COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES

● plans, means or wage of changing info

7 Types of Communicative Strategies

1. Nomination

● speaker carries out nomination to collaborately and productively establish a topic

2. Restriction

● refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker

3. Turn Taking

● people decide who take the conversational floor

● give all communicators a chance to speak

4. Topic - Control

● how procedural formality or informality affects the developments of topic on conversation

5. Topic Shifting

● moving from one topic to another

6. Repair

● address the problem in speaking, listening and comprehending what they may encounter in a
conversation

7. Termination

● close-initiating expressions that ends a topic in a conversation

AVOIDANCE OR REDUCTION STRATEGIES AND ACHIEVEMENT FOR COMPENSATORY STRATEGIES

1. Avoidance or Reduction Strategies

- also called message adjustment strategies (Corder, 1951)

- include message replacement, topic avoidance. or in instances where a communicator completely to

refuses to take message abandonment

• Semantic Avoidance

- speaker communicate something different from what he/she originally intends (totally different)

• Message Reduction

- message is expressed, but it is less accurate than the original idea

• Message Abandonment
- you leave the message unfinished because of language difficulty

• Topic Avoidance

- you try not to talk about concepts difficult for you to express

2. Achievement or compensatory strategies

- used to achieve the purpose of communication despite difficulties in conveying one's message due to
the lack of linguistic resources

• Paraphrase or circumlocution

- you describe or paraphrase the target object or action

• Approximation

- you use an alternative term to express the meaning of the target word as closely as possible.

• All-purpose-words

- you expand a general ward to the context where certain words are lacking like the overuse of the
words: things stuff, make,do, what do you call it, what is it.

• Non-linguistic means.

- you mime, the gestures, use facial expression and imitate sound to express the meaning you want.

• Restructuring

- having another attempt at the same sentences

• Word Coinage

-you create a new English word based on what you know of the way English works

• Literal translation

- you translate a word on an idioms from your mother tongue to English sharing the structure of your
first language

• Foreignizing

- trying out on word out adjusting it slightly

- you use the word in your native language but pronounce it like English.

• Code Switching

- refers to the use or insertion of a language item other than the language used in the discourse.

- you use the native word or expression for the English term that expresses the meaning you want

• Code Mixing
- proficient on both language

- bilingual

• Retrieval

- strategies are used when learners have too difficulties in retrieving specific interlanguage terms

Communicative strategies

-refers to plans, way's or means of sharing information which are adopted to achieve a particular social,
political, psychological, or linguistic purpose

FACTORS AFFECTED BY A SHIFT IN SPEECH CONTEXT, SPEECH STYLE, SPEECH ACT, AND
COMMUNICATINE

1. Language Form

- refers to the formality for informality of the language used and it involves the choice of words and how
sentences

Utterances are structured

● Formal

- used when talking with professionals or persons in authority in a formal

● Informal

used without much consideration to ruler of convection or etiquette.

2. Duration of the Interaction

- refers to the amount of time a conversation takes between and among communicators.

• long

• average

• short

3. Relationship of speaker

- refers to the speech style used by the speaker suited to his/her relationship to the person with whom
he/she is communicating

a. Intimate

b. Frozen

c. Consultative

d casual
e. Formal

4. Role and Responsibility of speaker

- refers to the role and responsibility of the speaker which will depend on the purpose and context of
communication

• To inform

• To persuade

• To entertain

5. Message

- involves the content of the message

• facts

• opinion

• suggestion

• feelings

• questions

6. Delivery

- refers to the manner of delivery involving verbal and non-verbal cues made by the speaker

•extemporaneous

• impromptu

• memorized

• manuscript

OUTLINE- Is a list that clearly states the purpose of the speech, the thesis, topic, the structure of ideas.

RESEARCH: Is a careful study that is done to find and report new knowledge about something.

SOURCES FOR RESEARCHING:

1. Internet Research - Due to internet, researching for relevant and timely data about a particular topic
is made easy wherein just one click from a right site, the information we are looking will be flashed in
front of you in just a second. In researching for information, one must be very careful and cautious
about the information he/she is getting because not everything from the internet is reliable.

2. Library Research - the information is generally reliable and written by professionals and experts in
their fields. The library also holds information that is most often not found on the internet. Depending
on the kind of library and how extensive its resources are, the researcher would find it less taxing to
gather materials in the library.
3. Interview - allows the researcher to ask specific questions and receive precise answers. A speech
writer may also gather information by conducting interviews to experts in topic. And before conducting
an interview, the researcher must take interview guidelines into account.

4. Personal Observation - is often used in doing qualitative research. Personal Observation allows a
researcher to identify or analyze human behavior, cultural values, or the thinking processes of a
particular group of people in a particular context.

Information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized
methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books

Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies

SOURCING INFORMATION

1. Search RELEVANT sources

-In order to write a good speech, find sources on internet from where you can collect data. e.g. Journal
directories; Library databases

-Be careful not to choose inauthentic sources that can give false data

- It is often advised to start from the most recent articles and work backwards.

How to search effectively?

1. Identify search words

■ Analyze the topic or title of your speech.

✓ What are the main ideas?

✓ What concepts have you already covered?

✓ Write down your main ideas, synonyms, related words and phrases.

2. Connect your search words

■ To find results with one or more search words use OR e.g. adolescent OR teenager

■To find results with two search words use AND e.g. adolescent AND "physical activity"

■ To exclude search words use NOT e.g. (adolescent OR teenager) NOT "young adult

3. Use Research tricks

a. Truncation (*)

■The asterisk symbol (*) will help you to search for different word endings.

e.g. teen will find results with the words: teen, teens, teenager, teenagers

b. Phrase searching ("......")

• Double quotation marks help you to search for common phrases and will make your results more
relevant.

• e.g. "physical activity" will find result with the words physical activity together as a phrase

c. Wildcard (?)

■ Wildcard symbols allow you to search for spelling variations within the same or related terms

■ e.g. wom? n will find results with women OR woman

4. Improve your search results

• Narrow and refine your search results by:

✓ Year of publication or date range (for recent or historical research)

✓ Document or source type (e.g. article, review or book)

✓Subject or keyword (for relevance)

5. Keep track of your reference

2. Scan the materials

■For writing a good speech, do not go for each and every sources you see.

Scan through the stuff and select only that you find are relevant to your research topic.

Scan all articles first by reading the following sections:

1. Abstract

2. First few paragraphs

3. Discussion section

4. Conclusion

WHAT IS YOUR WORD COUNT?

FORMULA: Word Count = Speaking Rate (wpm) X No. of minutes

GRAMMATICAL CORRECTIVENESS

GRAMMAR

In addition to punctuation errors, grammatical mistakes, such as having fragments and run-ons, subject-
verb agreement errors, or misplaced modifiers, can also lead to confusion among your readers

In sentences, the subject must agree with the verb in number. This means that if you have a plural
subject you must have a plural verb and if your subject is singular, it must be accompanied by a singular
verb

ARTICLES
A ,AN ,THE

DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE

Used before a particular or specific noun

It doesn't matter if it is:

- Singular

- Plural

- uncountable

INDEFINITE ARTICLES: A, AN

A AN

If the next word starts with If the next word starts with a vowel or a vowel sound

a consonant or a consonant sound

Example: 1 She is A hero. Example: 1. She is AN umpire

2. She is A unique person 2. She is AN honest person

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

IN

-Period (range) (not specific time)

Example:

-In the 21st century, technology

-In December

-In 1997

ON

-Day (specific time)

Example:

-See you on Monday That’s on the 5th of October

AT

-Hour (or a part of the day) (very specific time)

Example:

-Meet me at 8:00 That’s at night

PREPOSITION OF PLACE
IN

-Inside( e.g,in the box, in the room)

ON

-Above

-Attached

AT

-Events(e.g. a party)

-Exact position

FILL OUT,UP,IN

FILL UP

-When talking about some empty container and you filling the container with something up.

FILL OUT

-For forms or questionnares

FILL IN

-A specific part of a form (a blank or shape)

IN BEHALF ON BEHALF

IN BEHALF

-For the benefits, advantage,or interest of

-Helping others

ON BEHALF

-As the agent of

-In the place of

-Representing someone

SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.
2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
Example: They write every day.
3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by
and, use a plural verb.
Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of employees who
left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job satisfaction
4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must
agree with the subject.
Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-depth
understanding of participants.
5. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a singular
verb.
6. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody,"
"anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and require
a singular verb.
Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded. Example: Neither alternative
hypothesis was accepted
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates In the study
7. Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
Example: Education is the key to success.
Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
8. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since "there"
is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Example: There is little administrative support.
Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.
9. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection depending on the meaning.
Some exanipies are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and "class.
Conceived of as one entity - takes a singular verb
ex. Our school team has won its games.
Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership - takes plural verb
ex. Our school team have won all their games.
10. Some common and proper nouns ending in -s, including -ics nouns and certain diseases are
always conceived as single entity - take a singular verb.

The recent news is exciting.

Mathematics is repelling to many students.
11. Titles of works even when plural in form are conceived of as single entitles.
• The Ten Commandments is a beautiful movie.
• The Syntax Files is good reading for those in linguistics.
12. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun "pair" is present but take the
plural when "pair" is absent.
That pair of Lee jeans is expensive.
My glasses are missing.
 13. Fractions and percentages takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a noncount noun and
a plural verb when they modify a plural noun. Either a singular or plural verb inflection may be
used when they modify a collective noun, depending on the speaker's meaning.
• More than half of the cake is eaten.
• Twenty percent of the students are not joining the field trip.
14. "A number normally takes the plural. " The number" takes the singular.
• A number of parents are coming for the meeting.
• The number of signatories is substantial to ment approval of the motion.
15. When we use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, we usually use a
plural verb. We use a singular verb with 'one'
• Seven days make up a week.
• One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty.
16. When we are talking about an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or weight, we
usually use a number, a plural noun, and a singular verb,
•Five hundred dollars is a lot of money.
•Three years is a long time to wait for a family member from abroad to come home.
• Eighty kilometers per hour of travel is quite risky on slippery roads.
17. Arithmetic operations take the singular because they are perceived as reflecting a single
numerical entity on both sides of the equation or equal sign.
•Two plus two is/equals four.
18. The quantifiers "a lot (of)", "lots of", and "plenty of take a singular verb If the subject noun is
noncount but plural verb if the subject head noun is plural.
•A lot of sound views were advanced during the discussion. (noun views-plural)
•A lot of nonsense is evident from uninterested participants. (nonsense-noncount)
19. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, none (meaning not one) is always
singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase
20. For correlatives "either.... or" and "neither... nor, traditional grammar argues for a proximity rule,
le subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject noun nearest to the verb.
• Either my friend or my classmates are expected to help me with my project.
• Neither my classmates nor my friend volunteers to lend support.
21. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection regardless of what else occurs
between the subject and the verb.
Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in the barangay.
22. When using who, that or which, you must look to the noun these relative pronouns are referring
to in order to determine whether the subject is singular and will have a verb ending in "s" or is
plural and have a verb without an "s."
• The girls who eat cake are happy.
• The girl who eats cake is happy

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

a tool which consists a set of symbols that can be used to differentiate all the phonetic sound segments
in a one symbol to one sound fashion
Phonetic Transcription

representation of spoken language through the use of phonetic symbols a system that was devised in
order to document real actualizations of speech events

Consonant Sound vs Vowel Sound

Difference between Consonants and Vowels

Consonants involve some constriction of airflow while Vowels do not

Describing Consonant

• Voicing

→ Voiceless Sounds - when air passes through open vocal folds

→Voiced Sounds - when air passes through vibrating vocal folds

• Place of Articulation

• Manner of Articulation

Place of Articulation

1. Bilabials

→ Formed with two (bi-) lips (labials).

Examples:

[p] - pop

[b] - Bob

[m] - mom

2. Labiodentals Formed with the bottom lip (labio-) and top

teeth (dentals)

Examples:

[f]-fish

3. Interdentals → Formed by putting the tongue between (inter-)

the teeth (dentals)

Examples:

[8]-thick

[8] - though
4. Alveolar → Formed by putting the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the gum line above the top
teeth

Examples:

[1]-Tom

[1]-run

[d]-dad

5. Palatals → Formed by touching the sides of the tongue to the

roof of the mouth

Examples:

[]]-ship

[3]- pleasure

6. Velars → Formed by putting the back part of the tongue against the soft palate

Examples:

[k] - curl

[g]-girl

[n]-song

Modulation - refers to the speaker's ability to adjust or manipulate the resonance and timbre of one's
voice. This also means the line-tuning of the pitch or tone of the voice that helps the audience clearly
hear and understand the lecture, presentation, and speech delivered by the speaker.

The following should be avoided to demonstrate a proper articulation:

1. Deletion → It is omitting word or part of word. In formal context deletion maybe perceived as careful
in articulation. Example, instead of "going", you say "goin".

2. Substitution → It is pronouncing a sound of word incorrectly by replacing it with another sound. For
example, Filipinos tend to interchange the [p] and [f].

3. Slurring → It involves an overlap of the ending sound of one word and the beginning sound of the
other.

Four Speech Acts

1. Breathing-in which you get air from storage chamber.

2. Phonation - the process by which you force air into vibration by the action of vocal folds.

3. Resonation - in which you mouth, nose and throat cavities amplify the sound so you can hear it.

4. Articulation - you modify the sound by movements of the speech articulators.

Articulation - refers to the clarity of sounds and words we produce. If someone is articulate, they speak
words clearly

How to Describe Vowels

HEIGHT BACKNESS ROUNDEDNESS

[u] High back rounded

[æ] Low front unrounded

[i] High front unrounded

Roundedness

• Roundedness refers to whether or not the lips are rounded

Backness

• Backness refers to how far front or back the tongue is

Height

• Height refers to how high or low the tongue is

Two Types of Vowels

Monophthongs Diphthongs

One vowel Two vowels

How to Describe Consonants

VOICING PLACE OF ARTICULATION MANNER OF ARTICULATION

[b] Voiced Bilabial Stop-Plosive

[s] Voiceless Alveolar Fricative

[f]

Manner of Articulation

Manner of Articulation is the "how" of making sounds.

1. Stop or Plosive - We build pressure of air and then release it. This is a sudden burst of air.

Examples of stops include: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

2. Fricative - We stop part of the air so it can't come through everywhere. It is a stream of air.

Sounds include: [f] [v] [s] [z] [J] [3] [0] [0]

3. Affricate - We combine stops and fricatives to form affricates. Examples include: [t]] and [d3].
Affricates start with a stop and then transitions into a fricative.
4. Nasal - We close our palate and let air stream through the nose.

Examples include: [m] [n] [n]

5. Liquid - We let air stream on the sides of our tongue. Examples

include: [4] [I]

Initial Sounds

1. [4]-red

2. [1]-light

6. Glide - We move our mouth constantly from a articulation to a vowel sound. Examples include: [w]
and [j]

Initial Sounds

1. [w]-win

2. [j]-yellow

WORD CHOICE

Word choice is the use of rich, colorful, precise language that communicates not just in a functional way,
but in a way that moves and enlightens the reader/audience.

GUIDES TO EFFECTIVE WORD CHOICE

1. Use Transitional Language

2. Use Emotive Language

3. Use Inclusive Vocabulary

4. Limit Overly Technical Terms

5. Enrich Your Vocabulary

2. Use Emotive Language

✓ Using words or statements that can touch one's feelings.

Some examples of these are:

• Adjectives - wonderful, heavenly, magical and tragic. • Abstract Nouns - freedom, pride, justice, love
and terror.
• Verbs - destroyed, vindicated, saved, betrayed and adored.

3. Use Inclusive Vocabulary

Folks

EXAMPLE:

• Server-Waiter and Waitress

• Parent, Guardian - Mom and Dad

• Police Officer - Policemen and Policewomen

4. Limit Overly Technical Terms

✓ Think about who your audience is and their level of understanding of the topic.

EXAMPLE:

• Jargons - Specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity.

Stage Presence

refers to the ability to own the stage. Such as filling the stage with one's personality and projecting it to
the audience or a group of listeners.

4 Spheres of Stage Presence:

1. FIRST SPHERE → Appearance and comfort is our first sphere. You must be dressed according to the
occasion.

2. SECOND SPHERE → Body posture and attitude is the second sphere.

3. THIRD SPHERE → The third sphere is the tone of speech.

4. FOURTH SPHERE → The fourth one is the use of stage space.

Facial Expression

are meaningful visible symbols of speech which reflects the speaker's thinking and emotional attitudes.

Principles for Facial Expression:

1. Manifest facial expression naturally by freeing yourself of inhibition.

2. Avoid planning or rehearsing facial expressions in advance

Gestures
are purposive movements of some parts of the body, but not the entire body. It includes movements of
hands, heads, shoulders, arms, and occasionally feet. Also, gestures include the products of inner
impulses and forces of thoughts of a speaker.

Classifications of Gestures

1. Descriptive gestures → Indicate the meaning literally or by suggestions.

2. Symbolic gestures → Are representative of figurative rather than lateral.

3. Locative gestures → Refer to pointing a place, position, or direction.

4. Emphatic gestures → Are used when words or ideas need to be stressed or reinforced.

5. Transitional gestures → Are used to move your audience from one idea to the next or to enumerate
things.

6. Dramatic/Imitative gestures → Convey impersonation of another person's action.

The Uses of Gestures:

1. To point location

2. To give emphasis to statements

3. To entreat/plead for something

4. To picture an object

5. To stimulate the imagination

Movements/Body Actions

are supplements to good speech with its being transformed into actual replacement for the audible
code.

The Uses of Movements:

1. Adjusting to the speaking situation

2. Securing and maintaining interest and attention

3. Clarifying meaning

4. Attaining emphasis in speech

Common Sins in Movements:

1. Statue/Stone → The speaker appears incapable of the movement.

2. Pacer → The speaker paces and walks from one side of the platform to the other and back.

3. Swayer → The speaker rhythmically moves his body from side to side or forward and backward
followed by the shifting of weight.
Rapport

refers to the connection the speaker built with the audience.

Principles for Maintaining Rapport:

1. The speaker must maintain eye contact to establish rapport with the audience accordingly. Without a
connection, the audience may easily lose focus and interest in the speech.

2. Through maintaining eye contact, the speaker would be able to determine the audience feedback and
adjust his speech delivery accordingly.

3. The facial expressions of the audience may also help the speaker modulate his voice or identify which
information should be emphasized.