, the costs of such connections can be prohibitive. Therefore, for this study
distance from electric transmission line (230 kv) was taken in to consideration. As a result,
areas which are near to the transmission line are classified as most suitable and which are
far from the transmission line are classified as permanently not suitable and areas in-
between are reclassified as moderately suitable and least suitable see table (4.1).

Figure 4.6: Transmission Line Proximity Map of the Study Area

34
 4.2.4.3. Geology

The rocks in the study area are reclassified into four categories based on their suitability to
the installation of wind turbines. The parameters considered are their suitability to other
activities such as agriculture; their topographic features and their engineering geological
properties with respect to the foundation of wind turbines. As a result, the aphyric basalt
lava flows which are very recent and found in the area as unweathered lava exposures are
considered to be the most suitable, while the acidic ridges which are very narrow high
ridges are considered to be unsuitable. The volcanic ashes and the lacustrine deposits are
considered to be moderately and least suitable, respectively.

Figure 4.7: Reclassified Geological Map of the Study Area

4.2.4.4. Slope
As far as slope of the study area is concerned, the steeper the slope, the higher the
development cost is likely to be. This is because steep slope will require more grading and
earth movement than gentle slope. Steep slope may also limit the size of turbines that can
be installed due to limitations in the ability to transport the turbines and cranes to the site or

35
to create sufficient lay-down areas for site construction. Consequently, the slope is ranked
according to its significance for wind farm establishment. Steep slope is classified as
permanently not suitable and gentle slope was classified as most suitable (fig 4.1).

Figure 4.8: Reclassified Slope Map of Adama woreda

4.2.4.5. Wind Speed

The wind speed map of Adama Woreda is produced using the available (5 years) data of
Adama, Wonji and Melkassa. The wind speed of the study area is reclassified into four
categories based on their speed. Consequently, wind speed between 2.2-2.5 m/s is
considered as most suitable while wind speed between 1.2-1.6 m/s is considered as
permanently not suitable. Wind speeds (1.9-2.2 m/s) and (1.6-1.9 m/s) are reclassified as
moderately suitable and least suitable respectively.

36
 Figure 4.9: Reclassified Wind Speed Map of Adama woreda

The wind speed data interpolated with IDW interpolation method was compared with the
wind flow model of Adama Woreda created by the Ethiopian Rural Energy Development
and Promotion Center using WAsP software. This software considers surface roughness,
wind speed and turbulence of a given area in the wind flow modeling. Since there is no any
possibility to use WAsP software for this study (lack of access to this software due to
financial constraint and the unwillingness of those who have the software to allow me use
the software), the interpolated wind speed maps of Adama Woreda is utilized. But when we
compare the wind flow map produced by WAsP software and the wind speed map of
Adama Woreda produced by IDW interpolation method, they are more or less the similar.

37
 Figure 4.10: Wind map of Adama woreda (WAsP software)
Source: Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center

4.2.4.6. Distance from the towns

To minimize visual, noise, and land use impacts wind farm should be established a certain
kilometers far from the towns. For this study, distance from Adama, Sodere and Wonji
towns is considered. Therefore, distance from the town is reclassified into four based on the
impacts of the turbines to the town residents. As a result, distance between 3-6 kms is
considered as the most suitable while distance between 10-17 kms is considered as least
suitable. Distances between 6-10 and 0-3 are reclassified as moderately suitable and
permanently not suitable respectively.

38
 Figure 4.11: Built-up Area Proximity Map of Adama Woreda

4.2.4.7. Land Use/ Land Cover

The existing uses of the land should carefully be evaluated to determine how best the wind
farm can integrate with the existing land uses. Accordingly, developing a wind farm project
depends on having suitable land to install turbines or not. The relative costs of land must be
considered while selecting sites for wind farm establishment. In addition, vegetation
increases the turbulence intensity at the site and decreases the wind speeds. Planting
turbines in areas with substantial vegetation over 10 m in height increases the risk of
turbulence-induced damage to the turbines or increases project development cost. Thus,
land use of the study area is ranked according to their cost and turbulence influence for the
wind farm establishment. Accordingly, bare land and agricultural land are considered as
most suitable and moderately suitable land classes respectively while shrubland and
plantation are considered as least and permanently not suitable land classes respectively.

39
 Figure 4.12: Reclassified Land Use/Land Cover Map of Adama Woreda

4.3. Techniques for Weighting

4.3.1. Multi Criteria Evaluation

To assess the wind farm suitability of the study area, MCE in association with GIS was
used. MCE is a procedure which needs several criteria to be evaluated to meet the
objectives of the study. It is most commonly achieved by one of two procedures. The first
involves Boolean overlay whereby all criteria are reduced to logical statements of
suitability and then combined by means of one or more logical operators such as
intersection (AND) and union (OR). The second procedure which was used in this study is
known as weighted linear combination (WLC) where continuous criteria (factors) were
standardized to a common data model that was raster layer with a resolution of 30 m cell
size, and then combined by means of a weighted overlay function. The standardized raster
layers were weighted using Eigen vector that is important to show the significance of each
factor as compared to each other in the contribution of wind farm suitability.

40
 4.3.2. Analytical Hierarchy Process

The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a structured technique for dealing with
complex decisions. Rather than prescribing a "correct" decision, the AHP helps the
decision makers find the one that best suits their needs and their understanding of the
problem. The AHP provides a comprehensive and rational framework for structuring a
decision problem, for representing and quantifying its elements, for relating those elements
to overall goals, and for evaluating alternative solutions. Based on this method, the study
analyzed each factor and then put the factors in a hierarchy according to their significance
for wind farm suitability analysis. Then the factors are systematically evaluated by
comparing them to one another two at a time. Then AHP converts evaluations to numerical
values that can be processed and compared over the entire range of the problem.

Figure 4.13: AHP Weight Derivation Matrix for Wind Farm Suitability

41
 4.3.3. Pairwise Comparison

A wide variety of techniques exist for the development of weights. In a very simple case,
assigning criteria weights may be accomplished by dividing 1.0 among the criteria.
However, when the number of criteria is more than a few, and the considerations are many,
it becomes quite difficult to make weight evaluations on the set as a whole. Breaking the
information down into simple pairwise comparisons in which only two criteria need to be
considered at a time can greatly facilitate the weighting process (Eastman, 2006). In this
study using IDRISI Andes 15.0 software each factor has been given specific weights based
on their significance for wind farm establishment in the study area.
Table 4.2: weights calculated by IDRISI Software

The eigenvector of weights is:

NO Factors Weight Given
Wind Speed: 0.3543
Geology: 0.2399 1 Wind Speed 35.43%
Land Use: 0.1587 2 Geology 23.99%
Road: 0.1036
Transmission: 0.0676 3 Land Use 15.87%
Slope: 0.0448 4 Road 10.36%
Towns: 0.0312
5 Transmission Line 6.76%
Consistency ratio = 0.02
6 Slope 4.48%
Consistency is acceptable.
4.3.3. Weighted overlay analysis 7 Towns 3.12
TOTAL 100%

The GIS overlay process can be used to combine the factors and constraints in the form of a
Weighting Overlay process. The result is then summed up producing a suitability map.
Using IDRISI Andes 15.0 software all factors has been given specific weights and the
weighted overlay analysis has been conducted which produces wind farm suitability map
using model builder in ArcCatalog.

42
Figure 4.14: Weighted Overlay Table Function for Wind Farm
Suitability Modeling

Figure 4.15: Wind Farm Suitability Model

43
 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSION
According to the results of the wind farm suitability model, four suitability classes are
identified with varying degree of suitability. Land suitability classification is developed by
considering different characteristics of the land in the study area. Therefore, for each factor
a weight value is given from 1 (permanently not suitable) to 4 (most suitable). Each
parameter is given a value based on its suitability for wind farm site selection. The
weighted value of each factor is added and the average value of them is taken to determine
the suitability of land for wind farm establishment. As explained in the following table the
final suitability map is categorized in to four suitability classes.

Table 5.1: Suitability Category classes

Suitability
Description
category Cass

Most Suitable
Land having no, or insignificant
limitation to the given type of use.

Land having minor limitations to the

Moderately suitable
given types of use

Land having several limitations that

preclude the given type of use, but can
Least Suitable
be improved by specific management

Permanently not
Land that has so severe limitations that
suitable
are very difficult to be overcome.

Source: FAO (1985)

44
 Figure 5.1: Potential Suitability Map for Wind Farm in Adama Woreda

5.1. Evaluation of the Proposed Sites

5.1.1. Area of suitable sites

As indicated in Figure (25) the moderately suitable sites have the highest area value
followed by most suitable, least suitable, permanently not suitable and restricted (32042.9,
31921.2, 14925.9, 5877.42 and 4692.87) hectares respectively. Therefore, there is
sufficient area for wind farm establishment in the study area.

45
 Figure 5.2: Area of the Proposed Sites

5.1.2. Road and Electric Transmission Lines Accessibility

As showed in figure (5.1) most and moderately suitable sites are located near the road and
electric transmission line. This shows that wind farms can be established in the study area
with low road and electricity transmission line construction cost.

5.1.3. Land Use

Most of the suitable sites are located on agricultural land. Therefore, these sites are suitable
for wind farm establishment since agriculture and wind farm are compatible (agricultural
activities can be practiced with in the wind farm area).
Table 5.2: Cross-Tabulated Areas of Land use and Wind Farm Suitability in Adama
Woreda

Permanently Least Moderately Most

Class Name
not suitable suitable suitable suitable
Bare land 0.19 0.4 0.97 1.7
Shrub land 8.2 6.13 3.58 3.05
Plantation 46.3 26.8 11.76 8.75
Agricultural land 35.86 61.77 77.77 84.93
Built-up 8.56 4.59 5.87 1.52
Water bodies 0.8 0.2 0.02 0.01
100% 100% 100% 100%

46
 5.1.4. Terrain Orientation to Prevailing Wind
The orientation of the topography relative to the prevailing wind directions will heavily
affect the site’s capacity potential as well as its energy production. Ridgelines that are
perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction are preferred to ridgelines that are parallel to
the prevailing wind direction. At sites with no clear prevailing direction, ridgelines limit the
capacity that can be installed due to larger turbine-spacing requirements than for sites that
have a prevailing wind direction. Therefore; major areas of the most suitable sites are
perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction which is preferred for their greater electricity
generation capacity.
Table 5.3: Cross-Tabulated Aspect and Wind Farm Suitability area in AdamaWoreda
Permanently
Least Moderately Most suitable
Direction not suitable
Suitable (%) Suitable (%) (%)
(%)
Plain-Northeast 3.4 4.22 4.7 5.76
Southeast 33.58 35.86 41.62 45.3
Southwest 48.42 40.81 38.05 35.69
Northwest 14.54 19.08 15.59 13.22
Total 100 100 100 100

Figure 5.3: Aspect Map of Adama Woreda

47
 Table 5.4 illustrates how each site is fairly selected by considering each factor. For
example, the best site is named as Site 1. This site is classed as the most suitable for the
wind speed factor meaning that it has high wind speed, for the road access factor,
indicating that it is located near to the road network, for the transmission line access
indicating that it is within 5km from the national grid network and, it is considered as very
suitable since the soil here is good for construction, the slope is gentle, far from built-up
areas and lastly, it has been classed as very suitable since the cost for land compensation is
relatively lower.
Table 5.4: Comparison of suitable sites based on the criteria used

Site Wind Distance from

Geological Land-use /Land
ID speed Road access Grid access Slope B uilt-up areas
structure cover
Site
Excellent Excellent V.good Excellent V.Good Excellent Excellent
1
Site
V.good Good V.good v.good Excellent Excellent Good
2
V.good
Site 3 Good Very good good Not-economical good V. good

Table (13) explains that site1 is highly recommended to establish a wind farm in Adama
Woreda since it fulfills the requirements of the most decisive criteria which highly affect
the wind farm establishment.

48
 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Conclusions

• There is sufficient land for wind farm establishment in the study area.
• This study indicates that 35% of the study area is identified as most suitable for
wind farm establishment, 41% is found to be moderately suitable and 16% is least
suitable while only 6.5% is permanently not a suitable land.
• The most suitable sites are located in the southeastern (along Adama town to
Sodere road), northeastern, and southern parts of Adama Woreda.
• Among the suitable sites, Site One is highly recommended for wind farm
establishment since it has high wind speed, better access to the major road, better
geological structure (which is helpful for wind farm and other related
constrictions), the existence of sites facing to the major prevailing wind direction
(northeast).
• The study area has adequate wind resource potential for grid-based electricity
generation.
• The factors responsible for wind farm suitability modeling in the study area are
wind speed, land use/land cover, geology, road and transmission line access, slope
and distance from built-up area.
• The topography where most suitable sites laid are facing to the major wind
prevailing direction which indicated that these sites do have high potential for
grid-based wind farm establishment.
• Wind turbine foundations are concrete blocks. The most cost effective designs
typically require excavations 10-15 m deep. In addition, wind energy projects
require roads and equipment pads sufficient to get the turbines to the sites and
accommodate the cranes required to install the turbines. An additional
consideration when examining sites is erosion. Therefore, the most suitable sites
are located where there is strong geological structure which is better for wind
turbines installation and to minimize soil erosion.

49
6.2. Recommendations

• Wind speed and direction data are one of the crucial information needed for wind
farm site selection but this information is poor in quality and distribution.
Therefore, stakeholders should systematically acquire and analyze wind energy
resource data at least for potential sites in the country.

• There is wind resource potential which can be used for grid connected wind farms
in some parts of Ethiopia and has lower vulnerability to adverse external changes.
Hence, the government of Ethiopia has to build its capacity to produce electric
power from this resource.

• Although the environmental impact of wind energy is lower than that of

conventional energy sources, it has some potentially negative effects on the
environment, especially when it comes to establishing grid connected wind farms.
Therefore, site selection process which considers environmental impacts should
be taken into consideration prior to wind farm establishment.

• As we have seen from this study, there are spots with high wind resource potential
and suitable for wind farm development in Adama Woreda. Therefore, the
stakeholders who want to establish wind farm in Ethiopia should give attention to
this area.

• This study provides information on wind farm suitability in Adama Woreda that
could be used by the concerned decision makers who have the interest of
establishing wind farm in the study area. Thus, stakeholders can incorporate this
wind suitability model in their strategies.

• Adama Woreda administration should consider wind farm developments in the

area when they are planning to use the land for different activities.

• Adama Woreda is an earthquake prone area. Therefore, stakeholders should

undertake researches about the earthquake of the study area.

50
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 Annexes
Annex 1: Adama wind speed at 2 meters height (m/s)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Year
2003 2.4 2.6 2.1 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.1 2.5 1.6 2.1 2.8 2.8
2004 2.2 2.6 2.2 2.3 1.6 3 3.1 2.5 1.9 2.4 2.6 2.8
2005 2.2 2.6 2.0 2.3 1.6 3.0 3.1 2.5 1.9 2.4 2.6 2.8
2006 2.8 2.6 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.9 3.0 2.7 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.7
2007 2.8 2.4 2.3 1.9 2.1 2.8 2.5 2.3 1.7 1.9 2.8 2.6
2008 2.4 2.5 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.9 2.9 2.5 1.7 2.1 2.6 2.7

Annex 2: Wonji wind speed 2 meters height (m/s)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Year
2003 1.5 1.2 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3
2004 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.7 2.4 1.4 0.9 0.8 1.2 1.3
2005 1.3 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.7 2.0 1.3 0.8 0.6 1.0 1.4
2006 1.6 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.3 2.0 1.8 1.7 0.7 1.2 1.3 1.6
2007 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.5
2008 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.6 1.8 1.3 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.4

Annex 3: Melkassa wind speed 2 meters height (m/s)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Year
2003 2.8 3.0 2.5 2.1 2.3 3.0 3.1 2.4 1.6 2.5 2.2 3.1
2004 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.2 3.0 3.1 2.1 1.2 1.6 2.7 2.9
2005 2.8 3.7 3.2 2.6 2.5 2.7 3.0 1.7 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.2
2006 2.8 3.4 3.0 2.5 2.4 2.8 3.2 2.2 1.4 1.7 2.4 3.1
2007 2.9 3.2 3.3 2.3 2.2 2.9 3.3 2.3 1.5 1.9 2.6 3.0
2008 2.9 3.3 2.9 2.4 2.3 2.9 3.1 2.1 1.4 1.9 2.5 3.1

Annex 4: Adama monthly sunshine duration

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1998 8.9 9.0 8.2 9.4 9.0 9.1 6.7 6.8 7.6 7.1 10.1 10.6
1999 9.4 5.2 4.0 5.2 9.1 9.3 6.5 7.9 8.6 7.9 9.9 10.3
2000 10.4 10.3 9.7 8.7 8.9 8.3 6.4 6.9 5.7 7.1 9.0 8.7
2001 10.4 9.9 7.7 8.4 10.1 8.0 7.2 7.6 8.2 8.8 10.1 8.8
2002 8.9 10.1 9.3 8.5 7.5 7.7 6.1 8.8 7.5 9.8 9.4 10.7
2003 9.8 9.5 7.7 7.9 9.4 7.8 6.8 5.9 7.5 8.2 10.0 8.8
2004 9.1 9.4 9.9 8.3 9.0 7.7 5.5 6.6 6.5 9.3 9.3 10.5

57
 Annex 5: Monthly mean rainfall of Adama (mm)

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1977 58.2 10.8 58.6 133.7 67.6 139.8 226.2 172.0 83.5 163.0 63.7 0.0
1978 3.2 99.4 2.7 16.3 15.1 59.1 96.2 199.3 82.3 68.3 0.0 5.5
1979 114.3 20.6 60.9 8.1 126.4 115.6 92.4 128.6 21.8 17.4 0.0 0.0
1980 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 120.7 39.4 4.3 0.0
1981 0.0 40.7 166.7 57.5 0.0 2.9 246.3 309.8 137.9 4.7 0.0 0.0
1982 8.8 41.6 34.9 29.7 79.1 31.7 127.4 259.8 47.6 104.5 31.3 10.9
1983 0.0 43.4 33.8 79.3 188.0 24.7 214.8 221.3 72.4 14.3 0.0 0.0
1984 0.0 0.0 4.3 0.4 173.1 84.6 202.7 148.3 66.9 0.0 0.0 19.8
1985 3.0 0.0 23.1 183.4 67.3 8.0 405.4 327.1 169.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1986 0.0 96.5 41.0 6.2 54.4 152.4 263.3 95.0 20.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
1987 0.0 11.2 80.2 81.1 259.6 0.0 161.6 243.4 30.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
1988 34.0 31.3 6.8 50.9 9.4 50.3 155.4 171.4 186.9 52.9 0.0 0.0
1989 0.0 29.9 21.7 95.4 0.0 54.7 182.5 251.2 80.3 5.7 0.0 3.5
1990 0.7 183.9 83.0 114.7 13.3 12.0 337.8 168.7 153.7 10.8 0.0 0.0
1991 0.0 0.0 84.2 13.5 22.3 74.4 322.0 232.8 89.0 13.1 0.0 1.7
1992 41.2 27.8 0.0 46.3 8.6 65.9 232.8 210.0 160.3 43.9 0.0 3.5
1993 15.4 51.9 0.0 102.6 72.7 64.1 345.2 142.4 79.3 20.0 0.0 0.0
1994 0.0 0.0 2.6 49.1 26.5 70.1 229.6 171.5 173.8 13.8 35.6 51.0
1995 0.0 36.5 46.7 127.2 33.0 46.5 203.1 251.4 88.2 14.7 0.0 2.8
1996 27.2 0.0 111.3 65.1 115.2 120.2 220.2 250.0 93.9 0.0 7.9 0.0
1997 14.4 0.0 75.3 28.5 6.9 94.0 193.1 240.9 75.5 116.5 31.5 0.0
1998 11.8 25.6 105.2 19.8 79.3 55.3 196.5 220.6 144.7 132.8 0.0 0.0
1999 8.7 0.0 22.6 1.2 18.6 68.0 283.2 194.4 66.3 164.7 3.1 0.0
2000 0.0 0.0 20.2 16.1 51.5 60.8 352.7 271.0 133.6 85.7 64.8 12.9
2001 0.0 6.2 108.3 28.7 177.0 51.2 253.8 145.3 107.8 1.7 0.0 0.3
2002 20.9 11.1 21.4 51.3 22.5 50.2 129.9 205.7 65.3 1.1 0.0 34.5
2003 46.5 69.1 151.2 88.9 3.6 75.2 235.6 279.7 122.8 0.0 5.3 48.8
2004 28.8 3.3 77.4 53.1 1.9 63.3 114.4 227.3 77.1 58.6 12.8 1.6
2005 72.5 6.3 90.1 41.3 71.1 50.2 144.3 165 68.4 6 5.3 0
2006 17.6 88.4 64.6 88.7 27.8 58.7 173.5 225 128.8 10.1 0.5 28.5
2007 23.1 31.6 82.1 101.7 64.7 62.8 225.7 344.4 138 25.4 7.5 0
total 550.3 967.1 1680.9 1779.8 1856.5 1866.7 6567.6 6473.3 3087.0 1189.1 273.6 225.3
average 18.34 32.23 56.03 59.32 61.88 62.22 218.92 215.77 102.9 39.63 9.12 7.51

58
 Annex 6: Adama monthly maximum temperature (0c)
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1977 26.4 26.3 29.9 29.4 29.5 28.9 25 25.8 27 27.9 25.4 26.4
1978 27.6 27.7 29.4 32.2 32.5 30.2 25 26.1 27.3 27.5 27.2
1979 26 27.8 30 31.7 30.2 29.3 25.8 28.3 29.4 29.8
1980 29.1 28.9 28.1
1981 29.6 29.6 28.4 27.6 33 27.4 25.7 25.8 27.9 28.1 27.5
1982 28.2 29.1 31.3 30.4 30.3 31.5 25.1 27.2 25.7 26.2 26.5
1983 28.1 30.7 29.5 30.4 29.8 27.8 25 27.5 28.4 28.5 27.7
1984 27.8 29.3 32.2 33.8 30.5 27.9 26.4 28 30.4 30.1 27.5
1985 29.9 32.1 30.3 30.8 32.4 27.2 25.7 27.9 29.1 30.3 29.3
1986 29.7 31.2 29.7 33.8 34.3 29.6 27.5 28.4 30.8 27.8 28.9 29.8
1987 25 31.7 31.2 29.8 30.2 30.1 29 27 29.8 31.1 30.7 30.6
1988 30.9 32.9 32.3 32.9 33.1 31.6 25.2 27 27.5 27.2 25.2 27.3
1989 28.9 29 28.6 27 32 30.3 24.3 24.7 27 28 28.3 28
1990 26.8 27.5 26.1 26.8 30.3 30 25.6 27.5 26.1 27.3 27.3 25.9
1991 27.7 28.9 29 30.1 25 24.8 26.6 27.5 27.1 26.6
1992 25.8 26.1 29.7 29.7 30.7 30.1 25.3 24.4 25.3 25.9 26.4 25.9
1993 25.3 24.9 29.5 27.9 28.1 28.6 24.8 25.1 26.5
1994 31.1 28.6 26.4 25.4 25.9 27.1 25.5 25.1
1995 26.9 29 28.7 28.3 30.9 31.6 25.9 25.5 26.5 27.9 27.4 27.5
1996 26.8 29.6 29.5 29 29.2 26.5 26.3 25.5 26.9 27.9 27.5 26.2
1997 28 28.3 30.3 28.5 31.2 29.7 26.1 26.3 28.3 27.3 25.6 25.9
1998 26.9 29.3 28.8 31.6 31.6 25 26.3 26.8 26.5 25.8
1999 27.1 29.9 28.3 31.1 31.5 30.5 24.7 25.2 27.1 25.6 25.9 25.4
2000 27.3 28.3 30.2 30.3 30.8 29.8 25.9 25.6 26.7 25.8 25.8 25.3
2001 24.7 27.8 28.5 29.8 29.6 28.2 25.8 25.3 27.4 28.7 27.3 26.8
2002 26.2 29.2 29.9 31 32.8 30.9 29.7 26.6 28.2 29.8 28.6 26.5
2003 27 29.5 29.8 29.1 32.4 30.1 25.5 25.9 27 28.5 27.5 25.4
2004 27.8 28.2 29.3 28.7 29.6 26.3 26 27.3 26.7 26.8 26.2
2005 26.6 29.6 29.9 30.2 29.1 29.6 25.6 26.7 27.6 28.9 27.5 26.3
2006 27.5 28.7 28.6 28.8 30.6 29.9 25.9 25.2 26.4 27.9 26.9 25.1
2007 26.2 28.4 29.8 28.7 30.9 28.2 25.7 25.4 26.4 26.9 26.0 25.4

59
 Annex 7: Adama monthly minimum temperature (0c)
Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1977 14.6 12.5 14.5 14.8 15.8 16.7 16 16 15.5 14.6 11.4 10.8
1978 10.9 13.5 15.1 15.4 17.5 17.6 16.3 15.9 15.7 13.1 12.4
1979 13.8 13.4 14.1 15.2 15.9 16.8 15.8 13.5 12.6 9.9
1980 11.6 9.3
1981 12.1 13.7 15.8 15.1 17.9 15.6 16 15.2 11.6 10.6 10
1982 13.9 15.1 16.2 16.2 17.9 15.5 15.5 11.9 12.9 12.6
1983 15.5 16.7 16.4 16.8 17.6 16.9 16.4 16.6 12.5 10.8 10.6
1984 9.6 10 13.7 15.6 16 16.9 15.5 14 10.9 12.3 11.3
1985 11 14.9 15.7 15.8 17.3 15.1 14.5 15.1 10.2 9.1 10.8
1986 11.2 14.7 13.3 13.5 14.8 16.1 15.7 14.2 15.8 11.2 10.7 16.2
1987 11.8 14.7 15.1 14.1 14.2 18 15.3 16.2 14.9 11.9 9.7 8.2
1988 11.5 15.1 12.6 12.6 14.8 17 11 14.4 15 10 7.6 8.2
1989 8.5 15.5 16.2 14.1 16.7 14.8 12 14.9 14.6 10.7 10.3 13.7
1990 12.7 15.1 14.4 14.4 16.5 17.8 15.7 15.6 15.1 11.9 12.4 11.6
1991 14.4 15.1 14.8 18 15.7 15.6 14.8 13 12.1 11.3
1992 13.6 15.4 16.1 16 15.8 17 15.4 15.5 14 11.8 12.2 13.9
1993 13.7 13.6 13.8 15.1 15.6 16.4 15.4 14.9 14.8
1994 15.8 16.8 15.7 15.5 13.7 11.2 12.5 11.1
1995 10.5 14.3 14.4 14.8 13.2 15.3 15.6 15.2 13.5 12.9 12.7 14.1
1996 14 13.6 15.4 14.6 14.7 16.6 15.8 15.7 14.6 12.1 13.2 12.1
1997 12.7 15.3 15.9 15.1 15.5 14.7 12.5
1998 14 16.2 16.1 16.3 17 18 16.4 16.1 15 13.5 13 10.6
1999 11.9 13.1 14.9 14.6 16.3 16.9 15.4 15.7 14.8 14.4 9.8 7.9
2000 9.2 13 15 16 16.7 17.9 15.9 16.2 15.2 13.6 12.6 11.5
2001 12.2 13.3 15.1 15.3 17.1 17.3 16.1 16.5 13.9 13.5 12.9 13
2002 14.4 13.9 15.9 16.3 17.9 18.3 17.3 16.4 15 13.6 13.3 15
2003 13.2 14.7 13.3 16 14.7 16.6 15.9 15.8 15.5 13.4 13.7 12.1
2004 14.8 12.9 13.3 15.9 16.5 17.6 16.3 16.3 15.4 13.6 13.6 14
2005 13.3 14.9 16.4 16.4 16.8 17.7 16.4 16.4 16.2 14.5 14.5 12.2
2006 14 15.8 15.4 15.6 16.8 17.8 16.6 16.1 16.1 15.2 14.8 14.7
2007 14.0 15.8 16.1 16.5 17.9 17.6 16.7 15.6 16.5 13.1 13.9 11.6
Annex 8: Adama monthly mean relative humidity
Year Time Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1996 600 86 84 78 83 70 73 73 81 81 54 46 51
1997 600 57 54 64 75 58 74 84 78 66 75 74 64
1998 600 76 80 77 66 67 69 81 79 74 67 53 52
1999 600 61 50 70 42 53 59 81 83 82 86 60 69
2000 600 53 40 51 79 72 63 80 75 74 72 66 71
2001 600 57 56 74 67 81 81 85 84 93 82 64 68
2002 600 58 61 74 84 65 72 75 79 86 78 75 76
2003 600 81 66 79 73 84 77 81 84 86 71 68 67
2004 600 79 83 76 81 75 73 82 84 85 82 71 84
2005 600 85 77 70 82 76 81 83 85 83 75 73 71

60
Annex 9: Summery of Wind speed and Power Generated at Adama 10m Height
Anemometer

61
62