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Analysis and Synthesis of Sliding Mode C
Analysis and Synthesis of Sliding Mode C
Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
Analysis and synthesis of sliding mode control for large scale variable
speed wind turbine for power optimization
Jova rida a, *, Luis T. Aguilar a, Jorge Da
n Me vila b
a
Instituto Polit
ecnico Nacional e CITEDI, Av. del Parque 1310, Mesa de Otay, Tijuana, BC 22510, Mexico
b n, Av. Ticoma
n 600, Col. San Jos n, Delegacio
Instituto Polit
ecnico Nacional, ESIME e Ticoma e Ticoma n Gustavo A. Madero, M
exico, DF 07340, Mexico
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The problem of designing a nonlinear feedback control scheme for variable speed wind turbines, without
Received 2 August 2013 wind speed measurements, in below rated wind conditions was addressed. The objective is to operate
Accepted 18 June 2014 the wind turbines in order to have maximum wind power extraction while also the mechanical loads are
Available online 15 July 2014
reduced. Two control strategies were proposed seeking a better performance. The first strategy uses a
tracking controller that ensures the optimal angular velocity for the rotor. The second strategy uses a
Keywords:
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm while a non-homogeneous quasi-continuous high-
Sliding mode control
order sliding mode controller is applied to ensure the power tracking. Two algorithms were devel-
Wind turbines
Maximum power point tracking
oped to solve the tracking control problem for the first strategy. The first one is a sliding mode output
Renewable energy feedback torque controller combined with a wind speed estimator. The second algorithm is a quasi-
Nonlinear control continuous high-order sliding mode controller to ensure the speed tracking. The proposed controllers
are compared with existing control strategies and their performance is validated using a FAST model
based on the Controls Advanced Research Turbine (CART). The controllers show a good performance in
terms of energy extraction and load reduction.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.06.030
0960-1481/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
716 J. Merida et al. / Renewable Energy 71 (2014) 715e728
2. Wind turbine model and problem statement is the aerodynamic torque which depends nonlinearly upon the tip
speed ratio. The main components of a variable speed wind turbine
This section presents the dynamic model of a variable speed are: an aeroturbine, a gearbox, and a generator. The energy in the
wind turbine and the problem statement. The wind turbine model wind turns two or three propellers around a rotor. Because the
incorporates aerodynamic characteristics, turbine mechanics, and rotor is connected to the main shaft which in turn is connected to
generator dynamics. Detailed descriptions of the different dynamic the high speed shaft through a gearbox, the aerodynamic power is
sub-models are given in the following subsections. transferred to generator. Finally, the electrical power generated is
transferred to the grid.
2.1. Aerodynamics
2.2. Turbine mechanics
The aerodynamic power captured by the rotor is given by the
nonlinear expression [29] The mechanical model of the two-mass wind turbine (Fig. 3) can
be described as follows [7,31]:
1
Pa ¼ rpR2 Cp ðl; bÞvðtÞ3 (1)
2 Ta ður ; b; vÞ Kls ðqr qls Þ Dls ður uls Þ Dr ur
u_ r ¼
where v(t) is the wind speed, r is the air density, and R is the rotor Jr
radius. The efficiency of the rotor blades is denoted as Cp, which Te ng þ Kls ðqr qls Þ þ Dls ður uls Þ Dg ng ug
depends on the blade pitch angle b, or the angle of attack of the u_ g ¼ (5)
Jg ng
rotor blades, and the tip speed ratio l, the ratio of the blade tip
ug
linear speed to the wind speed. The parameters b and l affect the d_ ¼ ur
ng
efficiency of the system. The coefficient Cp is specific for each wind
turbine. The relationship of tip speed ratio is given by
where Te is the generator (electromagnetic) torque, uls is the low
ur shaft speed, qr is the rotor side angular deviation, qls is the gearbox
l¼R (2)
vðtÞ side angular deviation, Jr > 0 is the rotor inertia, Jg > 0 is the
generator inertia, ug is the generator speed, Dr is the rotor external
where ur is the rotor speed. The turbine estimated Cp surface as a damping, Dg is the generator external damping, Dls is the low speed
function of tip speed ratio and blade pitch based on the CART is shaft damping, Kls is the low speed shaft stiffness, and d described
illustrated in Fig. 2. This surface was created using modeling soft- the deflection of the drive-shaft. Assuming an ideal gearbox with
ware WTPerf which uses blade-element-momentum theory to transmission ng
predict the performance of wind turbines [29,30].
Fig. 2 indicates that there is a unique l at which the turbine is
ug T
most efficient. From (1) and (2), notice that the rotor efficiency is ng ¼ ¼ ls (6)
highly nonlinear and makes the entire system a nonlinear system. uls Ths
The efficiency of power capture is a function of the tip speed ratio
and the blade pitch. The power captured from the wind follows the where Tls ¼ Kls ðqr qls Þ þ Dls ður uls Þ is the low speed shaft tor-
relationship que. A simple rigid body model (single-mass) of a wind turbine can
be considered if ur ¼ uls . Therefore, upon using (6) and (5), one gets
Pa ¼ Ta ur (3) [16,32]:
where
Jt u_ r ¼ Ta ður ; b; vÞ Dt ur Tg (7)
1 Cp ðl; bÞ
Ta ¼ rpR3 vðtÞ2 (4)
2 l where Jt ¼ Jr þ n2g Jg , Dt ¼ Dr þ n2g Dg , and Tg ¼ ng Te are the turbine
total inertia, turbine total external damping, and generator torque
in the rotor side, respectively. The controllers are synthesized using
a single-mass model of a variable speed wind turbine (7).
0.4
0.3
Cp(λ,β)
0.2
0.1
0
−10 15
0 10
10
20 5
30 λ
β
leading to a unique maximum point given by For a wind turbine, it is usual to measure the wind speed by an
anemometer installed on the top of the nacelle. The measured wind
Cp lopt ; bopt ¼ Cpmax (10) speed is called point wind speed. The point wind speed does not
represent the rotor effective wind speed since it is impossible to
that corresponds to the maximum power production. represent the wind speed v by a unique measure. The wind speed
To maximize the extracted energy, the maximum rotor effi- varies spatially on the swept rotor area, consequently it is difficult
ciency must be maintained during operation. For this purpose, b is to obtain an accurate value of the rotor effective wind speed. From
fixed to bopt and uropt should change depending on the wind speed Eq. (9), the estimation of the wind speed bv is related to the Ta by the
variations following equation:
lopt v 1
uropt ¼ (11) Ta rpR3 Cq b
l bv2 ¼ 0 (16)
R 2
Then, the control objective is to find a control law Te to maximize where
power extraction by adjusting the rotational speed of the wind
changes, such that ur follows uropt and the aerodynamic power b b rR
u
l¼
remains at its maximum value, while also reducing transient loads b
v
presented in the turbine components.
In order to make a measurement of the proposed controller and Cq ðb
lÞ ¼ Cq ðb
l; bopt Þ is a tabulated function of b v is calculated
l. b
performance, a comparison will be done with some existing control using the NewtoneRaphson algorithm [6]. The obtained value of b v
laws. A brief description of the controllers to be compared is given allows to deduce the optimal rotor speed u v =R. The
b ropt ¼ lopt b
below. closed-loop system, under the proposed controllers, will track the
The following control law tries to keep the turbine operating at wind speed in order to achieve u b ropt .
the peak of its curve Cpmax
3.2. Quasi-continuous sliding mode control
Ta D t ur Jt u_ ropt Jt a0 eu
Te ¼ (13)
ng
_ €
V_ ¼ s1 s_ 1 ¼ s1 Jt u
b ropt þ Dt ur þ ng Te Ta Jt u
b ropt þ Jt d1 s_ 1 þ Jt d0 s1 þ Dt u_ r þ ng T_ e T_ a ¼ 0 (29)
¼ s1 ½a1 s1 þ a1 signðs1 Þ ¼ a1 s21 a1 ks1 k (27) The following controller is thus derived for (29) based on [24]
€s1 þ d1 s_ 1 þ d0 s1 ¼ 0 (28) Note that controller (30) requires the time derivative of s1, there-
fore, we use the sliding mode differentiator from Levant [23,35] to
where d0 > 0, d1 > 0. Substituting the second time derivative of s1 estimate s_ 1 which consist of a first-order real-time differentiator of
into (28), we obtain the form
z_ 0 ¼ z1 l2 jLj1=2 jz0 s1 j1=2 signðz0 s1 Þ controllers which do not require measurements of wind speed. In
(31) Refs. [36,37], a reviewing state of the art of MPPT algorithms for
z_ 1 ¼ l1 Lsignðz1 z_ 0 Þ
wind energy systems is done, making a comparison between the
where z0 and z1 are the real-time estimations of s1 and s_ 1 , respec- different strategies. We choose the power output as the controlled
tively. The time derivatives that appear in the generator torque variable, such that, a simple structure controller can be utilized. We
expression (13), (14), (25), and (30) are obtained by a filtered de- are using power signal feedback (PSF) control to generate the po-
rivative s=ðq þ 1Þ. wer reference, no wind velocity measurement is required in this
method. Taking the data supplied by WTPerf [30] for the CART and
4. Sliding mode control design with MPPT algorithm based on tests and design calculations we obtain the electrical
power output Peopt against shaft speed ur characteristic of the
In this section, a second-order quasi-continuous control in system.
combination with a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algo-
rithm is presented. In most of the wind energy conversion systems, 4.1. Non-homogeneous quasi-continuous control design
MPPT algorithm is implemented using wind speed data obtained
from wind speed sensors. However, accurate measurement of wind Here, the non-homogeneous quasi-continuous sliding mode
speed is not an easy task mainly in large size wind turbines. controller is developed to achieve robust power tracking. The
Therefore, a lot of researches are underway in order to develop following sliding variable is proposed
.
a3 Fðs2 Þ s_ 2 þ b1 js2 j1=2 signðs2 Þ js_ 2 j þ b1 js2 j1=2
s2 ¼ Peopt Pe (32) T_ e ¼ ;
n g ur
where s2 is the power tracking error and Pe ¼ ng ur Te is the elec- with a3 > 0
trical power. Then, we obtain the first time derivative of s2 (34)
s_ 2 ¼ P_ eopt ng u_ r Te ng ur T_ e þ x (33) Fðs2 Þ ¼ k1 jjs2 jj þ k2 ; k1 > 0; with k2 > P_ eopt þ ng u_ r Te
þ ng ur xþ
where xðt; ur Þ2ℝ represents the uncertainties and disturbances. It
is assumed that xðt; ur Þ is Lebesgue measurable and it is matched (35)
and uniformly bounded, that is, jxðt; ur Þj < xþ . Providing the tuning
The time derivative s_ 2 is computed using (31).
parameters b1 and a3 > 0 sufficiently large in the list order, the
following controller drives s2 to the origin in finite-time even in Remark 2. If Fðs2 Þ is equal to 1, then we have the case of homo-
presence of uncertainties and perturbations term x geneous control with constant gain.
Fig. 13. (a) Generator torque; (b) low speed shaft torque.
The proposed generator power control strategy is as shown in Filtering the reference speed uropt and its time derivatives to
Fig. 5. The non-homogeneous controller with variable gain (NHVG) obtain a less turbulent signal.
(34) and (35) will be compared with the homogeneous controller Filtering the rotor speed signal by a low-pass filter for the con-
with constant gain (HCG). We assume for these controllers that trol laws NHVG and HCG to reduce the effects of drive-train
only the rotor speed and electric power are available from mea- oscillations and provide a smoother reference signal.
surements on the wind turbine. In presence of an additive measurement noise on ur with an SNR
around 7 dB.
5. Simulation results under turbulent wind In presence of a constant additive control input disturbance
115.8346 Nm in the generator torque Te.
The dynamic model of a horizontal-axis turbine CART is simu-
lated in Matlab-Simulink and validated with FAST simulator [26] The wind speed is described as a slowly varying average wind
which is interfaced with Simulink. Based on [6], the simulations speed superimposed by a rapidly varying turbulent wind speed.
are carried out under the following operating conditions: The model of the wind speed v at the measured point is
Choosing dynamics that track the mean tendency wind speed, v ¼ vm þ vt (36)
along a short-time interval, while avoiding to track the wind
speed local high-turbulence fluctuations. where vm is the mean value and vt is the turbulent component. The
Filtering the generator torque Te using a low-pass filter in order hub-referenced wind field was generated using Turbsim [38]. The
to smooth the control action. wind data consist of 600 s [29] in vm ¼ 7.5 m/s with 18% turbulence
intensity, via Kaimal turbulence model.
In Fig. 6a, we show the wind speed v and Fig. 6b is the corre-
sponding wind speed estimation b v . Fig. 6b shows that the wind speed
estimation is very closely tracked. The discrepancies are caused by
the effects of unmodeled turbine dynamics, errors in the Cp curve,
changes in the power function due to dynamic effects, and speed of
convergence of NewtoneRaphson algorithm. The estimator provides
a good estimated of wind speed, this allows to get a better rotor speed
Table 1
Comparison of control strategies using FAST simulator.
reference. We chose the following gains for the controllers (12)e(14), time changes fast in wind speed. Due to the dynamics of the
(25), (30), (34) and (35): Kopt ¼ 5:3813 103 , a0 ¼ 0:115, rotor is impossible to achieve this optimal value; thus, an inter-
b0 ¼ 0:0005, b1 ¼ 0:0402, a1 ¼ 4:746 104 , b1 ¼ 1, a1 ¼ 389:0947, mediate tracking dynamics should be chosen to establish a
d0 ¼ 0:0005, d1 ¼ 0:0402, a2 ¼ 19:4547, a3 ¼ 50 103 , compromise between energy capture improvement and dynamic
k1 ¼ 0:00006, and k2 ¼ 0:00001, under the following initial loads reduction. Looking at Figs. 7e14 we see the commitment
conditions: ur ð0Þ ¼ 33:7042 rpm, ug ð0Þ ¼ 1454:8417 rpm, made between power extraction and loads reduction of each
Te ð0Þ ¼ 1408:5919 Nm, and bð0Þ ¼ 1 . We used q ¼ 100 for the controller. In general, ISC shows the lowest performance. Rotor
filtered derivative. and generator speed are shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 12. SOSMC and
NDSFC follow more closely the optimal value of the average trend
5.1. Using the mathematical model of the optimal rotor speed uropt avoiding following the short-time
turbulent component, but HCG and NHVG have a smoother
First, we describe the results obtained using the mathematic tracking. Because ISC and NSSFC are unable to reject the additive
model. The controllers are applied to optimize the extracted disturbance input, tracking the optimal value is slower than that
aerodynamic power and reduce strong torque variations in the achieved by the other controllers, which results in a loss of power
generator that could lead to increase mechanical stresses. Follow extraction. The power obtained by FOSMC is a little better than
the optimal rotor speed (see Fig. 7) means following the short- NSSFC, but smaller than NDSFC (see Fig. 11). Examining Fig. 9, we
see that the torque with FOSMC is longer, causing strong efforts on aerodynamic haero and electrical helec efficiency, the standard
the drive-train (Fig. 10), even so, the generator torque remains deviation and maximum value of the generator and low speed
below the limit value of 3.753 kN m. SOSMC has better perfor- shaft torque. The aerodynamic and electrical efficiency are
mance than NDSFC. NHVG increases the electric power and me- defined as follows:
chanical loads compared to HCG (see Figs. 13 and 14). SOSMC
produces the lower mechanical stresses while NHVG has the best Z Z
tfin tfin
capture and generation power avoiding long fluctuations (Figs. 9
Pa ðtÞdt Pe ðtÞdt
and 14). tini tini
haero ð%Þ ¼ Z tfin
; helec ð%Þ ¼ Z tfin
(37)
Paopt ðtÞdt Paopt ðtÞdt
5.2. Validation using FAST simulator tini tini
The performance of the proposed control strategies have been where Paopt ¼ 0:5rpR2 Cpmax v3 is the optimal aerodynamic power
verified using a FAST model of the CART interfaced with Simulink. corresponding to the wind speed and Pe ¼ Te ug . The controllers
The FAST model has three DOFs active including the generator performance are summarized in Table 1.
speed, drive-train flexibility, and blade teeter DOFs. The criteria The rotor and generator speed of all controllers is depicted in
for assessing the performance of the controllers are [6]: the Figs. 15, 16 and 20. Based on the results shown in Table 1, ISC has
the lowest performance as established in the previous analysis of generation power (see Fig. 22), but the dynamic characteristics, in
the controllers. Only ISC and NSSFC are unable to reject the input comparison with the homogeneous controller, are slightly lower
disturbance, in consequence these controllers do not follow the generating high mechanical stresses as illustrated in Fig. 21.
wind speed adequately. SOSMC and NDSFC track more closely the Table 1 shows that NHVG and HCG have a better power generation
optimal rotor speed uropt , but NHVG and HCG track uropt without avoiding long electrical power fluctuations (see Fig. 22). NHVG and
tracking the large variations of wind speed allowing to have a HCG only need measurements of the rotor speed and electrical
smooth power reference. Observe that SOSMC has better power power, while SOSM, FOSM, NDSFC, and NSSF need to measure the
generation (see Fig. 19) and load reduction than NDSFC. In Table 1, rotor speed and aerodynamic torque, estimate the wind speed,
we can see that SOSMC has the best dynamic characteristics (has estimate the first derivative of aerodynamic torque T_ a , estimate
the lowest maximum and minimum standard deviation in Te the first derivative of rotor speed error and the second derivative
value) with slower mechanical stresses on low speed shaft (the of optimal rotor speed u€ ropt . Another advantages of NHVG and HCG
standard deviation of Tls is minimal, as well as, its maximum value are the simplicity in terms of adjustment of their coefficients and
is the lowest) than the other controllers as it is corroborated in the design procedure is more simple. Compared to SOSM and
Figs. 17, 18 and 21. HCG increases power capture with a very close NDSFC, NHVG and HCG require less number of real-time
performance in loads reduction to SOSMC. The NHVG has the best differentiators.
Fig. 21. (a) Generator torque; (b) low speed shaft torque.
Acknowledgments
L. Aguilar and J. Da
vila gratefully acknowledge the financial
support from CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología)
under Grants 127575 and 151855.
Appendix A
The CART is variable speed one, in which the rotor speed in-
creases and decreases with changing wind speed producing
electricity with a variable frequency. The parameters of the model
are given in Table A.1. Those parameters are based on the CART
which is a two-bladed, teetered, active-yaw, upwind, variable
pitch, and horizontal-axis wind turbine which is located at the
National Wind Technology Center in Colorado [27,28]. The nom-
inal power is 600 kW; the startup wind speed is 5 m/s, the rated
wind speed of 12 m/s, and a cut out wind speed of 26 m/s [39].
The rated rotor speed is 41.7 rpm. The pitch system can pitch the
blades up to 18 /s with pitch accelerations up to 150 /s2 [11]. The
Fig. 22. Electric power.
required constraints for torque and rotor speed are 162 kN m and
58 rpm, respectively [28]. The gearbox is connected to an induc-
6. Conclusions tion generator via the high speed shaft, and the generator is
connected to the grid via power electronics. In this work, we
This paper addresses the problem of power generation control ignore the power electronics control and an ideal performance
in variable speed wind turbines without wind speed measurement. will be assumed [7,31].
The objective was to synthesize robust controllers to maximize the
energy extracted from the wind while ensuring reduction of me-
chanical loads. Two strategies of sliding mode control were pro- Table A.1
posed. The first strategy uses a wind speed estimator. The second Two-mass model parameters.
strategy uses an MPPT algorithm that does not need wind speed Notation Numerical value Units
measurements. The resulting controllers provide better power
R 21.65 m
extraction and dynamic characteristics with respect to the r 1.308 kg/m3
compared control strategies. The proposed strategies com- Jr 3.25 105 kg m2
plemented with high-order sliding modes controllers ensure better Jg 34.4 kg m2
Dr 27.36 N m/rad/s
performance thanks to their features: robustness against unmod-
Dg 0.2 N m/rad/s
eled dynamics, parametric uncertainties, external disturbances, Kls 9500 N m/rad
and chattering attenuation; providing a suitable compromise Dls 2.691 105 N m/rad/s
among conversion efficiency, mechanical stresses, and perturbation Penom 600 103 W
rejection. The validation results, developed with FAST model, have Temax 3.753 105 Nm
ng 43.165
shown the feasibility of the proposed strategies.
728 J. Merida et al. / Renewable Energy 71 (2014) 715e728
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