S-V AGREEMENT

 Subject-verb agreement is a grammatical concept that ensures that the subject and
verb in a sentence are in agreement in terms of number (singular or plural).
1) Singular subject + singular verb
2) Plural subject + plural verb

1) SINGULAR SUBJECT + SINGULAR VERB

 Singular subject + singular verb, even with compound subjects connected by "and" if
they are considered one unit
 Singular subject + singular verb, even with compound subjects connected by "or" or
"nor" if the nearest subject is singular
 Singular subject + singular verb, when a singular noun or pronoun is separated from
the subject by phrases like "as well as," "in addition to," "along with"

2) PLURAL SUBJECT + PLURAL VERB

 Plural subject + plural verb, with compound subjects connected by "and"
 Plural subject + plural verb, when a plural noun or pronoun is separated from the
subject by phrases like "as well as," "in addition to," and "along with“.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
(each, every, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody)
Take a singular verb

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Take a singular verb when referring to the group as a whole
Take a plural verb when referring to individual members of the group.
Titles of books, movies, and other works that are treated as singular entities take a singular
verb

 Titles of books, movies, and other works that are treated as plural entities take a
plural verb.
 Fractions, percentages, amounts of money, and measurements usually take a singular
verb
 Subjects connected by "either...or" or "neither...nor" agree with the nearer subject
 When a subject is a singular noun followed by a prepositional phrase that has a plural
object, the verb agrees with the noun
 Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb:
 Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a singular verb
 Some nouns that are plural in form but singular in meaning take a plural verb when
they refer to separate items
 Subjects that are joined by "and" but are considered a single entity take a singular
verb
 When the subject is a relative pronoun ("who," "which," "that"), the verb agrees with
the noun the pronoun refers to
 Collective nouns referring to a group as individuals take a plural verb
  A subject is made up of nouns joined by and takes a plural subject unless that
subject’s intended sense is singular.
 When a subject is made up of nouns joined by or, the verb agrees with the last noun.
 Connectives, phrases such as combined with, coupled with, accompanied by, added
to, along with, together with, and as well as, do not change the number of the
subject.
 Collecting noun phrases (a bunch of, a group of, a set of, etc.) takes a singular verb.
 “Each” takes a singular verb.
 “None” takes a singular verb if what it refers to is singular and a plural verb if its
referent is plural.
 With fractions, the verb agrees with the whole.
 With money, if the amount is specific, use a singular verb; if the amount is vague, use
a plural verb.
 The phrase “more than one” takes a singular verb.

SENTENCE STRUCTURES

1. SIMPLE SENTENCE: 11. PASSIVE VOICE SENTENCE:

The sun rises in the east. The book was read by him.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCE: 12. ACTIVE VOICE SENTENCE:

I enjoy reading, and my sister enjoys
painting.
3. COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Although it was raining, they went for a
walk.
4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
He studied hard for the exam, but he still
didn't do well because he was unprepared.
5. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE:
She sings beautifully.
6. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE:
Did you finish your homework?
7. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE:
Please pass me the salt.
8. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE:
What a stunning view!
9. PARALLEL STRUCTURE SENTENCE:
She likes to swim, to run, and to cycle.
10. INVERTED SENTENCE:
On the table sat a beautifully wrapped gift.
He read the book.
13. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE (Type 1 - Real
Conditional):
If it rains, we will stay indoors.
14. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE (Type 2 -
Unreal Conditional):
If I had known, I would have come.
15. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE (Type 3 - Past
Unreal Conditional):
If she had studied harder, she would have
passed the test.
16. APPOSITIVE SENTENCE:
My friend, an excellent musician, will
perform tonight.
17. GERUND PHRASE SENTENCE:
Swimming is my favorite hobby.
18. INFINITIVE PHRASE SENTENCE:
To travel the world is my dream.
19. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE SENTENCE:
The book, written by a famous author, is a
bestseller.
20. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE: 23. CHIASMUS SENTENCE:
I like coffee; she, tea. Ask not what your country can do for you,
but what you can do for your country.
21. PERIODIC SENTENCE:
In spite of the challenges, never gave up, 24. ANTITHESIS SENTENCE:
and he achieved his goal. It was the best of times; it was the worst
of times.
22. CUMULATIVE SENTENCE (Loose
Sentence): 25. POLYSYNDETON SENTENCE:
She went to the store, bought some He ate pizza and pasta and salad and
groceries, and then headed back home. bread.

FRAGMENTS

 Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that lack either a subject, a verb, or a
complete thought. They can often confuse readers and should be avoided in formal
writing.

1. Missing Subject: 6. Infinitive Phrase without a Main Clause:

Running through the park. To travel the world.

2. Missing Verb: 7. Participial Phrase without a Main

The book on the shelf. Clause:
Waiting for the bus.
3. Dependent Clause without an
Independent Clause: 8. Transition Words or Phrases without a
Although I was tired. Main Clause:
However, in the morning.
4. Prepositional Phrase without a Main
Clause: 9. Lists or Bullets without Main Clauses:
On the way to school. Apples, oranges, bananas.

5. Appositive Phrase without a Main 10. Relative Clauses without Main Clauses:
Clause: - Who lives down the street.
My best friend from childhood.

 It's important to ensure that your writing contains complete sentences to effectively
convey your ideas and maintain clarity.
 If you come across a fragment while editing, consider how you can revise it to create
a complete sentence.

RUN-ON SENTENCES

 Run-on sentences are sentences that contain two or more independent clauses
(complete thoughts) that are not properly joined or punctuated.
 They can be confusing and hinder the readability of your writing.
1. Comma Splice: 6. Run-On with Transition Words:
I went to the store, I bought some However, it was raining we decided to go
groceries. for a walk.

2. Fused Sentence (No Separation): 7. Run-On with Coordinating Conjunction:

She is studying for her exam she hasn't He wants to go to the movies he doesn't
slept much. have enough money.

3. Lack of Conjunction: 8. Run-On with Semicolon:

We walked to the park we played soccer. She likes pizza, he prefers pasta.

4. Conjunction without Comma: 9. Run-On with Colon:

I need to finish my work and I also need to I have a suggestion you should try the new
do laundry. restaurant.

5. Run-On List: 10. Run-On with Dash:

She loves hiking swimming biking and - The party was fun – I danced all night.
running.

 Remember, breaking run-on sentences into separate, properly punctuated sentences

or using appropriate conjunctions can help improve the clarity and readability of your
writing.

PARALLELISM

 Parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a grammatical

and stylistic principle that involves using similar or parallel structures in a series of
words, phrases, or clauses.
 This consistency enhances readability, emphasizes relationships between elements,
and creates a balanced and harmonious rhythm in writing. Here are some examples
of parallelism:

1. Parallelism in Phrases: 6. Parallelism in Conjunctions:

Not only was he talented, but he was also Either you can join us for dinner, or you
dedicated. can meet us later for dessert.

2. Parallelism in Verb Tenses: 7. Parallelism in Lists:

She enjoys reading, writing, and playing
the piano.
3. Parallelism in Gerunds:
She likes swimming, hiking, and biking.
4. Parallelism in Infinitive Phrases:
His goal is to learn, to grow, and to
succeed.
The recipe requires sugar, flour, and butter.
8. Parallelism with Comparisons:
She is as diligent as she is creative.
9. Parallelism with Correlative
Conjunctions:
Not only is he intelligent, but he is also
resourceful.

5. Parallelism in Clauses: 10. Parallelism in Balanced Sentences:

Whether you pass the test or fail the test, Easy come, easy go.
you will learn something valuable.
  Parallelism adds clarity, rhythm, and balance to your writing, making it more
appealing to readers and helping them grasp your ideas more easily.

MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

 Misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers are common grammatical errors that can
lead to confusion or unintended meanings in sentences.

MISPLACED MODIFIERS
 A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from
the word it modifies or describes, resulting in a sentence that is awkward or
ambiguous.

Misplaced: She only found $5 in her wallet.

Corrected: She found only $5 in her wallet.

Misplaced: I saw a rabbit on the way to work driving my car.

Corrected: Driving my car, I saw a rabbit on the way to work.

DANGLING MODIFIERS
 A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is not clearly or logically related
to the word or words it is intended to modify, leading to confusion or a humorous
effect.

Dangling: After studying all night, the test was easy.

Corrected: After studying all night, I found the test easy.

Dangling: Running down the street, my keys fell from my pocket.

Corrected: While I was running down the street, my keys fell from my pocket.

 Avoiding these errors is important to ensure that your sentences convey your
intended meaning clearly and accurately.

PARAGRAPH
 A paragraph is a distinct section of a longer piece of writing that presents and
develops a single main idea.
 consists of a group of related sentences that are organized around a central topic or
theme.
 A well-structured paragraph helps to convey information, provide evidence, or
develop an argument in a clear and organized manner.
a) Topic Sentence
 This is the opening sentence of the paragraph that introduces the main idea or topic
that the paragraph will discuss.
b) Supporting Sentences
 These sentences follow the topic sentence and provide information, details,
examples, evidence, or explanations that expand upon and support the main idea.
c) Concluding Sentence
 This is the closing sentence of the paragraph that summarizes the main points
discussed and often provides a transition to the next paragraph.
  In longer pieces of writing, paragraphs serve as building blocks that collectively create
a coherent and organized structure.
 Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea, and the flow of ideas between
paragraphs should be logical and smooth to guide the reader through the content
effectively.

PUNCTUATIONS AND USAGE

 Punctuation and usage are crucial elements of effective written communication.
 Proper use of punctuation marks and adherence to grammatical rules enhance clarity,
readability, and overall understanding of your writing.

1. Period (.) – 7. Quotation Marks (" ")

 used to end declarative sentences
and most abbreviations.
 Example: She went to the store.
2. Comma (,)
 Used to separate items in a list,
clauses in a compound sentence,
and to set off introductory
elements.
 Example: I need to buy apples,
oranges, and bananas.
3. Semicolon (;)
 Used to connect closely related
independent clauses in a
compound sentence.
 Example: She loves reading; he
enjoys painting.
4. Colon (:)
 Used to introduce a list,
explanation, or example.
 Example: Please bring the
following items: pencils,
notebooks, and markers.
 5. Exclamation Mark (!)
 Used to show strong emotion or
emphasis.
 Example: What a beautiful sunset!
6. Question Mark (?)
 Used to end direct questions.
 Example: Are you coming to the
party?
 Used to enclose direct speech,
quotes, and titles of short works,
and to indicate sarcasm or irony.
 Example: She said, "I'll be there."
8. Apostrophe (')
 Used to indicate possession,
contractions, and sometimes to
form plurals of letters, numbers,
and abbreviations.
 Example: John's book is on the
table.
9. Hyphen (-)
 Used to join words in compound
nouns, adjectives, and prefixes.
 Example: Well-known author
10. Dash (—)
 Used to indicate a break or
interruption in a sentence, or to
emphasize information.
 Example: The conference—
scheduled for next week—was
postponed.
11. Ellipsis (…)
 Used to indicate omitted words or
incomplete thoughts.
 Example: "To be or not to be…"
12. Parentheses ( )
 Used to enclose nonessential or
supplementary information.
 Example: The event (which was
well organized) was a success.
13. Brackets [ ]  Example: She said, "I [can] attend
 Used to enclose editorial the meeting."
comments, explanations, or
additions in quoted material.

 Remember that proper punctuation and usage vary across languages and writing
styles.
 Consistency in your use of punctuation marks will help you convey your message
accurately and professionally.

PARTS OF SPEECH

 Parts of speech are the basic categories into which words are classified based on their
grammatical functions and roles within sentences.
 Understanding the different parts of speech is essential for constructing sentences
and expressing ideas coherently.

5. Adverb:
1. Noun:  An adverb is a word that modifies
 A noun is a word that names a a verb, adjective, or other adverb,
person, place, thing, or idea. often providing information about
 Example: dog, city, happiness, time, manner, place, or degree.
John  Example: quickly, very, here, often

2. Pronoun:
 A pronoun is a word used to
replace a noun, often to avoid
repetition.
 Example: he, she, it, they, we
6. Conjunction:
 A conjunction is a word that
connects words, phrases, or
clauses.
 Example: and, but, or, because

3. Verb:
 A verb is a word that expresses an
action, occurrence, or state of
being.
 Example: run, eat, is, was
4. Adjective:
 An adjective is a word that
describes or modifies a noun by
giving more information about it.
 Example: beautiful, tall, delicious,
red
7. Preposition:
 A preposition is a word that shows
the relationship between a noun
or pronoun and other words in a
sentence.
 Example: in, on, under, between
8. Interjection:
 An interjection is a word or phrase
used to express strong feelings or
emotions.
 Example: wow, oh no, hooray

Understanding how each part of speech functions within a sentence helps you build
sentences that are grammatically correct and convey your intended meaning accurately.
TECHNICAL WRITING
 Technical writing is a specialized form of writing that communicates complex
information clearly, concisely, and effectively to a specific audience for a particular
purpose.
 It is commonly used in fields such as engineering, science, technology, medicine, and
business to convey technical or specialized information.
Here are some key principles and best practices for technical writing:

1. Audience Awareness:
 Understand your target audience's background, knowledge level, and needs. Tailor
your writing to meet their expectations and requirements.

2. Clarity and Conciseness:

 Use clear and straightforward language, avoiding jargon, ambiguity, and unnecessary
complexity.
 Keep sentences and paragraphs concise, and avoid verbosity.

3. Organization:
 Use a logical and organized structure with headings, subheadings, lists, and bullet
points to guide readers through the content.
 Provide an introduction and conclusion to frame and summarize the information.

4. Use of Visuals:
 Incorporate tables, graphs, charts, diagrams, and illustrations to clarify complex
concepts and data.
 Ensure that visuals are properly labeled and referenced in the text.

5. Active Voice:
 Prefer using the active voice ("The team conducted the experiment") over the passive
voice ("The experiment was conducted by the team") for clarity and directness.

6. Consistency:
 Maintain consistency in terminology, formatting, and style throughout the document.
 Use a style guide if applicable, such as the Chicago Manual of Style or the APA
Publication Manual.

7. Technical Accuracy:
 Ensure that all technical information, data, and references are accurate and up-to-
date.
 Verify facts and figures, and provide citations for sources.

8. Revision and Proofreading:

 Review and edit your document carefully for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation,
and formatting.
 Consider seeking feedback from peers or subject matter experts.
9. Accessibility:
 Make sure your document is accessible to all readers, including those with disabilities.
Use accessible formatting and consider providing alternative formats when necessary.

10. Documentation:
 Include a reference section or bibliography to cite sources, and provide clear
instructions or documentation for any equipment, procedures, or processes
discussed.

11. User Testing (if applicable):

 If your technical document is meant to be used by others, consider conducting user
testing to ensure that it meets the needs of your audience.

12. Revision Control:

 If you are writing technical documentation that will undergo updates, establish a
version control system to keep track of changes and revisions.

 Technical writing is a valuable skill in many industries, as it helps professionals

communicate complex information effectively.
 Whether you're writing user manuals, reports, research papers, or technical
specifications, following these principles can greatly enhance the quality and usability of
your technical documents.

RELEVANCE OF TECHNICAL WRITING

 Studying technical writing offers several valuable benefits and is relevant in various
contexts.

Here are five key reasons why studying technical writing is important:

1) Effective Communication
 Technical writing equips individuals with the skills to communicate complex
information clearly and concisely.
 In technical fields such as engineering, science, and technology, clear communication
is vital for conveying instructions, sharing research findings, and collaborating with
colleagues.
 It ensures that technical information is readily understood by both experts and non-
experts, reducing the risk of miscommunication or misinterpretation.
2) Enhanced Professionalism
 Proficiency in technical writing enhances professionalism in the workplace.
 Enhanced Professionalism
 Being able to create well-structured, error-free, and organized technical documents,
such as reports, manuals, and proposals, reflects positively on one's competence and
attention to detail.
 This can lead to career advancement and increased job opportunities.
3) Knowledge Transfer
 Technical writing plays a critical role in knowledge transfer within organizations.
  When employees document their expertise and experiences, it becomes a valuable
resource for training, troubleshooting, and decision-making.
 Well-written technical documents can save time and resources by allowing others to
benefit from past experiences and best practices.
4) Compliance and Documentation
 In regulated industries like healthcare, aerospace, and manufacturing, compliance
with industry standards and government regulations is paramount.
 Technical writing is essential for creating documentation that demonstrates
compliance, records procedures, and ensures safety. Accurate and comprehensive
documentation is often a legal requirement in these fields.
5) Interdisciplinary Collaboration
 As technology and science continue to advance, interdisciplinary collaboration
becomes more common.
 Technical writing bridges the gap between different fields by providing a common
language and format for sharing information.
 Professionals from diverse backgrounds can collaborate more effectively when they
can understand and communicate technical concepts clearly.
 In summary, studying technical writing is relevant across various industries and professions
because it fosters effective communication, professionalism, knowledge transfer, compliance, and
interdisciplinary collaboration.
 Whether you're an engineer, scientist, healthcare provider, or business professional, the ability to
convey technical information accurately and comprehensibly is an invaluable skill that can
contribute to your success and the success of your organization.

TECHNICAL WRITING VS. ESSAY

Technical writing and essays are two distinct forms of writing, each with its purpose, style,
and characteristics.
Here are some key differences between technical writing and essays:

TECHNICAL WRITING ESSAY

The primary purpose of technical Essays serve a broader range
writing is to convey complex, of purposes, which can
specialized information clearly and include informing,
concisely. persuading, analyzing, and
expressing personal
PURPOSE It is often used in professional and viewpoints.
scientific contexts to explain processes,
procedures, products, or concepts.

Technical documents aim to inform,

instruct, or persuade the reader to
take specific actions or understand
technical details.
The audience for technical writing is Essays may have a wider
typically a specialized or professional range of potential audiences,
 one. Technical documents are tailored
to experts, practitioners, or individuals
with specific knowledge in a particular
AUDIENCE field.
Clarity and precision are paramount in
technical writing to ensure that experts
can understand and apply the
information.
Technical writing maintains a formal
and objective style. It prioritizes clarity,
accuracy, and efficiency in conveying
STYLE AND TONE information.
Jargon and technical terms are
common, but they should be defined
or explained for the reader's
understanding.
Technical documents often follow a
specific, structured format, such as
STRUCTURE reports, manuals, or procedures.
They typically include headings,
subheadings, lists, and visuals to
facilitate comprehension. The content
is organized logically to guide the
reader through complex information.
Technical writing typically avoids
personal opinions, emotions, or
PERSONAL VOICE anecdotes. It maintains an objective
tone and focuses on factual
information.
 In summary, technical writing and essays serve different purposes and are adapted to
specific audiences and contexts.
including educators, peers, or
the general public.
The level of complexity and
technicality can vary
depending on the intended
readership, and essays often
aim to engage and inform a
broader audience.
Essays can vary in style and
tone depending on the genre
and purpose.
While some essays, like
academic research papers,
may maintain a formal tone,
others, such as personal
narratives or opinion pieces,
may adopt a more
conversational or persuasive
style.
Essays can vary widely in
structure, but they often
include an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion.
The structure is flexible and
can adapt to the author's
purpose, whether it's
presenting arguments, telling
a story, or analyzing a topic.
Essays often allow for the
author's personal voice,
opinions, and experiences to
be included, depending on
the essay type.
In someessays, such as
personal narratives or
reflective essays, the author's
voice and perspective are
central to the content.
  Technical writing prioritizes clarity, precision, and specialized information for
professionals, while essays encompass a broader range of styles, purposes, and
audiences, allowing for more personal expression and engagement with a topic.

COMMUNICATION CONTINUUM
 The communication continuum is a concept used to describe the various forms and
modes of communication that exist along a spectrum from verbal to non-verbal, from
in-person to remote, and from synchronous to asynchronous.
 It helps us understand the diverse ways in which people exchange information and
interact with one another.

Here are the main points along the communication continuum:

a) Verbal vs. Non-Verbal

 Verbal Communication: This involves the use of spoken or written words to convey
messages. It includes face-to-face conversations, phone calls, video conferences,
emails, text messages, and written documents like reports and memos.
 Non-Verbal Communication: This includes communication through body language,
facial expressions, gestures, posture, tone of voice, and even silence. Non-verbal cues
often complement and reinforce verbal communication.
b) In-Person vs. Remote
 In-Person Communication: This occurs when individuals are physically present in the
same location when communicating. It includes face-to-face meetings, conversations,
and interactions.
 Remote Communication: This takes place when individuals are not in the same
physical location. It includes phone calls, video conferences, emails, and other forms
of digital communication.
c) Synchronous vs. Asynchronous:
 Synchronous Communication: This involves real-time communication where the
sender and receiver are interacting simultaneously. Examples include phone calls, live
video chats, and face-to-face conversations.
 Asynchronous Communication: In this mode, there is a time delay between when a
message is sent and when it is received. Examples include emails, text messages, and
recorded video messages.
 The communication continuum recognizes that effective communication can occur at various
points along these spectrums, and the choice of communication method often depends on factors
such as the nature of the message, the audience, the context, and personal preferences.
 A casual conversation with a friend may take place in person (in-person communication), using a
mix of verbal and non-verbal cues, and synchronous.
 A business report may be written and shared via email (remote communication), using primarily
verbal communication (written words), and be asynchronous.
 A video conference call with team members working remotely is a form of remote communication
that is both verbal and non-verbal, and synchronous.
 Understanding the communication continuum can help individuals and organizations select the
most appropriate communication methods for their specific needs, ensuring effective and efficient
exchanges of information.
5 COMPONENTS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
 Technical writing is a specialized form of writing that communicates complex information
clearly and effectively.
 It typically consists of several key components that ensure the content is structured,
organized, and easy to understand.
 Here are five essential components of technical writing:
1. TITLE AND COVER PAGE
 The title should succinctly describe the content or purpose of the document.
 A cover page, if applicable, may include additional details such as the author's name,
date, organization, and a brief summary.
2. TABLE OF CONTENTS (TOC)
 The TOC provides an organized list of the document's sections, chapters, or headings,
along with their respective page numbers.
 It helps readers navigate the document quickly and locate specific information.
3. INTRODUCTION
 The introduction sets the stage by presenting the purpose and scope of the
document.
 It may also provide a brief overview of the main topics or issues addressed in the
document.
 The introduction should engage the reader and make them aware of what to expect.
4. MAIN CONTENT
 The main content comprises the core information, explanations, instructions, or
descriptions that fulfill the document's purpose.
 It is typically organized into sections, chapters, or headings, with each section
focusing on a specific topic or subtopic.
5. INTRODUCTION
 Technical details should be presented logically, and concepts should be explained
clearly and concisely.
 Visual aids like diagrams, charts, tables, and illustrations may be included to enhance
understanding.
Conclusion and Recommendations (if applicable)
 The conclusion summarizes the main points discussed in the document.
 It may also include recommendations, solutions, or key takeaways based on the information
presented.
 The conclusion reinforces the document's main message and provides closure.
 These components are essential for creating well-structured and effective technical documents.
 Depending on the specific document type and purpose, additional components such as
appendices, glossaries, references, and acknowledgments may also be included.
 The key is to ensure that the document is organized, easy to navigate, and conveys technical information
accurately and comprehensibly