SCH B205: Research Method

E-Notes, prepared by Mr., Nyinge., Mwadzombo

Pwani University, School of Pure and Applied Science, Department of Chemistry
( (Mobile) + (254)704488866 n.mwadzombo@pu.ac.ke

Purpose of this unit course:

To equip learners with relevant research skills, which are applicable in addressing day
today emerging challenges in the society.
Contact hours: 45hrs.

TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION

Learning objectives
-by the end of this topic learner should be able to;
Define the term research
List down all the steps involved when one is carrying out research
Explain the importance of research to the global village, country, county or the
society
State the ethical issues involved when one is carrying a research
1.1 Definition of the term research
Lesson question 1
What is the meaning of the term research?
The term research can be defined in several ways;
 Research can be defined as a logical and systematic search for new and useful
information on a particular topic.
 It’s a systematic investigative approach applied by both physical, social and
environmental scientists in finding solutions to emerging societal problems
 Research is gathering data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge
 Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or an issue
 Its seen as a studious inquiry or examination, especially investigation or experimentation
aimed at discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the
light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws

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1.2 steps involved in research
For any study carried out the purpose is to; unfold proof facts or understand certain or
understand certain phenomena. Such studies will always involve the following steps;
 Identifying the problem or opportunity
 Develop theoretical solution to the problem/opportunity
 Formulate research question/ hypothesis
 Come up with research method/ steps involved in meeting the research objectives/
steps involved in accepting or rejecting research question or hypothesis
 Collect and analyze data for social scientists/researcher, but for physical,
environmental, medical, and life science, to generate data through experimental
activities in laboratory, analyze.
 Interpret findings using both qualitative and quantitative presentations, i.e. pictorial
form and graphical forms.
 Draw a conclusion/recommend and probable refine misleading facts and theories
 Develop new research questions.
1.3 Ethical issues in research.
Research is a science; it’s governed by logical approach in solving a problem, proving existing
theories/facts, seeking of a new knowledge which is tied to well spelt out objectives and
achieved within a defined time frame. The conduct and behavior of a researcher should meet the
laid down norms in science which are governed by ethics. Ethics is defined as the philosophies
that controls one’s conduct and dictate one’s behavior. They are rules applied across, that tend to
differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable behavior in science activities or research.
Ethics are based on specific values that a given society decides to uphold. Examples of ethical
values applied in science/research are;
(a) Ethical values
 Honesty
 Integrity
 Social responsibility
 Confidentiality
(b) Ethical practices
 Informed consent
 Transparency
 Respect of colleagues
 Respect of intellectual property
 Respect of human and animal rights
 Accountability
 Sharing benefits
 Non-discrimination including gender
N/B. Also bad practices exist in research, e.g. Plagiarism and fraud.
Lesson question 2

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Why are ethical values important in research/ science activities?
Ethical standards/values are important in research because of the following reasons
o Ensures research credibility
o Ensures adherence to essential values and practices
o Ensures accountability to build public support.

Lesson question 3
What are the objectives of research?
The prime objectives of research are;
 To discover new facts
 To test and verify principles and facts
 To analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and the effect
relationship
 To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific
and non-scientific problems
 Solve emerging societal problems
 To join labor market/career as a researcher
Research is very important both in scientific and non-scientific fields. Science provides
solution to emerging challenges through innovation, technology, and through exploration of a
problem to unfold a cause, the impacts, facts, principles etc. Through research one can be
able to understand and decipher nature and natural phenomena.
1.4 Classes of research.
Research is broadly classified into two main classes-:
1. Fundamental or basic research
2. Applied research
1.4.1 Basic Research.
Basic research tends to address already established truth, facts, and theories by proving it or
modifying to apply it to a general situation. For example, finding out how a crystal of matter
melts. Basic research is an investigative approach which relies on basic principles, and reasons
for occurrences of certain phenomenon related to pure sciences. Basic research is also called a
theoretical research. Basic research findings lead to applied research.
Areas where basic research can be applied are; space science- identification of a new planet or
stars in our galaxy, quantum chemistry- knowing the behavior of matter, material science-
identification of new particles/matter with unique properties, chemical reaction-discovery of new
compounds or new reaction pathway or reaction mechanism, medicinal chemistry-understanding
the physiological action of drugs/chemical in living systems and in pathogens.
1.4.1 Applied Research

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Applied research, is a kind of research intended to solve certain problems by applying proven
theories and principles. It’s a daily life practical activity geared towards solving or addressing a
daily life challenge. It can be termed as actual life research. For example making of a vaccine for
a certain disease, pollution control, increasing efficiency of a machine. The table1 reveals the
differences between basic and applied research.
Table 1. Differences between basic and applied research

Basic research Applied research

Seeks generalization Attempts or addresses individual or specific
cases without generalizing
Aims at basic process Aim at variables, which makes the desired
differences
Addresses why things happen Addresses how things can be changed
Tries to get all the facts Correct the facts which are problematic
Report findings in technical language Reports findings in common language
Addresses supply Dresses demand
It’s not multi-displinary It’s multi-displinary

Other types of research include;

o Normal or revolutionary research.
o Quantitative and qualitative research
o Comparative research
o Explanatory research
o Action research etc.

TOPIC TWO: RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Learning objectives
By the end of this topic learner to be able to;
 State the differences between research methods and research methodology
 List down the stages of a research
 Explain the importance of each stage of research
 State the criteria followed in selecting a research topic
 Carry out literature survey
 State the importance of literature survey in research activities
 List down all the good qualities of a problem statement.
2.1Research methods and research methodology
Lesson question 1
Q. Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology?

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Research methods refer to the sum up of all the activities involved/carried out by a researcher
during research task. Research methods will include all the experimental procedures, all methods
of sample collections/ data collection and the statistical analysis of data and data interpretation.
On the other hand research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It can also be
seen as the science of carrying out research/art in research/ the way a researcher design, plan and
represents his research findings to peer. It can be defined as the study of methods by which new
knowledge is gained through a research activity.
Research problems have different research methodology, thus it’s of important to a researcher to
design a research methodology for his research question/ research methodology is also called
experimental design. Experimental design is an outlined procedure on how each objective is
achieved. Research methodology helps a researcher to know;
o The suitable method for his problem/techniques required to achieve the stated objectives
o Efficiency of the method chosen/ how the research question was formulated
o Test accuracy of results posted by the method chosen/ type of data collected/ method
used/method used in data analysis
2.2 Research design
There exist various research designs, and scientist both social, environmental,
medical/biological, engineers, marine, statisticians and physical scientists need to understand the
kind of design to be able to select appropriate statistical tool for their data. Examples of research
design include;
 Surveys
 Experimental design
 Correlational studies
 Ethnographic studies
 Case studies
Researchers should consider several factors when selecting research design. Below are
guiding question used when considering a research design for research activity.
 What information is the problem targeting?
 What are the objectives of the study?
 What are the tools used/techniques used to achieve the stated objectives?
 What are the ethical issues to be addressed?
 What is the total cost required to accomplish the task.
 What is the relevant literature for the chosen problem?
2.3 Design of surveys and experiments.
2.3.1 Surveys.
In surveys studies, researcher is an observer. The outcomes from survey study are considered as
random. The aim of survey study is to observe the characteristics of a population of interest.
Sometimes in survey study there is the direct contact between the researcher and the respondent
and can interview the respondent/or just observe and collect information from his/her

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observation. To get reliable information in survey studies, surveys are conducted in separately
focus-group discussions. The purpose of formal survey is to verify and quantify information in
addition to testing formulated hypothesis. Survey can be formal or informal.
2.3.1.1 Formal survey study concept
The main objective of a formal survey is;
 Verify information
 Quantify information
 Test research problem/hypothesis
Formal survey uses well-designed and pre-tested questionnaire as the main tool of data
collection. Steps involved are;
Selecting the target population/population of interest
Interview sample targeted of population chosen
Integrate and make conclusions about the target population.
How to prepare questionnaire as a tool in data collection.
 Organizing the questionnaire
Use your study theme to organize your questionnaire; questionnaire should have three
sections;
o Introduction section
o Development section
o Conclusion section

Section one should capture bio-data e.g.;

 Gender
 Age
 Education
 Marital status
 Physical change
 Family step
 Tribe
 Religion/faith etc.
 Language of the questionnaire
Language should be clear and friendly. Avoid using hard words/vocabulary. Respondent
should be given a freedom of expressing themselves in a language of their own choice.
Leading questions should be avoided. Paraphrase your question to make the respondent
give you more information. For example ‘on which crop did you apply fertilizer this
season?’ unlike, ‘do you use fertilizer on maize?’
 Length of questionnaire
Avoid long questions, questions short and precisely put, pre-test your questionnaire
before using it.

 Subject data

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 Choose survey study that will enable you get the target respondent opinion easy.

Tutorial questions.
Q1. Explain how each of the following manual data-collection tools as used in survey study
 Questionnaire print
 Interview
 Observation
 Focus-group discussion
 Transect walk
 Recording
Q2. Explain how each is applied as tool in data collection
 Crowdsourcing
 Use of mobile phone
 Online survey
 GIS/GPS
 Automated data capture
2.3.2 Experimental Design
Experiments are used to test hypothesis formulated. Experimental design is generated from the
state research objectives.
For example ‘assessment of pollution trends in nutrient levels in Kilifi Creek’
The target samples here are water and sediments
The experimental design will be a multi-factorial; [2x1] i.e. using two sample water and
sediments to quantify nutrients levels. This experimental design can be expanded. For example if
the assessment of the nutrients will involve, total organic carbon, nitrites, nitrates, ammonium
and phosphates, then experimental design will be [2x5] i.e. in each of the two samples five
nutrients will be analyzed.
When designing multi-factorial experimental design, consider the following baseline guidelines;
 Purpose of the experiment
 Objectives to be achieved
 Research problem
 Validity of results/findings
Class assignments
Q1. State 5 probability sampling procedures
Q2. Explain how each of the following non-probability sampling procedure is carried out
o Snowball sampling

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 o Convenience sampling
o Purposive or judgmental sampling
o Quota sampling

2.4 Various stages of research/ Proposal writing

Stages in research activity include;
 Selection of a topic
 Background information/what has been already been addressed
 Definition of research problem/justification
 Research Objectives
 Research goal
 Research output/ significance of research
 Literature review
 Research design/methodology/materials and experiments
 Results/discussion.
2.4.1 Selection of a research topic and formulation of a research problem
It’s the most difficult work in research. It is the starting point of the research. Sources of
identifying research topic are;
 Theory of one’s own interest
 Daily problems
 Technology change
 Recent trends
 Unexplored areas
 Discussion with experts and research supervisors
Research problem is the main thing in a research project. A research project is a series of
activities designed to achieve a specific outcome within a set budget and timescale. In research,
objectives, justification/problem statement/rationale helps one to define the following:
 What do I want to achieve?
 Why do I want to do this?
 By when should this be accomplished?
 What are the main steps that need to be carried out?
Also to address will include the following key questions;
o What is the specific problem or opportunity?
o Why is it important and urgent?
o How does the problem/opportunity affect the different gender groups?
o What research has been already done?
o What gaps in knowledge exist?

Problem statement is a short paragraph defining and summarizing;

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  What need to be done
 Why this need to be done
 By when the work must be finished, it gives boundaries to the project.
It should explain clearly why the research has to be done, describe the problem that is to be
investigated. The problem should stand out, so that the reader can easily recognize the problem.
Qualities of a good research problem statement.
 Should address the needs of the country
 Indicate how it will contribute to a solution to some of the emerging challenges
 Indicate it relevance in science
 Achievable in terms of time and equipment
 A rouse the readers interest
 It should be a subject for research
 It should be novel and contributing to new knowledge
N/B:
Avoid using terms such as;
 Little is known
 There is general lack of knowledge/information about……….’’
 No research has dealt with…….’
The justification/rationale outline what others have done and focus on the knowledge gap and the
problem to be solved, propose best possible solutions to the problem. Under justification the
following questions should be addressed;
o Of what significance is the problem/opportunity
o What is the purpose of the current study/project
o What significance do the planned outputs and outcomes have for the different gender
groups
o What is the project’s contribution to the body of knowledge in the field?

N/B: Justification/rationale is almost equivalent to problem statement.

Carryout a problem analysis to identify the problem which is existing. This is achieved
by using a set of techniques to analyze the existing situation surrounding a given condition.
Identify the main problems and the core problem of the situation and visualize the cause-
effect relationship. Connect the cause and the consequences of the problem and link them to
cause-effect relationship.

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 Example:
Table 2: Problem analysis technique.

Basic questions
WHO WHAT WHERE
 Who is causing the  What will happen if  Where does this
problem? this problem is not problem occur?
solved?
 Who says this is a  What are the  Where does this
problem? indicators? problem have an
impact?


Who is being  What are the
impacted by this impacts?
problem?
WHEN WHY HOW
 When does this  Why is this problem  How should the
problem occur? occurring? process/system
work?
 When does this  Why?  How are people
problem have an currently handling
impact? the problem?

2.4.2 Research question/hypothesis

Hypothesis is also called research question. It’s a statement which is stated to predict unknown
parameters in a given sample/population. Research question must be clearly and precisely stated.
It should be testable. There are two types of hypothesis-:
 Null hypothesis (H0) – It a statement being tested and is denoted as H 0. It is stated as
equality implying ‘no difference’
 Alternative hypothesis (HA) – it’s a statement put to test the parameters and the
importance of testing the parameters. The alternative hypothesis is called the research
hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis is more superior to the null hypothesis. Null hypothesis tends to deny
a researcher the opportunity to state research objectives in a much realistic, interesting and
precise way.
Consider these two examples:
o Null-hypothesis (Research question)
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 For example, I want to investigate the value of an enzyme in a pathway in an human
pathogen as a potential drug target.
Null-Hypothesis might state that, blocking the activity of enzyme ‘X’ in metabolic pathway ‘Y’
has no effect on the survival of the parasite.
o Alternative/Research Hypotheses (Research Question)

The research Hypothesis allows you to say ‘This human pathogen derives its energy
requirements entirely from utilization of this metabolic pathway ‘Y’. Therefore, blocking the
activity of enzyme ‘X’ in metabolic pathway ‘Y’ will lead to the death of the parasite’.
Other examples
N/B: Avoid null-Hypothesis
2.4.3 Research objectives
Research objectives should always reflect;
 Title/topic of research project
 Problem statement
 Literature review
 Predict the significance of the research project to the world (society).
Avoid unnecessary narratives, limit objective sentences to one or two sentences each. Research
objectives are derived from knowledge gaps, and should state what is new and special that
warrants investigation
N/B: If you lack focus, your objectives will NEVER be clear. Objectives are more specific and
they tend to summarize what the project aims to achieve. They reflect the requirements needed in
accomplishing the research task. Thus, objectives MUST be SMART.
 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Timely
Objectives must be;
o Specific: state precisely what you intend to change (including access to research benefits
by gender groups)
o Measurable: state what you accept as proof of project success
o Logical: state how it contributes to your overall goal
o Realistic: state how they are achievable within the limits of resources available

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Here is a table of hierarchy of objectives borrowed from field of Agriculture
Table 3: Hierarchy of objectives
Title: Improving Food security by using Organic manure from Cattle by Maize Farmers at Tezo
Location in Kilifi County
Project Goal
Research problem/opportunity
(addressing a key root cause)
Objectives
Hypothesis/research question
Desired results/expected results
2.4.4 Project goal.
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Improve food security and incomes of small-
scale farmers in Kilifi County 2020-2022
Does zero grazing increase the use of manure
by small-scale male maize farmers in Tezo
location in Kilifi County?
 To compare the effect of zero-grazing
and free-range husbandry of cattle on
the availability of manure to small-
scale male farmers in two selected
areas at Tezo location between 2020
and 2022
 To compare the effect of the use of
manure on maize yields of small-scale
male farmers in the two areas at Tezo
location between 2020 and 2022
 If more male farmers adopt zero-
grazing technologies in the two
selected areas of Tezo Location, they
will have more manure to improve soil
fertility.
 If more male farmers adopt zero-
grazing technologies in the two
selected areas of Tezo Location, they
more manure, which they will use to
increase maize yields.
 Availability of manure in the two
areas selected in Tezo Location for the
year 2020 and 2022
 Increase in maize yield in the two
selected areas between 2020 and 2022
It’s a short and general sentence defining;
 The overall aim of the project
 The contribution of the project in the bigger context
 Describes the purpose of the project
2.4.5 Literature Review
Review of literature involves the identification, location, and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research problem. Literature reviewing allows the researcher to
explore from known to unknown.it helps one to evaluate his/her research project in terms of
relevance to the intended beneficiaries. The aim of reviewing literature includes;

 Determine what has been already done in relation to the project problem
 Prevents duplication of work
 Identify research gaps
 Reveals the importance of the research project
 Enable researcher to establish strategies, procedures, and instruments which are useful in
investigating the research project
 Seals knowledge gaps by bring in new ideas based on what is known and what is found in
the literature.
Class tutorial question
Q. Choose a research of your own interest, and from you own research topic develop;
 A problem statement
 Hypothesis/Research question
 Objectives of your intended research work.
Source of literature review.
 Text books
 Articles from peer reviewed journals.
Citations are important because;
 You credit the author
 Explain what has already been done
Proposal will have apart from the stages discussed above;
Chapter for methodology-: you state how you will achieve the project objectives
Chapter of budget-: the total cost of all the requirement required to accomplish/achieve
the objective
Work plan-: plan the time required to achieve each and every objective.
Lastly the cited literature review.

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TOPIC THREE: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONCEPT NOTE AND PROPOSAL
Learning objectives;
By the end of the topic learner to be able to;
 State the difference between a concept note and a proposal
 write a concept note
 move from concept note to full proposal
 List down all the steps involved in writing a concept note/proposal
 List down the differences between a concept note and a proposal
3.1 Proposal
What is it?-: brief and precise draft guide of an intended research activity. Proposals can be
divided into two classes;
o Academic proposal
o Development proposal

Table 4: Differences between academic and development proposal

Academic proposal Development proposal

Scholarly pursuit Benefits large community
Individual passion Service attitude/passion for wider impact
Theme-centered Project-centered
Theory and thesis Objectives and impacts
Explaining to reader ‘selling’ to reader
Individualistic Team-focused
Specialized terminology Accessible language

Proposal development process involves developing a concept note first, later expanded to
a full proposal. The contents contained in the two documents are the same, however in a
proposal the content is much detailed, it contain additional information not include in the
concept note. A concept note is an overview and a summary of what the researcher
intends to achieve. It can also be seen as a skeleton for the full proposal.

3.2 moving from concept note to proposal

Moving from a concept note to a full proposal, the research needs to;
 Expand the different components of in a concept note with relevant information
 Add more items, partners, full literature review, hypothesis etc.
 Set-up partnership procedures for bigger/larger project
 Review the work by external reviewers.

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The writing should be clear, precise and objective. Below are some tips

 Precision: ambiguity in writing causes confusion and may prevent reader from grasping
crucial aspects of the proposal like problem statement, methodology etc.
 Clarity: Concepts and method in science are complex thus clarity is the rule
 Objectivity: any claim you put across should be supported by facts and not intuition or
emotions.
In proposal or final report writing focus should be sentence and paragraph construction. Here a
tips.

 Avoid long sentences

 Comprehension falls rapidly as sentences exceeds about 16 words
 Avoid writing more than one thought per sentence
 A semicolon is always used instead of a full stop.
 Avoid over long paragraphs
 Use active voice but sometimes don’t fear to use passive voice
 Adhere to correct word use
 Correct verb tense and correct noun usage.
Below is the difference between a proposal and a concept note

Table 5: Difference between concept note and a proposal

Concept note (5 to 6 Pages) Proposal (10 to 20 pages)

Executive summary Executive summary
Introduction/background Introduction/background
Problem statement/opportunity/justification Problem statement/opportunity/justification
Project description Project description
 objectives  objectives
 methodology  methodology
 hypothesis/research question
Expected results and sharing of results Expected results and sharing of results
Sustainability Sustainability
Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation
Risks and assumptions Risks and assumptions
Budget (ballpark figures) Budget (ballpark figures)
Timeline Timeline
Organizational capacity information
 personnel
 financial reputation
 Partners
Annexes

What may go into annexes?

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  Full budget
 Bibliography
 Draft of data collection instrument
 Curriculum vitae of proposer and partners
 Information of proposer organization and partner organization
 Letters of support
 Clearances e.g. biosafety, animal welfare
Concept note/proposal development
Identify and analyze the problem or the opportunity you intend to address. Put a ‘statement of
need’.
Class Activity 1
Table 6: A practice on problem identification/opportunity/justification for your own concept
note/proposal

Questions Fill in the blanks

What is your research problem/opportunity?

Why is it important and urgent?

How does the problem/opportunity affect

different gender groups?

What research has been already done?

Suggest best practical solutions to the

problem/opportunity

Justify your choice

Class Activity 2
Come up with your own research topic, and from the research topic complete the below table by
filling the blanks.
Research title:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.

Table 7: a practice on Hierarchy of objectives

Project Goal

Research problem/opportunity

Objectives

Hypothesis

Desired result/Expected results

TOPIC FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Data Analysis.
Data analysis is manipulation of data in most cases figures to bring out/unfold the findings of
research. In data analysis many software are in application. For example ANOVA, Analy-
software. IBM spss 20 software. In all these software the main objective is to analysis numerical
data for easy presentation and interpretation.
4.1.1 Measures of central tendency.
There 3 measures of central tendency;
 Mode
 Median
 Mean
Q. Class question: Of what importance is the measure of central tendency in data presentation?
The measure of central tendency is a key factor in data presentation in research findings because
of the following reasons;
 May give an idea of the mean value in a set of data/ representative score in a set of data
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  Give the frequent score in a set of data
 Give a mid-point of a data set.
Now let’s look at the meaning of each measure for a central tendency.
4.1.1.1 Mode
This is the most frequent occurring value in a data set. It has the highest occurrence/frequency in
a date set.
Now let’s consider this set data from a research that was carried out by marine chemistry, where
three nutrients were analyzed using nutrients auto-analyzer in coral reefs ecosystem water
column

Replicates NO3- NH4+ PO43-

in µmol.L-1 in µmol.L-1 in µmol.L-1
1 0.45 1.00 4.57
2 0.39 0.99 4.57
3 0.45 0.95 4.57
4 0.38 0.97 4.58
5 0.37 1.00 4.55
6 0.43 0.99 4.55
7 0.44 0.98 4.55

Q. Class question: State the mode in each of the three nutrients analyzed?
Let’s consider the first case; the NO3-
Let us arrange the data set starting with the lowest to the highest.
0.37, 0.38, 0.39, 0.43, 0.44, 0.45, and 0.45.
Now from this set of data; all scores are appearing once, a part from the score 0.45 µmol.L -1
whose frequency is 2/appearance twice, thus the mode for this set of data is 0.45 µmol.L-1
In a case where two score have same frequency, then mode will be the mean of the two scores
with the highest frequency of occurrence.
Let’s consider, the data set for NH4+;
0.95, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, 0.99, 1.00, and 1.00.
Here two scores have the same frequencies, i.e. 0.99 and 1.00, thus the mode of this set of data
will be the average of the two
0.99 + 1.00 /2 = 0.995 µmol.L-1, thus the mode is 0.995 µmol.L-1.
Class activity: - Find the mode for the set data for PO43- in µmol.L-1

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