Armstrong J. Warburg Courtauld, 1983.

The Illustration of Pliny's Historia naturalis: Manuscripts before 1430
Author(s): Lilian Armstrong

Source: Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 46 (1983), pp. 19-39
Published by: The Warburg Institute
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THE ILLUSTRATION OF PLINY'S HISTORIA NATURALIS:
MANUSCRIPTS BEFORE 1430*
Lilian Armstrong
T HE Historia naturalis of Pliny the Elder has been characterized by one historian of
science as 'perhaps the most important single source extant for the history of
ancient civilization'.' That it was also important for the history of the later Middle
Ages can now be gathered from three hitherto unpublished illuminated manuscripts of
the Historia naturalis from the Gothic period which are the subject of the following
discussion. The sources and nature of the iconographic cycle in their miniatures are the
primary concern of this study, but the historical and artistic characteristics of the
manuscripts must also be explored in order to appreciate fully their significance.
Each of the newly discovered manuscripts is important for a different reason. The
Escorial Historia naturalis,2 decorated in Bologna about 13oo, is the earliest known
manuscript with a long series of historiated initials related to Pliny's text, and it is
therefore fundamental for investigating the genesis of the iconographic cycle. A second
manuscript, in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Turin,3 is of great interest for the history of
artistic patronage. It was probably commissioned around 1410o by the famous bibliophile
Jean, Duc de Berry, and its miniatures demonstrate the transmission of an Italian cycle of
images to the French ducal court. The third copy of Pliny is a lavishly decorated
manuscript now in the Biblioteca Palatina of Parma,4 a major new attribution to one of
* I wish to thank Wellesley College for grants from the 3Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria,
Faculty Research Funds which helped to make possible MSS 1.1.24-1.1.25 (formerly lat. 465-66, i.vi. io-I.vi. i1);
this study; also my colleagues at Wellesley, Professors on parchment, 360 x 225 mm, 219 fols, and
Miranda Marvin and Peter Fergusson, and members of 360 x 240 mm, 2I6 fols respectively; 2 col. text of 41
the staff of the Warburg Institute, particularly Professor lines. MSI.I.24 has 26 miniatures; MSI.I.25 has 15;
J. B. Trapp, Dr C. B. Schmitt and Dr M. Evans. I am many folios have large illuminated initials and vine leaf
especially indebted to Professor Liana Cheney, Univer- motifs in the margins.
sity of Lowell, to members of the staff of the Biblioteca The Turin manuscript was damaged in the disastrous
Palatina, Parma and to Professor E. Riccomini. fire in the Library in 1904, and it has been interfoliated
1 L. Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental and rebound. Fewer miniatures in MSI.1.24 were
Science, London 1923, 1, pp. 42-43. damaged than in MSI.I.25; the greatest damage was
2I am grateful to Elizabeth Sears for having done to miniatures in the external columns of text, and
encouraged me to investigate this important manu- some are charred beyond recognition. Folios at the
script. Unfortunately I have not been able to see the beginning of Booksxxii and xxv are missing; blank
original. spaces at the beginning of Books xxxv (fol. I92v) and
El Escorial, Biblioteca Real de San Lorenzo del xxxvI (fol. 203') never received the intended minia-
Escorial, MS R.I.5, on parchment, 405X 280 mm,
tures.
4 Parma, Biblioteca Palatina, MS Parm. 1278 (H. H.

218 fols, 2 col. text (P. Guillermo Antolin, Catdlogo de los
Codices Latinos de la Real Biblioteca del Escorial, Madrid
1. 62), on parchment, in folio, 240 fols, 2 col. text. The
1910-23, III, pp. 451-52, and Iv, p. 584; J. Dominguez manuscript is described in the handwritten Catalogo degli
manoscritti, Fondo Parmense, at the Biblioteca Palatina.
Bordona, Manuscritos con pinturas, Madrid I933, 11, p. 52,
no. I496). Some gatherings are missing which include Folio I has a fully decorated border, two historiated
Books xI, xx, xxv, and xxvI. Folio I has two historiated
initials, and a coat-of-arms at the bas-de-page: argent a lion
initials and marginal decoration. Initials with imagesrampant azure, surmounted by a red cardinal's hat. Each
of the remaining 36 books is decorated with a historiated
are found at the beginning of Books I-x, xII-XIX, xxI,
xxIII and xxvii-xxxvII; marginal images are found initial,
at and there are marginal decorations throughout
the beginning of Books xvi and xxII. the manuscript.
19
Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Volume 46, 1983
20 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
the most important early fifteenth

miniatures illustrate the fully develo
was followed with only minor variat
recently found manuscripts must b
of Pliny with miniatures, the manu
court in 1389 by the miniaturist
important clues for the relationsh
appearance of the cycle in France in
century. The miniatures of these G
the Historia naturalis emerged in Bo
greatly enriched in the stimulating
least once in France at the behest of
and reached a definitive form by
century in Renaissance manuscripts
It is necessary to recall the compr
the illustrated copies of the Historia
with Book ii which is cosmological i
anthropological; and Books viii to
creatures, birds and insects. The long
xxvII, is essentially botanical, wit
plants, their cultivation and general
more specifically medicinal uses o
animals and their medicinal product
to medicine from water and from a
books are geological and mineralog
the famous chapters on ancient sc
provide the opportunity to consider
inspire descriptions of works of art
gems.
The scheme of illustration which emerges in the Gothic manuscripts of the Historia
naturalis to be considered in this study has a few dominant images and many minor
variations. The dominant images are landscapes for the geographical books; animal life
for the zoological books; plant life and agricultural activities for the botanical books;
physicians and herbalists for the medical books; and metal workers and artists for the
concluding geological books. These principal images appear to have developed at two
different periods. The first impulse of about 1300 produced the animals, plants, physi-
cians and herbalists. The second, which probably occurred in the last quarter of the
fourteenth century, developed the images of landscapes, agricultural activities, and
5 For the I5th-century versions, see L. Armstrong,fol. 266' was noted by E. Pellegrin ('Notes sur divers
'The Illustration of Pliny's Historia naturalis in Venetian manuscrits latins des Bibliotheques de Milan', Bulletin
Manuscripts and Early Printed Books', in Manuscripts in d'information de l'Institut de Recherche et d'Histoire des Textes,
the Fifty Years after the Invention ofPrinting, London 1983. vu, 1958, pp. 14-15). Pellegrin also identified the scribe
as Armandus de Alemannia, who wrote a number of
6 Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, MS E. 24 inf., on
parchment, 392 x 280 mm, 361 fols, 2 col. text (R. Ci-manuscripts for Capelli which were decorated by Pietro
da Pavia (La Bibliotheque des Visconti et des Sforza,
priani, Codici miniati dell'Ambrosiana, Milan 1968,
p. 234). The probable presence of the Capelli arms
Supplement, Paris 1969, pp. 17-18).
under those of Giovanni Bolognino Attendolo on
PLINY MANUSCRIPTS BEFORE 1430 21
artisans at work. The synthesis of the two groups of images had ta
decade of the fourteenth century, and formed the basic cycle w
many times in the next century.
The visual sources for the images in the earliest illustrated copy of
and indeed for many images in the later copies, can be found in th
and medical manuscripts executed in Italy. Pliny's text is heavi
medical writings. Such ancient medical texts dealt with diagnos
latter consisted of surgery and the application or ingestion of med
medicines. The texts were practical in aim, and illustrations of
practices enhanced their usefulness. Texts with illustrations of her
used in making medicines, the materia medica, existed before the time of
to them himself.7 Texts with illustrations of surgical and other me
known to have been compiled at least by the Hellenistic period.8
Pliny draws upon these medical texts, there seems to have been no
illustrate the Historia naturalis in antiquity.9 By the time it began to
of the thirteenth century, there already existed a rich tradition of
manuscripts of medical practices to which artists decorating a copy o
inspiration.
Both the herbal and surgical traditions of medical illustratio
understanding the illustrations of the Historia naturalis in the fou
centuries. By the thirteenth century the so-called 'illustrated herb
through two main categories of manuscripts: illustrated copies
attributed to Dioscorides; and illustrated manuscripts of a compilat
to Antonius Musa, Apuleius, Sextus Placidus and Dioscorides.xo
the thirteenth century manuscripts of medical practices were even m
herbals because they included writings on anatomy and surger
Western physicians of the tenth to the twelfth centuries as well as G
authors."1 The artists who illustrated Pliny's Historia naturalis a
7 H. N., xxv, 2. Unless otherwise noted, rerumreferences to

memorabilium of Solinus, may have been illustrated
the Historia naturalis in this paper will in
belate
toantiquity, but no such claim has been made for
the English
and Latin edition: Gaius Plinius Secundus, Naturalis
the Historia naturalis itself ('Marvels of the East: A Study
in the
Historia (Loeb Classical Library), transl. H. History
Rackhamof Monsters',
et this Journal, v, 1942,
pp. 159-97).
al., Io vols, Cambridge, Mass. 1944-62.
8 K. Weitzman, Ancient Book Illustration, I shallCambridge,
frequently use the words 'illustrate' and
Mass. 1959, pp. 18-23. The bibliography'illustration' in this paper to distinguish images of
on illustrated
recognizable
medical manuscripts is vast, and references natural phenomena
to aspects of from purely decor-
the tradition will be given throughoutativethis paper.
motifs For
in the manuscripts of the Historia naturalis.
illustrated diagnostic, anatomical andThe surgical
words do notmanu-
imply that the images are as detailed
scripts see L. MacKinney, Medical Illustrations
'scientific' illustrations in
as those in the early herbals.
Medieval Manuscripts, London 1965;10and among
Fundamental to thethe
understanding of the origins of
earlier writers see P. Giacosa, Magistri salernitani,
the illustrated herbal is C. Singer, 'The Herbal in
Catologo, and Atlante, Turin I9oI; and Antiquity and Its Transmission
K. Sudhoff, Ein to Later Ages', Journal
Beitrag zur Geschichte der Anatomie, ofLeipzig 19o8,
Hellenic Studies, and
XLVII, 1927, pp. 1-52. More recently
see F. A. Baumann,
Beitriige zur Geschichte der Chirurgie im Mittelalter Das Erbario Carrarese und die
(Studien
zur Geschichte der Medizin, io), Bildtradition
Leipzig des 'Tractatus
i9I4. de herbis', Bern 1972; M. Eupo,
Important for the study of early medical L'erbario di Trento, is
manuscripts Trent 1978; and W. Blunt and S.
Raphael,
A. Beccaria, I codici di medicina del periodo The Illustrated Herbal, London 1979.
presaiernitano,
Rome 1956. 11 See n. 8 above.
9 Rudolf Wittkower argued that the most popular
ancient epitome of the Historia naturalis, the Collectanea
22 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
fourteenth century must have know

but, as will be shown, the herbal tra
THE BOLOGNESE PLINY IN THE ESCORIAL
The first known copy of Pliny with historiated initials related to t

been decorated in Bologna around 1300.12 The frontispiece of this m
the Escorial, resembles a number of Bolognese manuscripts from th
(P1. Ia). A similar organization of figurative and floral motifs may
in Bolognese secular manuscripts in Vienna, Rome and New Have
length figures in the remaining initials of the Escorial Pliny are pr
artist from that of the frontispiece, but are still Bolognese in charac
distinctly the flatness and linear quality associated with the By
Bolognese illuminations around 1300. The figures are outlined by st
features such as eyebrows, noses and the edges of garments are acce
12 See n. 2 above. The generally accepted number

Christ in offol. I47v, Nativity. The manuscript
Majesty; and
was acquired
extant manuscripts of the Historia naturalis is aboutfromtwoa Dominican monastery at Liibeck
hundred, but there is no complete listing by of
Cosimo de' despite
these Medici in negotiations which dragged on
the vast literature on the text. There is from
also no 1423 to 1439 (F. de Benedetto, 'II Plinio
published
Laurenziano
list of the decorated copies. I have been able to see,proviene
or to veramente da Lubecca', Studi
find published references to, about aclassici
hundredin onoremanu-
di Quintino Cataudella, Catania 1972, xII,
scripts; of these about half were written PP.437-45).
in the I5th
century. Bibliography is contained in The H. two
Le Bonniac,
other I2th-century manuscripts also have
presentation
Bibliographie de l'Histoire naturelle de Pline l'Ancien, scenes.
ParisThey are an English or Norman
1946; and C. G. Nauert,Jr, 'Caius Plinius manuscript at Le in
Secundus', Mans (Bibliotheque Municipale,
F. E. Cranz, ed., Catalogus Translationum MSet263, fol. 19V; illustrated in H. Swarzenski, Monu-
Commentar-
iorum: Medieval and Renaissance Latin Translations and ments of Romanesque Art, 2nd edn, London 1967, pl. 129,
Commentaries, Iv, Washington, D.C. 1980, pp. 297-422 fig. 293); and a German manuscript in Vienna
(Nationalbibliothek,
(see p. 317, n. 20 on the absence of a complete listing of Cod. 9, fol. I'; see H.J. Hermann,
manuscripts). A philological outline of the classesBeschreibendes
of Verzeichnis der illuminierten Handschriften in
texts which provides references to important manu- Osterreich, viii, vol. ii, Die deutschen romanischen Handschrif-
scripts is found in N. I. Herescu, Bibliographie deten,
la Leipzig 1926, pl. iv).
13 For a recent listing of bibliography on Bolognese
littirature latine, Paris 1943, PP. 329-33. The various
manuscript illumination see G. Mariani Canova,
I9th- and 20th-century critical editions also contain
Miniature dell'Italia settentrionale nella Fondazione Cini,
references to medieval copies when they are important
for philological reasons. Most recent is the Latin and
Vicenza 1978, pp. 1-2, n. I. For the specific compar-
isons mentioned see Hermann, op. cit. n. 12 above,
French edition: Plinius Maior, Historia Naturalis (Histoire
naturelle), Collection G. Bude, Paris 1950-77. vol. v, Die italienischen Handschriften des Dugento und
To my knowledge, only three I2th-century manu- Trecento, part I, Bis zur Mitte des XIV. Jahrhunderts, Leipzig
1928, n. 67 and pls xxxvII, 2; xxxix; and XLI (Vienna,
scripts of the Historia naturalis contain significant figural
decoration, and in these manuscripts the subjects Nationalbibliothek,
are Cod. 2256, Portius Azo, Summa in
restricted to presentation scenes and a very few
codicisJustinianei, fols 7 v, I', and 123v, Bolognese, early
historiated initials of Christian content not related to the
I4th century); G. Carbonelli, Commenti sopra alcune
text. The most elaborate of these was illuminated by a
miniature e pitture italiane a soggetto medico, Rome 1918,
Danish artist, Petrus de Slaglosia (Florence, Biblioteca pl. nI (Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, MS Urb. lat. 240,
Laurenziana, MS Plut. 82, I-Plut. 82, 2). It contains fol.a 283', Avicenna, Canon, North Italian, I4th century,
full-page presentation scene with Pliny, the Emperor [human figures perhaps not Italian]); and M. E.
Titus, and a small figure of the artist (MS Plut. 82, Stanton,
1, 'The Codex Paneth', Yale University Library
fol. 2v; illustrated in colour in G. Volpe, L. Volpicelli,Gazette,
et xxx, no. I, July 1955, illus. opp. p. 22 (New
Haven, Yale University Medical Historical Library,
al., La vita medioevale italiana nella miniatura, Rome 1960).
Four additional historiated initials in this volume are: MS 28, Codex Paneth, Medical Compendium, Bolognese,
1300-26).
fol. 3r, Tree ofJesse; fol. 45v, Dream ofJacob (?); fol. I41v,
lines (P1. 3a, b). The costumes and gestures of the figures can also
Bolognese manuscripts of the period.14
The iconographic scheme of the historiated initials in the Escorial P
images which fall into three principal groups: animals, plants and half
men, some of them with attributes. The animals, such as the elephant f
and the birds for Book x, appear at the beginning of the zoological bo
to three tiny trees begin many of the botanical books, that is Books xIII
(P1. 4b), while low-growing plants and flowers initiate Books xvI,
length figures of men are painted in the initials of several of the earlie
the last third of the volume for Books xxvII (P1. 3b) to xxx, xxxII, xx
The isolated plants and trees (P1. 4b), the figures holding or collect
b) and a man with a mortar and pestle, provide the clearest clues to th
of these types appear in the standard repertoire of illustrated h
manuscripts. It is therefore extremely probable that such manuscript
Bologna around 1300.
Until the thirteenth century Salerno was the best known centr
practitioners of medicine in Italy, and a number of illustrated herbal
on late antique prototypes have been associated with Salerno or m
southern Italy.'s This group of manuscripts includes a tenth-century L
Dioscorides De materia medica and at least six copies of the Musa/A
Latin herbal ranging in date from the ninth to the thirteenth centur
half of the thirteenth century Bologna had replaced Salerno as the mo
for the study of medicine; and by the early fourteenth century B
illustrated medical compendia such as the Codex Paneth at Yale Uni
14 G. Castelfranco, 'I codici miniati di San andDomenico di formerly Turin, Biblioteca Na

figs 30-32);
MS
Gubbio', Bollettino d'arte, vIII, 1929, figs 3, 7,K.
9, Iv. 3, late I Ith century (Beccaria, pp. 3
14 (dated
1298), 16, 21, 26, 28; and 'Contribuiti alla
no. storia della
10o; and Giacosa, op. cit. n. 8 above, pp.
miniatura bolognese del "200"', Bologna: Rivista
no. 5, del14-16); Vatican, Biblioteca Apo
and pls
comune, xxII, no. 7, 1935, P. 22 and figsMS
20, Barb. lat.
22, and 23 I6o (Ix.29), I Ith century (Bec
(dated 1303); and A. Melnikas, The Corpus of the
pp. 324-31, no. Io8; L. MacKinney, 'Medical Il
Miniatures in the Manuscripts of Decretumtions in Medieval
Gratiani, Rome Manuscripts of the Vatican Li
1975, passim, especially Escorial, MS c.Manuscripta,
I. 2; Biblioteca
III, 1959, p. 6; E. Pellegrin, Les man
Vaticana, MSS Vat. lat. I371 and 1375. classiques latins de la Bibliothique Vaticane, I, 1975,
91);in
is H. Rashdall, The Universities of Europe Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, Cod. 93, I3th
the Middle
century (Hermann,
Ages, ed. by F. M. Powicke and A. B. Emden, Oxford op. cit. n. 12 above, vol. I, Die
I936,1, pp. 75-86. fruhmittelalterlichen Handschriften des Abendlandes, Leipzig
The importance of antique prototypes 1923,
forpp.illustra-
8-38; and reproduced in facsimile with
accompanying
tions of plants, animals, and scenes of medical commentary volume: Vienna, National-
practice
is brought out by O. Pdicht, 'Early bibliothek,
Italian Nature
Medicina antiqua [Codex Vindobonensis, 93],
Studies and the Early Calendar Landscape', this
Graz 1971-72); and Florence, Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Journal, xIII, 1950, pp. 13-47. MS Plut. 73.16, I3th century (Carbonelli, op. cit. n. 13
16 The Latin Dioscorides is: Munich, Bayerische
above, p. 56, and pls xxI-xxiII; MacKinney, op. cit. n. 8
above, pp.
Staatsbibliothek, Cod. lat. 337, ioth century 38-41, 45-46 125-26, and figs 28-30, and 40;
(Beccaria,
op. cit. n. 8 above, pp. 222-23, no. 6o; MacKinney,
and the commentary op. volume of the Medicina antiqua
cit. n. 8 above, pp. 42-43, 153-54, and figs 35-37).
[Codex Vindobonensis, 93]).
The manuscripts in the Musa/Apuleius/Dioscorides
17 Rashdall, op. cit. n. 15 above, pp. 233-47.
K. Sudhoff, 'Codex Fritz Paneth', Archivfir Geschichte
group
Plut. are: 9th
73.41, Florence,.
centuryBiblioteca
(Beccaria, Laurenziana,
op. der
cit. MS
n. 8 above,
Mathematik, der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, xII,
pp. 281-84, no. 89); Lucca, Biblioteca 1929,
Governitiva,
pp. 2-32; and Stanton, op. cit. n. 13 above,
MS 296, 11 th century (Beccaria, pp. 285-88, no. 91; L.
pp. 22-24.
Cogliato Arano, Tacuinum Sanitatis, Milan 1973, p. 33,
24 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
seems highly likely that at least one illustrated
way to Bologna.
The most elaborately illustrated of all sou
Codex 93 in the Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'s
plants, animals, birds and insects (Pls 2c, 3c)
the Bolognese Pliny in the Escorial are the elep
x, the trees and plants of Books xiii to xvIII, th
a vine encircling it of Book xxIIi (P1. 4b). The
initials are greatly reduced in size and highl
century herbals gross distortions of the flora
In addition to isolated plants and animals,
scripts of this group show physicians instructin
collecting and sorting herbs; and preparing
mortar and pestle (Pls 3c, 4a). These images, wh
and its related manuscripts, passed into the
marginal decoration of fourteenth-century
Pliny. In the Bolognese Codex Paneth of abou
diagnostic, anatomical and surgical texts, an in
plants; a semi-nude figure in the margin holds
Pliny figures engaged in similar activities ill
XXVIII, xxIx and xxxIII. They show respectively
man inspecting plants, a man grasping the t
apothecary grinding herbs, and a half-length fi
Although virtually all the types of images in
Italian medical and herbal manuscripts such
Escorial manuscript made specific adaptations to
of Book xvII is perceptibly more crooked than t
preserved in later Pliny manuscripts. It is prob
which Pliny describes in this book. Likewise th
reference to Pliny's description in Book xx
(P1. 4b).20
Three distinctive images in the Escorial Pliny
demonstrate knowledge of the text of the Histo
18 See n. 16 above. Byzantine and in western manuscripts dating before

19 Seated and standing 'portraits' of famous doctors of13oo has been pointed out by O. Picht (op. cit. n. 15
antiquity precede the 6th-century Greek Dioscorides ofabove, p. 33). Michael Evans has noted that the image
Juliana Anicia in Vienna (Nationalbibliothek, Cod. of medicina as a physician holding a book or herbs has
Med. gr. I, fols 2v, 3v, 4v, and 5v; H. Gerstinger, Derantique models, and that the attribute of a urine flask
Wiener Dioskurides [Codex Vindobonensis Med. gr. I],was established by the middle of the 12th century
facsimile edn, Graz 1970). There are portraits of ('Personifications of the Artes from Martianus Capella
Hippocrates and Apuleius Platonicus in the 13th-cen-up to the End of the Fourteenth Century', unpublished
tury Vienna Codex 93, on folios 2 and I19. In the same Ph.D. dissertation, Warburg Institute, University of
manuscript physicians or their assistants are shownLondon, 1970, pp. 121, I6o, and 193). For the Codex
grinding herbs on folios 39r, 46r, 47r, 48r, 64v, 66v, etc., Paneth see nn. 13 and 17 above.
and there are many images of physicians treating 20 For 15th-century examples of the vine and tree motif
patients. The appearance of herb-gatherers both insee Armstrong, op. cit. n. 5 above.
in late Pliny manuscripts provides strong evidence for the mode
cycle. Books xIx and xxxI open with initials whose image is more
than visually. Waving white lines are painted as if running f
ground below. They apparently represent falling rain or snow si
at the end of Book xvIIi and at the beginning of Book xix, and Bo
the medicinal properties of water. Attempts to illustrate the pro
exceptional at this early date. Even a miniature of the first decad
has been described by Millard Meiss as 'the first real snows
painting'.21 That these tiny images are indeed meant to show som
confirmed by the repetition of the motif for one of the same boo
illuminated by Cristoforo Cortese about 1425 (see below).
The second of the unusual initials is related to Pliny's effort t
magic and medicine in Book xxx.22 The Bolognese artist has pain
this book a pair of half-length figures who wear curious pointed
simpler costumes of the physicians and herbalists of the other i
often clearly used magicians at work to decorate this book
probable that the Escorial figures are intended to be magi.
Finally, Book xxxvii of the Escorial Pliny is illustrated with a
man inspecting gems. The activities of showing or selling gems b
xxxvii in the Pliny cycle, and may also have been derived from a
compendium. The Bolognese Codex Paneth mentioned earlier
virtutibus duodecim gemmarum, sive tredicem lapidem' with
and a large green gem.23 The two contemporary miniatures
common source in the medical tradition.
The formal features of the Escorial Pliny confirm that it was painted in Bologna, and
this centre is one in which the creation of an iconographic cycle for the Historia naturalis
would certainly have been logical. The text is clearly one which would have been of
interest to a patron familiar with the teaching of medicine in Bologna around 1300. The
cycle may even have been invented for the Escorial manuscript itself, since the decorating
of such an imposing volume was certainly a major commission. The patron24 or his
adviser must have known some illustrated herbal such as Vienna Codex 93, and he must
have been familiar with the text of Historia naturalis. The artist would have used the former
for visual prototypes of certain animals and plants, for physicians, herbalists, and perhaps
the man inspecting gems. Similar images existed in a variety of sources outside the
medical tradition, but the important point is that virtually all the images transferred to
the earliest illustrated Pliny had already been collected by the thirteenth century in the
illustrated herbal. Apart from such a visual source, the artist would need to have been
instructed which book of the Historia naturalis required an elephant, birds, a crooked tree,
flowers, a vine wound around a tree, a physician or a magician. The result is formally
homogeneous and iconographically consistent. Furthermore, the cycle must have been
perceived as appropriate and appealing to subsequent north Italian patrons since specific
21 M. Meiss, 'The First Fully Decorated Decameron',24 The early provenance of the Escorial Pliny is not
known. In the I6th century the manuscript belonged to
Essays in the History of Art Presented to Rudolf Wittkower,
London 1967, p. 61, and fig. 14. the Spanish humanistJeronimo Zurita y Costro (1512-
22 Thorndike, op. cit. n. I above, pp. 45-70. 8o) who inscribed it at the beginning and end: HIE.
23 P. I 197. SURITE.
26 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
images of the new cycle are found r

naturalis.
THE AMBROSIANA PLINY BY FRA PIETRO DA PAVIA
The Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan possesses a sumptuously de

ated by Fra Pietro da Pavia in 1389 for Pasquino Capelli, secr
Visconti, Duke of Milan.25 To date this manuscript has been
medieval copy of the Historia naturalis with a series of initials an
related to the text. Its miniatures have therefore been discussed o
fourteenth-century naturalism.26 The Ambrosiana Pliny also hold
in the study of the iconographic cycle developed for the Historia
miniatures show the continuity of a visual tradition in Italy from
about 1300oo to the Pliny illuminated by Cristoforo Cortese about
miniatures which subsequently become a regular part of the cycle
depiction of a natural phenomenon itself to the activity assoc
animal described by Pliny. Finally, several of its images provide e
Pliny of about 1410 now in Turin must have depended on an Italia
The closest analogies between the images in the Ambrosiana Plin
and those in the Bolognese Pliny in the Escorial occur in the botan
The trees in the initials of Books xmII, xvI (P1. 5a) and xvII, and th
beginning of Book xv27 resemble those of Books xiii to xvII and B
Pliny (P1. 4b). The oak tree is among the first species discussed by
forest trees, and Pietro da Pavia emphasizes the distinctive s
acorns in the single spreading tree of his miniature for this book.
The herbalists and physicians of Books xxII (P1. 5b),28 XXI
resemble their counterparts in the Escorial Pliny (P1. 3b). The herb
Ambrosiana Pliny sits holding up a plant complete with roots in a
earlier Pliny. The similarities between these images suggest that f
Pavia had available as a model an earlier illustrated Pliny manus
one.
Nine of the books in the Ambrosiana Pliny have only decorative

and four others have significant images primarily in the margins, su
x and the insects of Book xI.29 This absence of historiated initials a
placement of other motifs suggest that the model from which Pietr
was incomplete.
The initials in the Ambrosiana Pliny which show activities ass
rather than the plant or animal itself, are among the most powerf
25 See n. 6 above. 28 Ibid., fig. 280 (fol. 223r, Book xxii).

26 For the style of the Ambrosiana miniatures see lack
29 The following books P. images related to the text:
Toesca, 'Di alcuni miniatori lombardi
Booksdella
mII, Iv, fine
,VI, vII, ,del
xx, xxVII, xxix(?), xxx. The
significant
Trecento', L'arte, x, 1907, pp. I85-96, and for images
the appear
border in the margins rather than in
decorations seeJ. Treuherz, 'The Border Decorations
the initials ofxii, xv. For the insects of
for Books x, xI,
Milanese Manuscripts, 135-I1420', Arte Book xI see P. Toesca,
lombarda, La pittura e la miniatura nella
xvII,
no. I, 1972, pp. 71-82, esp. pp. 76-77, and figs
Lombardia 14,I912),
(Milan 21.rev. edn, Turin 1966, fig. 27I
27 L. Cogliati Arano, Miniature lombarde,(fol. I6r).Milan 1970,
figs282 (fol. I47r, Bookxv) and 283 (fol. 282', Book
xvII).
manuscript, and may be considered innovations by Pietro da P
this group are a man fishing for Book ix on sea creatures; a win
the vintage; a man sowing grain and a woman carding (P1. 6b) fo
xviii and xIx; a miner digging gold at the beginning of Book xxx
monk Pietro da Pavia illuminating a manuscript for Book x
stoneworker attacking a slab of marble with mallet and chis
XXXVI.30
All these images of occupations are new to the Pliny cycle, alt
they occur frequently in fifteenth-century manuscripts and
editions of the Historia naturalis. Since Pietro da Pavia was pr
incomplete prototype, he doubtless turned to sources other t
fisherman, vintner and farmer are all types normally found in re
calendars illustrated by the Labours of the Months, and the
Tacuinum sanitatis manuscripts discussed below.3' The artist illum
also found in a variety of religious and secular texts before 1389.3
in the herbal tradition, and the stoneworker resembles closely th
fourteenth-century marble relief by Andrea Pisano on the Camp
Florence.33 Thus the rich artistic ambience of the Visconti court
models for the artist which he adapted inventively to the text of
Finally there are two distinctive miniatures in the Ambrosian
reappearance shortly thereafter in the French Pliny now in Turi
cycle was the basis for the French artist. Book xxI of the Histor
flowers, and the beginning of this book in the Ambrosiana P
charming young woman seated making a wreath of red and w
thorny rose vine enlivens the margin. Pliny begins Book xxI wit
of garlands or chaplets. He relates the story of a Greek painter n
love with a chaplet maker named Glycera and painted a famous p
story inspired Pietro da Pavia's miniature.
A visual source for the girl making a garland may also be sugg
famous examples of late fourteenth-century Lombard illumi
30 Cogliati Arano, op. cit. n. 27 above, 83; V. W. 278

figs Egbert, The Medieval
(fol. 96v, Artist at Work, Princeton
Book IX), 281 (fol. 14', BookxIv),
1967,277 (fol.
pls I, Iv-vii, 332',
Ix, xI, xxIv-xxv, xxx, and fig. 5; and
Book xxxv). C. Bellinati and S. Bettini, L'Epistolario di Giovanni da
31 An example of a man seated in profile fishing is found Gaibana, Vicenza 1968, facsimile volume, fol. 98v.
as early as the I2th century in an Italian Psalter from the 33 Miners may be seen in the following: New York,
Vallombrosan monastery at San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno Pierpont Morgan Library, MS M. 873, fol. I, Johannes
(Florence, Biblioteca Laurenziana, MS Aquisti e Platerius, Compendium salernitanum, Venetian, third
Doni 18 1, fol. IV, February; M. Salmi, Italian Miniatures, quarter of the I4th century (Baumann, op. cit. n. Io
New York 1954, P. 14 and fig. I I). A good example of a above, pp. 103-04, and fig. 8ob); Rome, Biblioteca
vintage scene can be found in a Lombard Hours dated Casanatense, MS 459, fol. Io7v; London, British
1385 in Forli (Biblioteca Comunale, MS 853, fol. 9r; D. Library, MS Egerton 747, fol. I2r (ibid., fig. 8Ia).
Fava et al., Tesori delle biblioteche d'lItalia: Emilia e The Andrea Pisano relief is discussed by
Romagna, Milan 1932, p. 312 and fig. I61). Sowing was a L. Becherucci and G. Brunetti, II Museo dell'Opera del
regular scene for September and October. Duomo a Firenze, Milan 1969, 1, pp. 233-36, and pl. 77.
32 One of the earliest images of an artist painting is in 34 On Visconti patronage see P. Toesca, op. cit. n. 29
the 6th-century Greek Dioscorides herbal in Vienna above; Storia di Milano, Milan 1955, v and vi; Arte
(Cod. Med. gr. I, fol. 5V; Gerstinger, op. cit. n. I9 lombarda dai Visconti agli Sforza, Milan 1958; and E.
above). For scribes and illuminators in the I2th to I4th Pellegrin, La Bibliotheque des Visconti et des Sforza, Paris
centuries see A. Martindale, The Rise of the Artist, New 1955, and Supplement, 1969.
York 1972, figs opp. title-page, and 2, 24, 44, 47, 49 and 3s H. N., xxI, iii, 4-5-
28 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
scripts of a new kind of health man

Ibn Butlin.36 The sequence and d
scholars have usually dated at least o
Tacuinum would therefore precede t
the Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome,
it in the 1390s.
The Tacuinum manuscripts have ne
related to the plants; the text is rest
In the Paris copy of the Tacuinum sa
white roses in her lap. The roses are
a garland on her head.3s The text of
nor to the making of garlands. In
however, the 'Rose' illustrations cl
the girl in the copy of the Tacuinum
identical to Pietro da Pavia's Glyc
inspired by the visual prototype o
adapted it to the Glycera story by a
Vienna and Casanatense manuscripts
the garland maker to illustrate thei
lively interchange of motifs betwee
confirm a date after 1389 for the
Furthermore, the motif of girls sea
Pliny in Turin, and thus is one of th
A more unusual composition is f
Ambrosiana and the French manus
pedestal flanked by candelabra (P1
Pliny by Pietro da Pavia are gold, an
pavilion. The male nude of the Fren
body is blackened as if it had been p
is also gold and the other two are ag
The image of the statue and cand
brief anecdote told by Pliny with a t
of Book xxxiv. The statue in the c
occasioned by the long section whic
The candelabra in the same shrine m
is Vienna, Rome, Paris,

36 On the Tacuinum sanitatis seebut she too dates one copy
Cogliati Arano
(Vienna) to the I380s. Cogliati
n. 16 above; and B. Witthoft, 'The AranoTaquinum
believes that a S
Lombard Panorama', less well-known copy
Gesta, xvII, in Liege (Bibliotheque
1978, Pp.de 49
370. Piicht (op. cit. n. I5 above), E. Arslan l'Universite, MS I041) is earliest of all, c. I38O, while
('Riflessioni sulla pittura gotica "internazionale" inWitthoft suggests that it is much later, in the second
Lombardia nel tardo Trecento', Arte lombarda, viii, no. 2,quarter of the I5th century.
pp. 25-66), and L. Cogliati Arano (op. cit. n. I6 above) 38 For illustrations of the 'Rose' see Cogliati Arano, op.
all accept the following sequence: Paris (Bibliothequecit. n. I6 above, pls xxxI (Paris, fol. 83), xxxIII
Nationale, MS nouv. acq. lat. 1673), Vienna (National- (Vienna, fol. 38'), xxxiv (Rome, fol. LXIXr) and fig. 65
bibliothek, MS 2644), and then Rome (Biblioteca (Liege, fol. 64r).
Casanatense, MS 4182). These scholars date the Paris 39 Turin, MS 1.1.25, fol. 49r. The miniature is unfortu-
copy in the 138os and the other manuscripts after 1390.nately too badly damaged to reproduce well.
Witthoft (op. cit. n. 36 above) argues that the sequence
among several others to exemplify additional uses of bronz
Clesippus, was exhibited naked at a banquet along with candel
woman, Gengania. The slave subsequently became the lover a
and after her death he worshipped a candelabrum as a deity.
artist of the Turin Pliny later repeats not only the statue, but a
placed candelabra, suggests that he knew an Italian manuscrip
had already been merged. An independent decision to illustra
statue seems unlikely. The statue of a nude figure accompan
reappears in two late fifteenth-century Venetian copies of the H
the motif subsequently seems to have become an accepted pa
Northern Italy.40
In the context of illustrated copies of the Historia naturalis, t
1389 should be seen as an appealing pastiche. The patron, Pas
for manuscripts of classical texts, and an appreciative eye fo
Lombard illuminations. He must have seen that possession of an
be an ideal vehicle for combining these two interests, and that i
the herbal and health books which were a novelty at the Viscont
himself was probably known to members of the Valois court
where he not only is known to have acquired manuscripts for hi
to have been on a mission for Giangaleazzo Visconti regarding th
Visconti to Louis d'Orl6ans. In 1387 he was a witness to this
Pavia Pliny may not have passed into the Visconti library whe
and executed in 1398, since it does not appear in the invent
Nevertheless, in the decade between 1389 and 1398 there was
partial cycle of illustrations could have been admired, copied
French artist who illustrated the Turin Pliny for the Duc de Berr
THE BERRY PLINY IN TURIN
Jean, Duc de Berry, was the single most important patron of ma

the end of the fourteenth century, and there were many texts b
the volumes in his library.42 In the inventory of his library made
livre de Pline richment historie' but no extant manuscript has pr
with this item.43 In all probability the 'livre de Pline' is an ex
badly damaged manuscript in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Tur
40 H. N., xxxiv, vi, I 1-12, and ix-xix. The

Duke, late I5th-
2 vols, London 1967; The Boucicaut Maste
century copies are an incunable at1968;
Holkham
and The Hall
Limbourg Brothers and Their Cont
(formerly designated MS 394), Venice, N.Jenson,
2 vols, 1476;1974-
New York
and a manuscript written for Giovanni Pico della
43 M. Guiffrey, Inventaires de Jean, Duc de Be
Mirandola in 1481 (Venice, Biblioteca Marciana,
1416, Paris 1896,MS11, p. 124 (A. Registre KK25
lat. 245 [2976]). Nationales: Inventaire de 1413, no. 961); and
41 Pasquino Capelli's important library, which
Recherches was
sur la Librairie de Charles V, Par
confiscated by Giangaleazzo Viscontip.
when
252, Capelli
no. 181.was
The 'missing' Pliny is noted
executed on a false charge of treason in 1398,
op. cit. and his
n. 42 trip The Late XIVth Century, T
above,
to France in 1383 are discussed by p. Pellegrin
288. (op. cit.
n. 34 above, 1955, PP. 46-47; and 1969, pp. 14-18).
42 M. Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean, Duc de
Berry: The Late Fourteenth Century and the Patronage of the
30 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
indicate that the manuscript formerly contain
before it was badly damaged in the disastrous
absence of other manuscripts fitting the descr
the miniatures, lead to the conclusion that the
Berry acquisition.
The discovery of the Turin manuscript en
interest in classical authors, as well as proving
Historia naturalis had become known in France
In addition to painting a nearly complete trad
physicians and a magician, the French artist
personages to the cycle which emphasized t
content of the Historia naturalis. This featu
manuscript in the sequence of illustrated copi
The format of the Turin Pliny decoration co
gold which interrupt the column of text,
marginal motifs of baguettes and vine leaves
virtually identical to that of the Boccaccio Des c
Kettaneh Collection, or of the Bartolomeus An
Museum, Cambridge (P1. 9a) which have be
dated between 1410o and 1415.45
The figures in the miniatures of the French
which have been attributed to the workshops
Master, and the Lugon Master. For example, t
painted by the Boucicaut Master in the Livre
Berry shortly before 1413 (P1. 9b, c).46 The
resembles a doctor in the Cambridge Propriit
scholars in a second copy of the same text
stance, proportions and fall of the drapery of
of the Turin Pliny are related to miniatures fr
Pisan which were made about 1405.48 Kings
similar to Pompey and Julius Caesar (P1. io
the workshops of the Boucicaut Master and th
a scene of Darius in the Stocks from the Cas des no
de Berry for the New Year of 141 I (P1. iob).4
44See n. 3 above. There is no mention of the 46 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42 above, The Boucicaut Master,
provenance in either G. Passini, Codices manuscriptipp. I I6-22 (Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS fr. 2810,
Bibliothecae Regii Taurinensis Athenaei per linguas digesti,fol. 29v).
Turin 1749, Codd. 465-66; or in the Inventari dei 47 Ibid., pp. 58-59, 122-23, and figs 449-51 (Paris,
manoscritti delle biblioteche d'Italia, 28, 1922 (F. Cosentini), Bibliotheque Nationale, MS fr. 9141, fols 43', 217V, and
p. I39, nos. *1353 and R. 1354. Descriptions in bothI97r).
French and Italian in the files of the Biblioteca 48 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42, The Limbourg Brothers, Text,
Nazionale refer to traces of the Berry 'ex-libris' pp. 12-15, and 290; Plates, figs 35-36 and 39 (Paris,
at the
end of the first volume. Bibliotheque Nationale, MSS fr. I 179 and 607).
45 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42, The Boucicaut Master, pp. I02-04, 49 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42 above, The Boucicaut Master,
and fig. 392; and D. Byrne, 'The Boucicaut Master andPP. 47, 50, and fig. 397 (Geneva, Bibliothique publique
the Iconographic Tradition of the "Livre des Proprites et universitaire, MS fr. 190, i, fol. 139').
des Choses"', Gazette des Beaux-Arts, xcII, 1978,
pp. 149-53 (Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum,
MS 251).
The landscapes of the Turin Pliny with castles, towns and bodi
fish also find echoes in miniatures from the circle of the Boucicau
subtle nor as complex as the best of such landscapes, howeve
Turin Pliny are the large aggressively curling acanthus leaves
grounds (Pls 5c, 7c, 9d, Iod). Miniatures in which the 'sky' is fille
intense blue or in lighter colours are found at least as early as th
in the Parement Master's section of the Tris Belles Heures de Notr
well into the second decade of the fifteenth century in the work
Master and the Cite des Dames Master. In these examples, ho
have narrower and more delicate leaves than the Turin Pliny min
These comparisons indicate a date for the Turin Pliny between
artist in the circle of the Boucicaut Master. He could have been the Cite des Dames
Master. The Pliny painter certainly fits Millard Meiss's characterization of that arti
someone who specialized in secular texts in the first two decades of the fifteenth cent
The poor condition of the Turin miniatures makes it difficult to confirm their ident
tion, but at least the localization to the circle of the Boucicaut Master is plausible.
The miniatures of the French Historia naturalis in Turin have the formal and ico
raphic unity which is lacking in the Ambrosiana Pliny of 1389 by Pietro da Pavi
suggests that he was working from a prototype which was more consistent in appea
than the Ambrosiana Pliny itself. The model must have included both the herb
medical imagery of the Bolognese Pliny of 1300oo now in the Escorial, and some of
distinctive images of the Ambrosiana Pliny such as the nude statue with candelabra.
probably the model was Italian, and political and cultural ties between the Valois and
Visconti courts could have facilitated obtaining such a model. The fact that all
medieval and Renaissance illustrated copies of Pliny known at present are Italian fur
supports the notion of the Italian origin of the most extensive cycle.
In the French Pliny the miniatures which are most closely related to the herbal
medical imagery of the earliest illustrated Historia naturalis are not surprisingly at
beginning of the zoological, botanical and medical books. An elephant and castle initi
Book viii on animals; a triton and fish swimming in the sea are used for Book I
beehives are the motif for Book xI on insects.52 The choice of a triton, a mythical cr
instead of fish alone or even the activity of fishing, is an indication of the classiciz
tendency of the French artist and his patron.
50 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42 above, The Late XIVth Century,

master. This is suggested by the reappearance of bees
and/or beehives in the Cristoforo Cortese Pliny in
Text, pp. 337-40, and Plates, figs9 and I6 (Paris,
Bibliotheque Nationale, MS nouv. acq. lat. 3093,Parma
pp. 50(MS Parm. I278, fol. 7ov); and for Book xI of the
following
and 162); and The Boucicaut Master, p. 47, and fig. 393 Renaissance copies: London, Victoria and
Albert Museum, MS A.L. I504-I896 (Giuliano
(Paris, Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, MS 5193, Boccaccio,
Des Cas des nobles hommes et femmes, fol. 229, Cite des c.i 46o; J. I. Whalley, Pliny the Elder: Historia
Amedei,
Dames Master, c. 1411); and pp. 96-97, and figs naturalis,
345, London 1982, p. 20); Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale, R6s. S. 415 (Venice, N. Jenson, 1472);
347, 351 (London, British Library, MS Royal I5.D.III,
Oxford,
Guiart des Moulins, Bible historiale, fols I5v, 31', and Bodleian Library, Inc. Douce 310 (Venice, N.
219', Boucicaut Workshop, c. 1415). Jenson, 1476); Venice, Biblioteca Marciana, MS lat. vi,
5s Meiss, op. cit. n. 21 above, pp. 56-6I. 245 (2976), 1481 (see n. 4o above); Turin, Biblioteca
52 Book xI of the Ambrosiana Pliny by Pietro da Nazionale,
Pavia MSS 1.1.22-1.1.23, Mantua, 1463-69 and
was illustrated by a sequence of insects, including 1489ff.
bees, (A. Bovero, 'Ferrarese Miniatures at Turin',
in the margin of folio I 16r (n. 29 above). It is probable,
Burlington Magazine, xcix, August 1957, pp. 26o-63, and
however, that a miniature with bees (or beehives) fig.alone
3, fol. 8').
was in the model immediately followed by the French
32 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
The vocabulary of the miniatures in the b
Italian manuscripts already discussed. Varieties
and xx. They rise from dull green grass-sprinkl
the heavy coiling pink or blue acanthus lea
depicted for Book xiv, and trees combined with
books in which Pliny considers viticulture.
Like the Italian copies of the Historia naturalis
physicians and of a magician. For Book xxix
physician, a standing figure with a urine flask
artist of the Escorial Pliny showed a man grind
Book xxvi is another for which physicians are
Pietro da Pavia depicted a dignified scholar h
shows a physician attending a patient (P1. Ioc).
chapter of Book xxvi in which Pliny praises
bedside of the sick man, and holds a dark instru
French Pliny has thus shifted an image fou
surgical treatises to a text which praises a spec
The magician of the Turin Pliny is more ex
were the figures in curious pointed hats of the
with folded arms in the middle of a magic circ
goat's horns and grasping claws (P1. Iod).
conjuring in a magic circle, but references to s
1400.4 Representations of this practice, how
53Both Italian and French medical

p. 14); manuscripts
later 16th- and I7th-centu
abound with images of physicians at the bedside
Clavicula include of
descriptions of
patients. For Italian examples(S. L. see Vienna,Mathers,
MacGregor Codex 93, The Key
London
fols 78', 85v, 86'ff. (facsimile I909,
edition, pp.above),
n. 16 vii and 99-Ioo
and
the Yale Codex Paneth, pp. 20, An53,image
I 13 of(seea n.
necromancer
17 above). w
For a French 13th-century magicexample circle) from a British
see London, southern
about 1300
Library, Sloane MS I977, Rogerius has recently
Salernitanus, been p
Chir-
('Allegorical
urgia (in French), c. I250, fols 3r, 9v, and Women and Practic
47V. 'Portraits'
of specific ancient physiciansphy ofwere
the included in many
Artes Reconsidered', St
medical manuscripts and in Subsidia I: Medieval
I4th-century Women,
herbals, but Ox
are usually shown seated esp. or even
pl. I, enthroned beforeMS
British Library,
lecterns (see n. 19 above, and Baumann,
Latini, op. cit.fol.
Livre du tresor, n. 10
IV, Pra
above, pp. 102-03 and figs and Non-Liberal
79a-b: artes). Evans n
Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale, MS lat. 6823, fols I' and
about 1225 Iv,on Manfredus, De
the North porch
herbis et plantis, Lombard, but mid-14th
emphasizes century;
the rarityand of the
pp. 107-o8 and fig. 8oc: Florence,
that theBiblioteca
Brunetto Nazionale,
Latini folio con
MS Palatino 586, fol. 7', Tractatus de are
ers' who herbis
also[in French]).
found in Pliny il
54 Thorndike notes that references to magic
Quattrocento circles
including are
a physici
included in writings associated
monk with
and the names
a layman of Kinga pai
writing,
Solomon, Michael Scotus, weaver,
William andof Auvergne,
a ploughman. andSince
Pietro d'Abano; the manuscripts
in the he cites, however,
Brunetto are
Latini manuscri
ary
later in date than the French to the
Pliny (op. earliest
cit. n. I known illustr
above, ii,
pp. 227, 288, 321, 343, 345 and 912). C.
manuscript), theC.relationship
McCown b
refers to a Greek 'medieval' manuscript
unclear. (London,
Perhaps further resear
British Library, Harl. MS 5596) containing
connection the the
between Clavicula
represen
Salomonis (The Testament of Solomon,
illustrated New York 1922,
manuscripts of Pliny.
fifteenth century, when they appear again in copies of the H
woodcuts of printed texts dealing with magical practices.55
In contrast to the animals, plants and physicians, which ca
earliest Bolognese illustrated copy of Pliny, there are miniatures i
which can be linked most intimately to the Ambrosiana Plin
garland makers of Book xxi and the statue of a nude with c
(P1. 7c) which have already been discussed. They should now be r
an effort to understand the overall programme of the French ma
The third category of images in the French Pliny are those not
fully illustrated Italian copies of Historia naturalis. These miniatur
the first seven books of the French manuscript. A predilection f
personages is evident on the opening folio. One of the two minia
with armed soldiers approaching a shore above which a mountain
Clearly the scene is Pliny's fatal visit to the vicinity of Mt Vesuvi
A.D. 79, an episode only rarely repeated in later illustrated copies o
Unpopulated landscapes with castles, hills and bodies o
miniatures of the geographical Books Iii to v. The question
landscapes are a French contribution to the Pliny cycle must
Bolognese Pliny of about 1300 used a map-like landscape not for
but to represent the universe at the beginning of the cosmologic
noted that the thirteenth-century medical compendium Vie
landscapes to designate the origins of certain herbs (P1. 4a). T
could have supplied this imagery to the Pliny cycle. Moreover, a
Venetian Pliny now in Paris includes among its incomplete illu
one geographical book, Book Iv, which is similar to the later Fren
all subsequent fifteenth-century Italian manuscripts includ
illustrate the geographical books. Despite the sparseness of the ev
Italian model used by the French artist already included landscap
Historia naturalis.
The miniature for Book vi which Pliny devotes to Asia, and th
Book vii on Man, depict the monstrous peoples of the East: a
headed man and a sciapode (P1. 9b). Pliny describes many exotic t
his descriptions were pirated for use in medieval compilations of w
des Merveilles. The visual images of the sciapode and other m
traced back to late antique models, and they were certainly wide
55 The Renaissance examples in copies of

57 Paris, Pliny Nationale,
Bibliotheque are: MS lat. 68oi, fol. 51.-
London, Victoria and Albert Museum, MS A.L.
The manuscript 1504-
has only a few initials with images
1896, fol. 430'r (see n. 52 above); Paris, related to the text of the Historia naturalis. Most of the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Res. S. 415, Book xxx (see n. 52 is late i4th or early I5th century, and there
decoration
above); Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, MSS 1.1.22-23,
are later 15th-century additions. On fol. 31' are the arms
Book xxx (see n. 52 above and U. Meroni, Mostra
of the dei
Bollani family of Venice. The manuscript will be
published in the forthcoming catalogue of the Italian
Codici Gonzagheschi, Biblioteca Comunale, 18 settembre-lo
ottobre, 1966, Mantua 1966, pl. io6); and illuminated
Venice, manuscripts of the Bibliotheque Nationale
Biblioteca Marciana, MS. lat. vI, 245 (2976) (see (verbal
n. 40
communication, Dr Franrois Avril, January
above). 1979).
56 For a late 15th-century Neapolitan example see 5ssWittkower, op. cit. n. 9 above, pp. 171-76, and
Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, MS Vat. lat. 3533, pls 42a, b, c, and 44c.
fol. I'.
34 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
immediate ambience of the artist of the Turin
by the Boucicaut Master in the Duc de Berry's
(P1. 9c) .59 As already mentioned, the two figur
the text of the Historia naturalis, images of mo
illustrations for Book vi on Asia and Book vii on Man.60
The additional miniatures illustrating Book vii of the Turin Pliny are unique among
known medieval and Renaissance copies of the Historia naturalis. The eight miniatures
clustered on folios 91 recto to 93 verso are not at all typical. An illustrated Pliny normally
has at most one miniature at the beginning of each of the thirty-seven books. The
miniatures initiate chapters 26-28 (Loeb 25-27) and 30-34 (Loeb 29-33) of Book vii,
which are filled with references to famous men and women.61Julius Caesar is depicted as
a king riding a peculiar white horse for whose hooves have been substituted human hands
(P1. Ioa). This odd attribute does not depend upon the accompanying text of the Historia
naturalis, but comes from a story in Suetonius in which Caesar is said to have ridden a
remarkable horse 'with feet that were almost human, for its hoofs were cloven in such a
way as to look like toes'.62 Pompey the Great follows, also shown in medieval armour. He
faces three kneeling kings, and three similarly crowned figures lie dead behind him. The
miniature perhaps alludes to Pliny's emphasis on Pompey's triumphs when he was still a
knight (eques Romanus), and to the titles which, like crowns at the sacred contests,
Pompey brough back to bestow on Rome.63 Chapter 28 (Loeb 27) refers to Cato the Elder.
The miniature shows a man standing on a hillock gesturing toward three banqueters
seated at a table at the right. The kneeling King of Chapter 30 (Loeb 29) must be
Alexander the Great to whom there is a reference in that chapter. The damaged miniature
at the beginning of Chapter 31 (Loeb 30) shows a bishop, a man in the costume of a doctor
or magistrate, and a nobleman (?). In this chapter Pliny calls Plato the high priest of
wisdom (Platoni sapientiae antistiti), and he goes on to praise other orators and writers.
The bishop may refer to 'antistiti'.64
On folio 93 this unusual sequence comes to a climax with three miniatures. The text of
the very short Chapter 32 (Loeb 31) mentions Romans with the surnames Wise and Sage,
and Socrates 'whom the Pythian Apollo's oracle placed before all other men'. There is
little in these few sentences to explain the woman and two children walking into a small
building with hands piously folded. In contemporary French manuscripts of other texts,
there are miniatures of Socrates in Prison, so the scene might be Xanthippe bringing the
59 Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS fr. 2810, fol. 29' the Bud6 editions (see nn. 7 and 12 above). Acknow-
(R. Wittkower, 'Marco Polo and the Pictorial Tradition ledgement of variations in the enumeration is made in
of the Marvels of the East', in Allegory and the Migration of
the Bud6 edition, however (Livre vii, trans. and comm.
Symbols, Boulder, Colo. 1977, pp. 77-96, fig. 123). See by R. Schilling, Paris 1977, esp. 71-82). I shall use the
also n. 46 above. numbering in the Turin manuscript followed by those of
60 The sciapode and several other monstrous peoples the Loeb edition in parentheses.
are used by Giuliano Amadei for Book vii in the Victoria62 Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (Loeb
and Albert Museum Pliny (MS A.L. 1504-1896, Classical Library), Latin and English ed. byJ. C. Rolfe,
fol. 94v). Books vi and vii of the Pico della Mirandola New York 1914, I, pp. 82-83 (Divus Iulius, LXI). I am
Pliny of 1481 in the Biblioteca Marciana (MS lat. vI, 245 grateful to Dr Jennifer Montagu of the Warburg
[2976]) are illustrated with monstrous peoples, and the Institute for this reference.
first printed edition of the Historia naturalis with woodcut63 Turin, Book vii, xxvii (Loeb, vii, xxvi, 97).
illustrations continues the tradition (Venice, Melchior64 Loeb, vII, xxx, I o.
Sessa, 1513, Book vi).
61 The numbering of the chapters in Book vii of the
Turin Pliny does not correspond with the Loeb nor with
children to bid farewell to Socrates. The children, however, appe
would be inaccurate.65s The overseer and farmworkers digging in
miniature likewise do not match Pliny's description of Chilo the S
(Loeb 32). Finally, the damaged miniature at the beginning of C
which shows three people kneeling at an altar on which stands a nud
again seems unrelated to anyone praised in this part of Book vii.
Except for the sciapode, the miniatures of Book vii in the Turin Pli
the study of the cycle developed to illustrate the Historia natur
migrated from one text to another at this period is not at all clear,
phenomenon is an isolated one for a particular text.66 For the m
miniatures in Book vii of the Turin Pliny serve to indicate that the
completely satisfied with the naturalistic imagery found in earlier illu
Historia naturalis. The Turin Pliny is thus an exceptionally interestin
Duke's taste, as well as being an important example of the transm
France of a highly developed iconographic cycle for a classical author
THE CRISTOFORO CORTESE PLINY IN PARMA
The importance of the extensively decorated Pliny in the Bibliot

twofold. Firstly, it can be shown to belong to the mature period
miniaturist Cristoforo Cortese. Then, iconographically it is the m
of the Gothic cycles of the Historia naturalis. A survey of its min
summary of the medieval cycle and as a preview of the Renaissan
Recent studies of Cristoforo Cortese have shown him to be the
ist active in Venice in the early Quattrocento. His career is docum
about 1399 to 1445, and it is also noteworthy that he spent sever
1425. A signed miniature of the Funeral of St Francis dated abou
for establishing attributions to Cortese, and together with a
related works it is similarly helpful in attributing and dating th
The formal characteristics of Cristoforo Cortese's style are
Historia naturalis in the marginal decoration, in the forms of the
figures throughout the manuscript. The various elements can
with the finest works of the i420S such as the signed St Fran
Marmottan, Paris; the recently attributed Cicero in the libra
65 Loeb, vii, xxxi, i i9: Socrates oraculo

(op. cit. Apollinis
n. 42 above, The Boucicaut Master,
and 108-13).
Pythii praelatus cunctis. Meiss lists contemporary
miniatures of Socrates in prison in two 67 See n. 4 of
copies above.
the Trisor
68 C. Huter, MS
des histoires: Paris, Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, 'Cristoforo
5077,Cortese in the Bodleian
Library', Apollo,
fol. IOg'; and Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS nouv.cxI, 198o, pp. I1-17, with earlier
bibliography.
acq. fr. 14285, fol. 5v (op. cit. n. 42 above, For documents on Cortese see especially
The Boucicaut
I. Chiappini
Master, p. I Io; and The Limbourgs, p. 346). If thediwoman
Sorio, 'Documenti per Cristoforo
is not Xanthippe (Phaedo, I16B), she might
Cortese', be the
Arte veneta, xvII, 1963, PP. 156-58. The St
Pythia (The Apology, 2I A), or Diotima Francis(Symposium,
cutting was formerly in the Wildenstein
201 D), but neither of these latter twoCollection
women and is now in the Mus&e Marmottan, Paris
mentioned
(M. Levi of
in the dialogues would explain the presence d'Ancona, 'Miniature venete nella collezione
children.
66 Meiss lists miniatures of Alexander, Caesar,
Wildenstein', ArteCato
veneta, x, 1956, pp. 25-36; and Huter,
and Pompey in manuscripts by artists op.
of cit.,
thep.circle
17, n. I).of the
Boucicaut Master in the first decades of the 15th century
36 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
Vermont, Burlington (P1. I Ic); or the Permissio
Treviso.69 The delicately drawn vine tendrils w
gold dots are found throughout Cortese's ma
peacocks, other exotic birds, white dogs (P1. 8b
the Parma Pliny. Types also frequently used
terminate in animal heads (P1. 6c) and those
bulging capitals (P1. 4c).
The style of the figures, as well as the letter
closest to works dated in the 1420o and ear
beginning of Book xxii (P1. 8b) is a more delica
Christ in the Gradual for the Certosa of Sa
proportions, costume and stance of the solidly
the Cato Uticensis in the Burlington Cicero (P1
Cicero De natura deorum in the Bodleian Lib
throughout the Parma Pliny are also those of C
pale pink or bright orange, and touches of bri
feathers of the birds and in the landscapes. Th
iconographical programme of the Parma Pliny
commissions of Cristoforo Cortese's mature
two-volume Vita Christi of Ludolf of Saxon
1430S.72
The iconographic programme of the Cristoforo Cortese Pliny in Parma shows that the
two principal strands of imagery developed for the Historia naturalis in the fourteenth
century have been skilfully merged. The initials for most of the zoological, botanical and
medical books are remarkably similar to the Bolognese Pliny of about 13oo, and the
remaining images can be traced either to the Pietro da Pavia manuscript of 1389 or to the
French Pliny in Turin, both of which reflect the naturalism associated with Lombard
illumination of the late Trecento.
Nineteen of the thirty-seven books of the Cortese Pliny correspond closely to the
comparable books in the Bolognese Pliny in the Escorial, and five others may also relate to
this earliest illustrated Pliny.73 Examples of the iconographic similarity would be the
72 For folio 4' of the Bolognese volume of the Ludolf of

69 For an illustration of the Funeral of St Francis clearly
showing the signature see P. Brieger, M. Meiss, C. Saxony
S. Vita Christi (Biblioteca dell'Archiginnasio, MS
Singleton, Illuminated Manuscripts of the Divine Comedy, A.
2 121) see D. Fava et al., op. cit. n. 31 above, p. 21, fig. 7;
vols, Princeton 1969, I, fig. Ioo. A second cutting with and
St for the Vienna half of the manuscript see Hermann,
Francis in Glory also from the Wildenstein Collection andop. cit. n. 12 above, viii, vol. vi, Die Handschriften und
the five historiated initials of the Burlington Cicero Inkunabeln
are der Italienischen Renaissance, part I, Oberitalien:
illustrated by P. Verdier, 'Un nouveau manuscrit
Genua, Lombardei, Emilia, Romagna, Leipzig 1930,
PP.59-74, no. 40, MS 1379 (Salis. 14) and plsxxviii
enlumine par Cristoforo Cortese', Arte veneta, xxx, 1976,
pp. 147-53. For the Foscari Permissione see S. Savini (fol. I'), xxIx (fol. 5"), and xxx (fol. 9Ir). The Dante is
Branca, 'Nota per Cristoforo Cortese', Arte veneta, xx, extensively illustrated in Brieger, Meiss, Singleton, op.
1966, fig. 279. cit. n. 69 above.
70 G. Mariani Canova, 'Di alcuni corali superstiti a S. 73 The folios initiating Books xI, xx, xxv and xxvI are
Giustina in Padova: Cristoforo Cortese e altri miniatori missing in the Escorial Pliny. In the Cortese manuscript
del Quattrocento', Arte veneta, xxIv, 1970, pp. 35-46, Book xI has bees, xx a herbalist, xxiv and xxv simple
and fig. 48. trees and plants, and xxvI three doctors. All of these
71 O. Piicht and J. J. G. Alexander, Illuminated could be imagined as present in the Escorial Pliny before
Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, ii, Italian School, Oxford its losses since the Cortese images are all consistent with
1970, P. 47, no. 451 and pl. XLIV. Huter dates the Cicero images already present elsewhere in the Escorial
c. 1415 (op. cit. n. 68 above). manuscript.
elephant of Book viii (P1. 2a, b), the fish and birds of Books ix and x
tree of Book xvii, and the trees of Books xv, xvI and xxiv. The m
combined with an olive tree is common to Book xxIIi of both sequenc
the flowers of Book xxI and the low-growing plants of Book xxv
between the Bolognese and Cortese manuscripts has already been
tiny wavy white lines to indicate rain or snow in the initial for Book
powers of water.
Physicians and herbalists decorate Books xii (P1. 6a), xx, xxvI, xxvI
Cortese Pliny, which correspond to the figures of Books xxii (P1. 3a)
and xxxii of the Bolognese manuscript. Like the artists of both t
French copies of the Historia naturalis Cortese depicts a magician for
I Id); his magus concentrates on a magic circle and other configur
ground.
Not only is there a high degree of correspondence iconographically between the
Cortese Pliny and the earliest Bolognese one, but often the form of the compositions is
similar as well (P1. 4b, c). The fact that Cristoforo Cortese was in Bologna for some
months in 1425, and had declared his intention to remain there, raises the possibility that
the Escorial manuscript was still in Bologna, and that Cortese had access to it when he
was commissioned to illustrate a Historia naturalis.74
Virtually all of the remaining initials of the Parma Pliny have their iconographic
counterparts either in the Ambrosiana Pliny of 1389 or in the French Pliny in Turin. This
fact suggests that Cortese had available to him as a model an illustrated copy of Historia
naturalis from the late Trecento, similar to the one used by the French artist, in which the
synthesis of the Bolognese and the Lombard types had already taken place.
Links to the iconography of the French manuscript are found in the landscapes which
Cortese adopts for the geographical books, inii to vi (P1. I Ie), the magician of Book xxx
mentioned previously (Pls Iod, I Id), and the ship which appears in both manuscripts to
illustrate Book xxxii on the useful properties of water.
The preoccupation with the activities of farmers and craftsmen which was noted as a
contribution of Pietro da Pavia in 1389 is also characteristic of Cortese. Like Pietro da
Pavia who shows a farmer sowing grain, Cortese has a farmer for BookxvIII, this time
wielding a hoe. For Book xix Cortese shows rows of flax and white linen cloths made from
the plant (P1. 6c); for this book Pietro da Pavia had shown a woman working with the
fibres (P1. 6b). Book xxxIIi on precious metals is illustrated in both by a miner digging at a
hillside; and the monastic miniaturist of Book xxxv of the Ambrosiana Pliny has become
74 The identification of the patron of the Cortese Pliny 1261 (C. Eubel, Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, Regens-
in Parma is difficult. The coat of arms painted at the burg I913, I, p. 7, n. 6 and p. 38, n. 4), but this is
bottom of folio Ir appears to be contemporary with theobviously too early for the Parma Pliny. Corrado
rest of the decoration. The Catologo degli manoscritti (see(Conradus) Caracciolo was a cardinal from 1405 to
n. 4 above) states that the arms may be those of Cardinal 141 I and served as a papal legate in Lombardy (Eubel,
Bernardo Caracciolo. Similar arms (argent a lion rampant op. cit., p. 26; and P. Litta, Famiglie celebri italiane, Milan
azure) are used by the Caracciolo Rossi and by the Rossi1819ff., series2, I, Tav. II). As has already been
of Parma (Francesco Caracciolo, Memorie della famigliaobserved, however, the style of the manuscript suggests
Caracciolo, 1893, pp. 28, 269, and 271). A Bernardoa date considerably later than 14I I. Further research
Caracciolo may have been a cardinal between 1252 and
may clarify the identity of the owner.
38 LILIAN ARMSTRONG
an elegantly-attired painter seated at an easel p
slab of marble and finished classical column of Cortese's Book xxxvi recall Pietro da
Pavia's marble worker; and the seven gems on a black ground of Cortese's Book x
resemble the ring of gems in the Ambrosiana initial.
Only two of the miniatures in the Cortese Pliny have no iconographic prototype in
earlier copies of the Historia naturalis. The description of the cosmos in Book ii does
seem to have acquired a standard image before Cortese's time. The Bolognese artist of
Escorial Pliny used a schematized map with castles and a river to suggest the uni
Pietro da Pavia anachronistically chose a God the Father holding an orb; and the Fren
artist of the Berry Pliny showed moon, sun and stars above a curving horizon (P
Cristoforo Cortese depicts a series of concentric rings surrounding a T-map (P1. I Ia).
formula ultimately derives from illustrated scientific compilations, but also appe
allegorical miniatures potentially available to Cortese. Two handsomely illustra
fourteenth-century Italian copies of Francesco da Barberino's Documenti d'amore con
images of Prudentia with similar schemes for the universe. Cortese has borrowe
scheme, probably from scientific compendia, and has adapted it to the classical text
which parts of the scientific compilations were originally drawn.76
The remaining figure in the Cortese Pliny which has no prototype in the kn
illustrated copies of the Historia naturalis is the appealing knight in armour at the begi
of Book xxII (P1. 8b). In all probability he should be explained as an inventive respons
the text itself. In Book xxII Pliny describes the crowns of grass which were presente
soldiers of an army to a commander who had saved his troops from destruction. Sinc
knight in Cortese's miniature clearly wears a crown of green grass around his helme
must certainly be such a commander.77
The Parma Pliny illustrated by Cristoforo Cortese is the only one of the fo
manuscripts in this study which has an uninterrupted sequence of thirty-seven initi
with images related to the text of each book.78 It is therefore extremely valuabl
reconstructing a stemma for the known illustrated Pliny manuscripts. All but two o
75 An artist at an easel, also dressed in bourgeois garb,

Zeichnungen 13oo-I45o, part I: Sud- und Mittelitalien, Berlin
appears among a crowd of citizens in a miniature1968, I1, Katalog 1-167, pp. 31-38, fig. 57, and iii, pl. 3Ib
(Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, MS Barb. lat. 4076,
attributed to Cortese dated about 1420 (Manchester,
John Rylands University Library, Ital. MS 4, fol.fol.
2'; 69v,
I. Prudentia; and MS Barb. lat. 4077, fol. 58v,
Toesca, 'Cristoforo Cortese', Paragone, xxIx, MayPrudentia).
1952,
pp.51-53 and fig. 21). For other panel painters seein the I5th century artists illustrating Book ii of
Later
Pliny also included circles for the spheres of the seven
Egbert, op. cit. n. 32 above, pls nii, xx, xxvi; Becherucci
and Brunetti, op. cit. n. 33 above, pl. 79; and Meiss,planets
op.drawn from similar sources, or following the
cit. n. 42 above, The Late XIV Century, Text, pp. 4-5,Cortese
and tradition (Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, MS
Plates, figs 287, 289, 290-92, and 294. Vat. lat. 3533 [see n. 56 above]; Oxford, Bodleian
76 A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo, LondonLibrary, 1952, Inc. Douce 3o10 [see n. 52 above]; and Venice,
p. 52. For the appearance of the T-map and concentric Biblioteca Marciana, MS vI, 245 [2976], [see n. 40
rings in world maps and other medieval scientific above]).
texts
see M. Destombes, ed., Mappemondes, A.D. I200-I500, 77 H. N., xxII, iv-vi. In Renaissance copies of Pliny the
Amsterdam 1964, PP. 1-i 13, and pls B, II, b; c, iii, commander
a; etc.; is specified as Lucius Siccius Dentatus, and
is appropriately
and H. Bober, 'An Illustrated Medieval Schoolbook of clothed in Roman armour (see
Armstrong, op. cit. n. 5 above).
Bede's De Natura Rerum',Journal of the Walters Art Gallery,
xIx-xx, 1956-57, pp. 65-97, figs I, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 78 13. I 2, 3 and 29 for details of the images missing in
See nn.
am grateful to Dr Michael Evans of the Warburg
the other manuscripts.
Institute for references on this topic.
For the Francesco da Barberino manucripts see
B. Degenhart and A. Schmitt, Corpus der italienischen
historiated initials in the Cortese manuscript, the cosmological s
knight of Book xxii, are directly related to illustrations in
manuscripts. The essential core of the images for the zoologic
books depends upon the images developed about I3oo in Bolog
from illustrated herbals. All the remaining initials in the Cortese
of a second impulse in the development of a Pliny cycle whi
farmers, miners and artisans of Pietro da Pavia and by the lands
of the French Pliny. It is likely that a synthesis of the Bolognes
images took place in northern Italy in the 1390s, and that it was k
artist of the Turin Pliny and to Cristoforo Cortese.79 It is the b
unified cycle which makes the Parma Pliny by Cortese a m
manuscript illumination, rather than an iconographic innovat
tion of Cristoforo Cortese in Venice would then help to exp
miniaturists were familiar with so many aspects of his cycle for
text.
WELLESLEY COLLEGE, MASSACHUSETTS
79 A possible stemma for the early Pliny manuscripts is:
Escorial, MS R.I.5
Bolognese, c. 1300
XI
(A manuscript
Escorial type
faulty)
Ambrosiana M
Pietro da Pav
(Adds to the
known Escor
I (An Italian manuscript

! with based
a complete cycle
on the Escorial
type, with specific
I knowledge of the Pietro
da Pavia innovations)
Parma, MS Parm. 1278 Turin, MSS

C. Cortese, c. 1425 1.1.24-25
French, c. 1410o
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(P.22) University Medical
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-i:iii'i-::---i- ' -: i-- - : i:-::: :

li-_i-:ii~:i: ---i:- i I- 1:i i .. ....- -- i: : ' -- ii i- --
:: : ::i :i :I -: : - : :
iiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ...... .. i-i iiiii ....- : : : - i-' -: :- -- : .-- -: -- ii i--: ::: :-

_: i~ii-_-:,:i-_-l:i:, -: i iliiiil-_-_-_:- _::--i::--: _-: _i,
C'~h3
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii-iiiiiiiii:i -iiii:ii- -i- iii - r-
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiii .. -ii- :.. :- - :
"""""'""'"'; ;;'-'l"
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii-i--iii- i ii__ ii- i-ii-i ..- - -::i .:... -:
ii~i-_:I---: _. -I -i i :: ii - ii :- --I: : - 1 - I i- -- -- i 1-I i ~~--_ . ri:~: " ~ ~ ~~ ii i:~"~:R1:-l:-"::r

iiiiiii:ii -:: iiiiisi:ii iii::: iiliii: i- .. i- :: :-:::: -:
:----::- ii-i::'i:-i ii-i-:: ii- i--i:i:i :-: ii - -- i :if
--
iiiiiiiiii?-i: i- ..- iiiiiiii ii-i ..- ii ii ::i i: ii - :i :-i:i~ i --~, ?
firutulaut tlL
trtl b-Cristoforo Cortese,i:. i: ... -:~~1"'1 "L*
---: :- ; :i-: __:::- !: : : ::iii :::-: _::::,-:- .. .. i
i i~ii:iii'iiiiii :iii::ii;:ii::i i-iii --i ii-:--:i ii ii
-... ::::: ::_I~; ~:

1425-30, Elephant, camel,
iiiiiiiii~~iii ii~i:i iiii-iii;iiii~ l;;l - i -:
leopard. Pliny, HN, iii:: -i : iiiiii i'i-i :- i': iiiii :i -:iii
..... :: . iiiiiiiii--i i:iiiiiiiiii-i :..: :i ii
Book viii. Parma, Biblioteca

i, iii iiiiiiiii-iiiii-: iiiii iiii::- iiiiiiiiiiii_ . i: : i ~:-l--:i;l~::s: --
:o : :v??rsJlibcLi?t;r~~ :i ii_ ii-:ii- --ii:ii----i i-i iii : - - I--~
Palatina, MS Parm. 1278

:iiii-i-:ii-iiiii_;i;i- iii~i: ii ii-iiii iiii -_':'.: iiiiiiiii i-iiii --iiiii:~l--i-- lii~i-_i:::i- :ii- -ii:::-
:5liiziiiiiiiii-::-:ii-__i-ii/:_-_i:i iii_:~ii--::; _ :_ ii _. __il- : -_____ ----I : : ::i-j -- -.* :
:::~ttit to- -j:t ::: ii iiiiiiiiiii:iiii i;-i-i:iiiiiiiii -ii i:iiii:si~iiii i:i iiii iiii iiiiiii iiiii iiii -i i- ii i-- - : I ~t~r~;?t~e~il?~~~ :~~ P;lxals?~~:?:~:-' - - ---: -
a [hereafter HN Parma],
l_~"tE~t.~- ~
fol. 5or (p- 37) i ~--
~~s?':6-
-i-ii iiiiiiiiiiiiii iiii iiiiiiiiiiii-iiiiiiiiiiii-iii:iiii-i~i-i i:_:i- i-i
i ~"'"~"-"~p"?g~,s"?
:i~i:-i:i:i-:i_-i:~_Il__:_-i:::-i -:ii i:i:~-ii--ii::iiii :_ii--;--i ~:_;lilii i~:
~-- -_I::: --i-:i:i

'i'iii- ''i'iii--'--"'iiiii iiiiii'ii''iiii -i iii :.: i' ''i
iii:iii?iii ijiiii:iii-~iiiiii iiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii:iii-
iiien i j til$ c a Iv.

iiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiijii iii iii iii iii iii ii:iiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii iii i: ?1?- ~iiiTii~i:ii-ir+~~:~~__~~?~ i~X~-:
''''- ''"'''-:'''-:'- .. -'''- 'i . "-'I' -" -';-:-':- . "'''~''-':"'''' ''' I "~i'~f'"~l i**~Pi".:B:"~"?:'lI~ 8~~-i~
,.: iiiiiiii?jii i::iiiii iii iiii_ iii__: . ii iii iiiii - i-ii ii ii-iii?iiiiiiii -i i i- :-i i:i:- i:i - i: -: i:i i:i:i i~i:*iii%:-
ii~iiiiiiiiii-i i :i:iiii: i:iiiii-iiiii -iiiiii iiiii i: ii; iili: iiiiii :. - . ii
iii~iiiii : iiiijiiiiiiii -iiiiiiii ii ii;i- ii iii:iiiiiii iii ii iiiiiiii ii i-ii
mu ul '''iiiiiii'i:i' :''':' ' ii-i -' i ' iiii : i-i-i : i- :ii 8~i;t;-~tr-i ~
Li ~ ---~
i-iii:iliii--
- - :- :
i'i"-'iiii ii'i-iiii-ii:i -i-i::i: --' ii-- -:ii -:-i:-' -ii'-'- --- i:- i:: --- ii -- ii ' -i-i- ii-':'i -i;- i I: i __ .. -:I_1I iii -ii: i: ::
wzur maqddw
'''- -':-'-"'''' ''""''""' '''"''"''''"-:'"'''' : - ': ... . 1' -. ::I-- ::-ii B -I I : -i i :- .::. -i -_ ii . ill: ... .-..
Ollit IOticettiLY6~ 1PUi$t'1tu

~:;-:--:-:~:-l--i:iii;:i-l-:ii::-i--:-ii _-ii: :I-i;-l__-iiiii:iiii ii-i::,iiiiii:i-ii:iiiiii-iii:-ii iiiiiiiiii -i-:ii:-ii:ii:i-ii---i-:i:i-i-iii ii-
iiiiiiiiiPiiiisiiiiiii:ji iiii .' '.'- iii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii- -. '- j:i -- iii ii-i jj:i i- iii:ii--jl -i: j: ji--i-i j -ji-:_- i_: i::i-ililij:-il
i'i"i'i"i i'i'ii':' i' "i' 'i-"i~iiiiiiiiiiiiiisii :... iiii i-:iiiiii iiiii i-iiii ii i-iii iii:iii~ii -ili iii i;i; i: i ii ii iii iii iii:-iii i . ii
~iii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii-i
'i"i"i'ii'i'ii'i'ii' 'i'i'i'i---i-iii i~ii-iiii iii:iii: -i:ii :::-::-:ii~:i:iiiiiiiiii
-i;i:-;:~i:-:i-:ji iiii:i-:::__
-: -; i; i-iii-inlijii i iiiiii
_,:i . i:ii iii:
i-iiii-i~i
to (17 noii I~_iiii i :: ii-i i- ii:i::i;i- iiiiiii ii_ ii
'. _.- .. _- i::: --i--ii- -i--i
i:i-:--- -- ;-: ii -li; :i: . : i--i ..
apm T- -tyt c-South Italian, I 3th iiiiiiisiiiii:i : iii iii ii
iipi ii~i~iii-iiiii ii :i-i iiii ii-iii_ . : i:l : ir
century, Bull and elephant.

_ii~iiii-iiiiiiii
Sextus Placidus, De ii~iiii.iii: i-ixii: iiii_ii;_ii:_i
i i- i:ii ii
i-i-ii:ii-iui-i-i-ii-i: iiiiii iii -:ii iiii
medicamentis ex animalibus.
Vienna, Nationalbibliothek,
outa mus aiali II - i . Cod. 93 [hereafter Vienna iii ii i-ii ii:i -i:i -:.: - ii-
,I~~.::ii -li- i-:il_'- :. -
Cod. 93], fol. I 25v (p. 24)
--- -i:i -i ---i- i:i -:- i:i -- ii iii iii ii
can a
;:::--iiii~ii
ntomani tflom. lfaozu-icl ftaWn
rtg nrffentanW~ .tiuic qjji!
otwu9ti4uperOil'oneQ v4qtract rt= mo

fl. pdnt4qpeA ahcziwtnm nrocnroil
t tlct altre tv pi
anon awtLinaaub4ruadt inblocrwcrlMt
;r ~~n~, A~
a 9,
a-Man picking herbs. HN

Escorial, Book xxii, fol. 146r
(P. 23)
:":~~~~~~~~~~tt I tlj:::~--~~~~ ,.,:

c-'S
De h
111111Hel
cu lltt
b-Man holding herb. HN

Escorial, Book xxvii, fol. 165r
b (P.23)
cn~~~~t~a ftcnit mu e::rmp,
I CI lit, z othttcye.'ecItxt
lit;
car teV 'lCatte monextb.ueMOOT",r ct

tur pinlm" xt, aw 004140; 66 1" geetm
sni lainequ4 t noum fictucet V1
fmrmanucw,- ueakwtget
p
r I ss.c...r ....
vtiw tcndgl-row.
.... ... ..
Afigi.W
tr, 4 4" -Zcadve
9 otwttc
c-Olive tr
Book xxiii,
b-Olive tree and grapevine. HNEscorial, Book xxiim, fol. 152r (P.
4'i
a-Crete and Sicily, Shepherds br

Apuleius, De medicamentibus her
a-Pietro da Pavia, 1389, Tree.
Pliny, HN, Book xvi. Milan,
Biblioteca Ambrosiana, MS E.24
inf. [hereafter HNMilan], fol. 153v
ttr- ftA : 'i. ... .... .... .11 " ' 1,
(p. 26)
nz (
11
m n1n ippnzirn mZfuo.

b-Herbalist inspecting plant. H
Milan, Book xxii, fol. 223r (p. 26
114; Q b IxCicCITbLlzr r*41W

VIn04e1f lg ct 1nub w 1p nmnim{ cmi
It r Ir 0A11111e1 O 1 ntl t1 ti o
uttta
rn 011In finn , thz vt1r flrtur a liti:l
CT1141 ftn1T.
nt*9 q en ,1tt anlsq ef . a r c fn foN
c-Circle
and vine
Naziona
fol. 68v
b-Woman making lin
Milan, Book xix, fol. 1
kil
... .....
II
Am.
aA
:AWL
a-Herbalist and plants. HN Pa
Book xii, fol. 78v (p. 36)
. .. ..:-:: :. - .... - _
Ilan i rc f ?tl
-:: :::--: t
c-Flax and linen cloths. HN Parma,

Book xIx, fol. 121' (p. 37)
d-Lombard, c. 1390, Rose. Theatrum san

Casanatense, MS 4182, fol. LXIx (p. 28) d
Va
~~~iv tiitisiph t pm : i :i i i- - : i
Vr
11nt
b-Statue and candelabra.
HNMilan, Book xxxIv,
..Am& I filt n fol. 323v (p. 28)
ttni in 114111t t
tienn
nibti d u-t
lr tliea uz
b
ifiloatimo nql? grana gir
9111Ae* Pigam oewrvt

d
ii :::r
tmle. Iviaxf ktte Idnue : : :
%Lie atttt palar imme

itoerdn qefrifi :::
: ~
:i
::
------
: : ---:-:-:-
i- -
::
a-Glycera making a rose chaplet. HN Milan, Book xxI, fol. 2 14r

(P.27)
c-Statue and candelabra. HN
fol. I83 (p. 28)
'i ell
cc :: :o m -a : da
air Aai rce?VOo?

Imtts WMa I lit pwdt
n - 'i t k".1: 11 r"
imimurW i
Ito fcallai cq f sphkefso
--Ap, * #WI dtlt

tVillt0 tt A If
mannisAL t
-Ie~apaM v ?Itn
to ciftAP C C 4COW1tal Mt AOWN
ad tedammras
attatoynaina oTn
tufitat* ton iito ii, t I i! t 10 IT I ]

mawtvb tier m :* Oatimu l
~~Alai pleikpsim
-
a flwttMlifti Otum# iitt0 01atk any

tjjtowiti 0 totlf, t ftI II II ali, IVtasest m**ttcutt da "sI N, 'Ym71~4
Ac ufutt ftul'-0 i tll lit tu I CO tilt -Iv (A?4AQ
man ha cttrtitfo
Illr (aocz vtetatt itta m talAAMUX4,

R~tt@ I (i (t MUM 41 lwmn
MCC t Mn tl; I
ov cuml 1ftPA titann-atwo lzt lft R# a
Iit;MIIt it (I ft{ o q t Ofati A it W&
iW1jnr ato$e *dtfTlrito Crt
a--Cosmos. HNTurin, Book ii, fol. 20' (p. 30) b-Knight wearing
(P 36)
- - :-i ill. ii-_i~i_: _-_i-ii-~i~i-.- -- ::ii:; iiiiiiii!ii
- ii i!: ::. - . i -:r _: __:- _i __I
~ ~~~~::::~~~~~ii~iiiiiiii iii!ii -- - -_: :_:_:_::i:: i - a-Boucicaut Master,

c. 1415, Physician with a
urine flask. Bartolomeus
Anglicus, Propriitis des choses,
Book v. Cambridge,
--ii -iiiii~ i
:: ~ -~Lii-iiiiiiii Fitzwilliam Museum,

i'!!i! !ii MS 251, fol. 54v (p. 30)
b-Sciapode.
(p. 30)
c-Boucicaut Master, 141o-13,

Monstrous peoples. Livre des merveilles.
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS fr.
28 1 , fol. 29v (p. 30)
d-Physician with a urine flask and

lumps of wool. HNTurin, Book xxIx,
fol. 139v (p. 30)
C d
10 PLINY MANUSCRIPTS BEFORE 1430
a-Julius Caesar. b-Lugon

HNTurin, Master
Book vii, fol. wo
91
(PP. 30, 34) stocks. Boccaccio, Cas
femmes. Geneva, Bib
universitaire, MS fr.
c-Physician attending d-Magician.

patient. HN Turin,HNTu
Book xxvi, fol. 105r (p. 32) fol. I48' (p. 32)
PLINY MANUSCRIPTS BEFORE 1430 II
r?
a-Cosmos. HN Parma,
I
Book ii, fol. I o (p. 38) rE-S!00~tir t
I. ~
I
WMII Ufa IIA%+ tknigil h

~~i ~ L~Bl s ~il1CB~'i~~Ba~~Bg~i:Sii:-'B~(:
!, 4vi
U!s~.-
b--Painter. HN Parma,
~~~s~s~p --p~~rt
Book xxxv, fol. 21or
(p. 38)
b
a
it
Spubhu. f tWr c t 111

P', Lt- t - ni euran
MI I It M A v,1,4 w "hI r. $ O
c-Cristoforo Cortese, c. 1425, Cato Uticensis and senators. Cicero, Paradoxa.

Burlington, University of Vermont Library (p. 36)
fk
A?
))ii
12[l :lli ": !llll~l~l
e-Landscape. HN Parm
d-Magician. HN Parma, Book xxx, fol. 186r
(P- 37) (P- 37)

Armstrong J. Warburg Courtauld, 1983.

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The Illustration of Pliny's Historia naturalis: Manuscripts before 1430

Author(s): Lilian Armstrong

4 Parma, Biblioteca Palatina, MS Parm. 1278 (H. H.

the most important early fifteenth

7 H. N., xxv, 2. Unless otherwise noted, rerumreferences to

fourteenth century must have know

THE BOLOGNESE PLINY IN THE ESCORIAL

The first known copy of Pliny with historiated initials related to t

12 See n. 2 above. The generally accepted number

14 G. Castelfranco, 'I codici miniati di San andDomenico di formerly Turin, Biblioteca Na

18 See n. 16 above. Byzantine and in western manuscripts dating before

images of the new cycle are found r

THE AMBROSIANA PLINY BY FRA PIETRO DA PAVIA

The Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan possesses a sumptuously de

Nine of the books in the Ambrosiana Pliny have only decorative

25 See n. 6 above. 28 Ibid., fig. 280 (fol. 223r, Book xxii).

30 Cogliati Arano, op. cit. n. 27 above, 83; V. W. 278

scripts of a new kind of health man

is Vienna, Rome, Paris,

THE BERRY PLINY IN TURIN

Jean, Duc de Berry, was the single most important patron of ma

40 H. N., xxxiv, vi, I 1-12, and ix-xix. The

50 Meiss, op. cit. n. 42 above, The Late XIVth Century,

53Both Italian and French medical

55 The Renaissance examples in copies of

THE CRISTOFORO CORTESE PLINY IN PARMA

The importance of the extensively decorated Pliny in the Bibliot

65 Loeb, vii, xxxi, i i9: Socrates oraculo

72 For folio 4' of the Bolognese volume of the Ludolf of

75 An artist at an easel, also dressed in bourgeois garb,

WELLESLEY COLLEGE, MASSACHUSETTS

79 A possible stemma for the early Pliny manuscripts is:

I (An Italian manuscript

Parma, MS Parm. 1278 Turin, MSS

-i-i~i~i iiiiiiiiiiii- i iii :i-i--:ii-~~~~x~iii :---iii i~iiiiii!

4n *f d,4u*4pm 1 m in t :: : : t Ucn UUIpaqu o

...... : , ,, i ,, i:. .: ia ? ? ....... : n nifp sa n a e l to0

tovat taiks 44f #swhe0f, pr 0onow low *W# .n0m

1i " L tinatI qutmp& w wn add% as Whu m"aAby t-v anA.(.1.1 .10M1

m 1AmMeo1w*PK "AM 41sat il, Oq4 ***,aqh s% i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Niio w

........ . .IIIIIIIIIIIIII. ..IIIIIIIIII , :::i::::::iiiii

vow y44 4u1 : t.*.o*-*4# m*4 w

ii g:iiiiiiiriiiiiiiii -- ii:-iiii:i --i i:i-

-:-ii-i:-i:i: ::-ii-i -i-i-i -7 ::i-i-: -i-- -i-:--:i-i i-ii~

-ii :: .. iiii - :i iiil -ii i-i i i:: - ii i- . .. : -_:_ i: ii --- -~

.. _ I --_- 1 - -. I-'I -I- -

iirii-iiiiiiii-iiiiii iiiiiii iiii -i -i :: i

-i:iii'i-::---i- ' -: i-- - : i:-::: :

iiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ...... .. i-i iiiii ....- : : : - i-' -: :- -- : .-- -: -- ii i--: ::: :-

ii~i-_:I---: _. -I -i i :: ii - ii :- --I: : - 1 - I i- -- -- i 1-I i ~~--_ . ri:~: " ~ ~ ~~ ii i:~"~:R1:-l:-"::r

-... ::::: ::_I~; ~:

Book viii. Parma, Biblioteca

Palatina, MS Parm. 1278

:i~i:-i:i:i-:i_-i:~_Il__:_-i:::-i -:ii i:i:~-ii--ii::iiii :_ii--;--i ~:_;lilii i~:

~-- -_I::: --i-:i:i

iii:iii?iii ijiiii:iii-~iiiiii iiii iiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii:iii-

iiien i j til$ c a Iv.

Ollit IOticettiLY6~ 1PUi$t'1tu

century, Bull and elephant.

otwu9ti4uperOil'oneQ v4qtract rt= mo

a-Man picking herbs. HN

:":~~~~~~~~~~tt I tlj:::~--~~~~ ,.,:

b-Man holding herb. HN

4n f d,4u4pm 1 m in t :: : : t Ucn UUIpaqu o

vow y44 4u1 : t..o-4# m4 w

~ ::::~ii~iiiiiiii iii!ii -- - -_: :_:_:_::i:: i - a-Boucicaut Master,