Cell What Defines a Cell?

Cells are considered the basic units of life in part because

All living creatures are composed of cells, the basic unit
they come in discrete and easily recognizable packages. That's
of life. For survival, the cell performs various activities. It
because all cells are surrounded by a structure called the cell
grows, reproduces and matures. It is generally accepted that
membrane which, much like the walls of a house, serves as a
there are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
clear boundary between the cell's internal and external
Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and have a very distinct
environments. The cell membrane is sometimes also referred to
nucleus clearly surrounded by a nuclear envelope. They also
as the plasma membrane. Cell membranes are based on a
have numerous membrane-bound organelles found in the
framework of fat-based molecules called phospholipids, which
cytoplasm. Histones, proteins associated with genetic material,
physically prevent water loving, or hydrophilic, substances from
are also present. Prokaryotic cells lack a nuclear envelope and
entering or escaping the cell. These membranes are also studded
membrane-bound organelles; an example is the bacterial cell.
with proteins that serve various functions. Some of these
(E.V. Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista, 2013)
proteins act as gatekeepers, determining what substances can
Learning Objective and cannot cross the membrane. Others function as markers,

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: identifying the cell as part of the same organism or as foreign.
Still others work like fasteners, binding cells together so they
❖ - Explain structure and characteristics of human
can function as a unit. Yet other membrane proteins serve as
cell
communicators, sending and receiving signals from neighboring
❖ - Describe movements of particles across cell
cells and the environment whether friendly or alarming. Within
membrane
this membrane, a cell's interior environment is water based.
❖ - Discuss organelles of human cell & their
Called cytoplasm, this liquid environment is packed full of
function
cellular machinery and structural elements. In fact, the
concentrations of proteins inside a cell far outnumber those on Scientists to Remember
the outside whether the outside is ocean water (as in the case of
▪ Robert Hooke (1665) – Observed “cells” in cork
a single-celled alga) or blood serum (as in the case of a red blood
cell). Although cell membranes form natural barriers in watery
environments, a cell must nonetheless expend quite a bit of
energy to maintain the high concentrations of intracellular
constituents necessary for its survival. Indeed, cells may use as
much as 30 percent of their energy just to maintain the
composition of their cytoplasm.

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was

discovered by Robert Hooke and is the functional unit of all
known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is ▪ Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)- Father of Microscopy
classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block - Saw tiny living things in pond water.
of life. Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular
(consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are
multicellular. Humans have about 100 trillion cells. (E.V.
Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista, 2013)

Cork cell as observed by Robert Hooke the descriptive

term for the smallest living biological structure was coined by
Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665 when he compared
the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms
monks lived in.
 ▪ Matthias Schleiden (1838) – Plants are made of cells. -We use these.

▪ Theodor Schwann (1839) – Animals are made of cells.

▪ Rudolf Virchow (1855) – New cells come from existing

▪ Janet Plowe (1931) – Cell membrane is a physical
structure.

▪ Lynn Margulis (1970) – Organelles were once free-

living cells.

Cell Theory explains about:

a) All living organisms are composed of cell and cell products.

 Electron Microscope – magnifies up to a million times.
b) Cell is the basic unit of structure & function of all living
organisms. -Uses electrons

c) All cells come from the division of preexisting cell.

d) An organism as a whole can be understood through the

collective activities & interactions of its cells.

Microscopes

 Light Microscope – magnifies tiny organisms up to

1,000 times.

-Uses light and lenses.

Two Types of Cells 3. Have membrane bound Organelles (golgi, ER,
lysosomes…etc)
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are those
cells which have nuclear material without nuclear membrane. 4. DNA – double-stranded and forms chromosomes (highly
For ex- bacteria and blue green algae. The cell having well- organized)
organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane are called
5. Can be uni- OR multicellular organisms
eukaryotic cells. For ex- onion cells and cheek cells.
6. Ex: animals, plants, fungi
Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes

1. NO nucleus
1. Has a nucleus with a nuclear envelope
2. NO membrane bound organelles (just ribosomes)
2. Bigger and more complex than prokaryotes
3. ALL are unicellular
 4. Smaller than eukaryotic cells

5. Forerunner to eukaryotic cells (smaller and simpler)

6. DNA – single strand and circular

7. Ex: ALL Bacteria

Similarities

1. Contain all four biomolecules (lipids, carbs, proteins,

and nucleic acids)
Four Principal Parts:
1. Have ribosomes
▪ Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Have DNA ▪ Cytoplasm
▪ Organelles
3. Similar Metabolism
▪ Inclusions
4. Can be unicellular
Plasma (Cell) Membrane
5. Have cell/plasma membranes or cell wall
- It is the outer lining, limiting membrane separating
Eukaryote VS. Prokaryote Picture the cell internal parts from extra cellular materials &
external environment.
- A thin outer membrane, which maintains the
integrity of the cell. It keeps the cell and its contents
separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a
double layered measuring about 4.5 nm and made of
 phospholipids, cholesterol, glyco-lipid, &
carbohydrate (oligosaccharides). The bi-layer is self-
sealing. If a needle is injected and pulled out, it
automatically seals. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige,
2003)

Functions:

1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular

fluid.

2. Separate cell from one another

3. Provide an abundant surface on which chemical

Passive Movement
reaction can occur.
Includes:
4. Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells.
It also let some things in and keeps others out. The a. Simple diffusion, the random movements of

quality selective permeability. molecules from area of high concentration to the area of
low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung. (Nega
Movement Across-Cell Membrane
Assefa & Yosief Tsige, 2003)
Two ways:
b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not
▪ Passive movement uses energy soluble in lipid need protein channel to pass through the
▪ Active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP. plasma membrane. No direct energy needed. Example: -
Amino acid passes through the cell membrane.
 d. Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively
c. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the
permeable membrane in response to force of pressure.
passage of water through a selectively permeable
Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine
membrane from an area of high water concentration to
formation.
lower water concentration.
Active Movements across Membranes

Substances move through a selectively permeable

membrane from areas of low concentration on side of a
membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side.
This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires
energy. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige, 2003)
a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances could b) Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma membrane. It
more by passive movement. But if equilibrium includes: Pinocytosis – cell drinking Receptor –
reached and still more molecules are needed, they mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of
must be pumped through the membrane against receptor. Phagocytosis- cell eating.
concentration gradient. This process requires the use
of ATP. One example of such processes is Sodium –
potassium pump and calcium pump. In this process
all follows similar process. These are molecules bind
to carrier protein, molecule- carrier complex pass
through the membrane, assisted by an enzyme &
ATP and carrier protein returns to its original shape
& repeat the process.

c) Exocytosis, opposite to Endocytosis, to remove out

undigested particles.
 that remain suspended in the surrounding medium. (Nega Assefa
& Yosief Tsige, 2003)

Organelles

Organelles are specialized portion of the cell with a

characteristic shape that assume specific role in growth,
maintenance, repair and control. (Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige,
2003)

Types of organelles

▪ Nucleus, Oval in shape and is the largest

structure in the cell. Contain the hereditary factor
Cytoplasm
in the cell. Hence it controls cell activity &
Cytoplasm is a matrix or ground substance in which structure. Most cell contain single nucleus but
various cellular components are found. It is thick some like matured Red Blood cell do not contain.
semitransparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and However, Muscle cell contain several nucleuses.
a series of minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton. The nucleus separated from other cell structure
Water constitutes 75-90% of the cytoplasm. It also contains solid by double membrane called nuclear membrane.
components, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the
substances. The inorganic components exist as solutions nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm. In
because they are soluble in water. The majority of organic the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the nucleus
substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are particles is karyolymph (nucleoplasm), which contain the
genetic material called chromosome. Nucleus
 also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-
membrane bound mass called nucleolus. It
contains DNA, RNA and protein, which assist in
the construction of ribosome.
▪ Ribosome, tiny granules, composed of
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They are site of protein
synthesis.
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane
channel. It is continuous with the nuclear
membrane. It involved in intracellular exchange
of material with the cytoplasm. Various products
are transported from one portion of the cell to
another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So, it is
considered as intracellular transportation. It is
also storage for synthesized molecules. Together
with the Golgi complex it serves as synthesis &
packaging center. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is
divided in to two. These are, granular E.R.
Containing granule and involving in synthesis of
protein and a granular E.R. that synthesize lipid
& involves in detoxification.
▪ Golgi complex, near to the nucleus. It consists
4-8 membranous sacs. It processes, sort, pack &
deliver protein to various parts of the cell.
▪ Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or
filamentous structure. It generates energy. Each
mitochondrion possesses two membrane, one is
smooth (upper) membrane and the other is
arranged with series of folds called cristae. The
central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the
inner membrane is the matrix.
▪ Lysosomes appear as membrane enclosed
spheres. They are formed from Golgi complexes
& have single membrane. They contain powerful
digestive (hydrolytic Human Anatomy and
Physiology 24 enzyme capable of breaking down
many kinds of molecules. The lysosomal enzyme
believed to be synthesized in the granular
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.
▪ The cyto-skeleton, the cytoplasm has a complex
internal structure consisting of a series of
exceedingly small microfilaments, microtubule
 & intermediate filaments together referred to as
the cyto-skeleton.
▪ Centrosome, a dense area of cytoplasm
generally spherical and located near the nucleus
it contain centrioles. It also contains DNA that
controls their replication. Centrosomes are made
of microtubules, which seam drinking straws.
They are Involved in the movement of
chromosome during cell division.
▪ Cilia/flagella, thread like appendages, which are
made of microtubules. When they are beating
forms rhythmic movement. They are found in
female reproductive organ and upper respiratory
tube.
▪ Peroxisomes, Microbodies are a diverse group of
organelles that are found in the cytoplasm,
roughly spherical and bound by a single
membrane. There are several types of
microbodies but peroxisomes are the most
common.
The Cell Cycle
Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series
of stages known collectively as the cell cycle: two gap phases
(G1 and G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic
material is duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis
partitions the genetic material and the cell divides. (Creative
Commons Licence)
Stages:
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a
certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to
division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic
materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell
division (cytokinesis). The period between mitotic divisions -
that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces two daughter cells with the same genetic component
as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase
are divided in such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell
receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively dividing
animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic
apparatus' that aligns them and then separates the sister
chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic
material. This separation of the genetic material in a mitotic
nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a separation of
the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to
produce two daughter cells.

In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis

of asexual reproduction. In diploid multicellular organisms
sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes
to produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and
daughter cells are then responsible for the subsequent growth
and development of the organism. In the adult organism, mitosis
plays a role in cell replacement, wound healing and tumour
formation.

Mitosis, although a continuous process, is

conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. (Creative
➢ Prophase Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The
Commons Licence)
nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of
small vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates. A
structure known as the centrosome duplicates itself to
form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite
ends of the cell. The centrosomes organise the
production of microtubules that form the spindle fibres
 that constitute the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes
condense into compact structures. Each replicated
chromosome can now be seen to consist of two identical
chromatids (or sister chromatids) held together by a
structure known as the centromere.
➢ Prometaphase The chromosomes, led by their
centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the
midline of cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the
centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is known
as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a
structure associated with the centromere of each
chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle
fibres bind to a kinetochore structure on each side of the
centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.
➢ Metaphase The chromosomes align themselves along
the metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.
➢ Anaphase The shortest stage of mitosis. The
centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each
chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to
the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibres
attached to the kinetochore regions. The separated sister
chromatids are now referred to as daughter
chromosomes. (It is the alignment and separation in
metaphase and anaphase that is important in ensuring
that each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome.)
➢ Telophase The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of
many of the processes observed during prophase. The
nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes
grouped at either pole of the cell, the chromosomes
uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres
disappear.
➢ Cytokinesis The final cellular division to form two new
cells. In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the
cytoplasm. The cell then enters interphase - the interval
between mitotic divisions.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which contain a
single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which
contain two copies of each chromosome). The process takes
the form of one DNA replication followed by two successive
nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As
 in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA
replication that converts each chromosome into two sister
chromatids. (Creative Commons Licence)

Meiosis I

Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous

chromosomes.
In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the cell from diploid
to haploid.
Prophase I The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange
DNA to form recombinant chromosomes.
Prophase I is divided into five phases:
Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become
associated (synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous
chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but
remain attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate,
and chiasmata move to the ends of the chromosomes.
Prometaphase I Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes
attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores.
Metaphase I Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
arranged as a double row along the metaphase plate. The
arrangement of the paired chromosomes with respect to the
poles of the spindle apparatus is random along the metaphase
plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through random
assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes in a
homologous pair are similar but not identical. The number of
possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the number of
chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different
chromosomes, so the number of possible combinations is 223,
closely
which is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are
separated and move to the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear
membrane reforms.
Cytokinesis The final cellular division to form two new cells,
followed by Meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reduction division: the
original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the
newly formed haploid cells have one copy of each chromosome.
Meiosis II
Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids
 ▪ the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes during Meiosis I
▪ the random alignment of maternal and paternal
chromosomes in Meiosis I
▪ the random alignment of the sister chromatids at
Meiosis II

Note: Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:

Review Questions a. DNA

Multiple choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds to the b. MRNA

correct answer.
c. ATP
1) The random movement of molecules from an area of high
d. rRNA
concentration to an area of lower concentration is called: -
e. tRNA
a. Diffusion
4) The nucleolus
b. exocytosis
a. Is the site of ribosomal RNA synthesis
c. Facilitated diffusion
b. Has a surrounding structure
d. Active transport
c. Contains ATP used in chromosome replication
e. Endocytosis
d. It is smaller in secretary cell than in non-secretary.
2) The most important structural elements of the cytoskeleton
e. Specifies the chemical structure of enzymes.
are: -
5) The Centrosome contains
a. Microfilaments
a. Endoplasmic reticulum
b. Vacuoles
b. Cilia
c. Ribosome d. Asters
c. Centrioles d. Flagella
e. Microtubules
e. Vacuole
3) Mitochondria functions in the synthesis of
6) The movement of molecules from a region of greater 9) cell engulfing is an example of
concentration to lower concentration is called
a. endocytosis
a. osmosis
b. exocytosis
b. diffusion
c. pinocytosis
c. imbibition
d. autolysis
d. guttation
10) a solution of higher solute concentration than that of the cell
7) The substance that is dissolved in a solution is called is called

a. solute a. isotonic

b. solvent b. hypotonic

c. mixture c. hypertonic

d. suspension d. none of the above

8) The part of the cell that regulates the flow of substances from 11) The number of times a cell divides during mitosis
the outside to the inside and vice versa is called
a. once
a. cell wall
b. twice
b. microvilli
c. thrice
c. pseudopodium
d. four times
d. plasma membrane
12) the diploid number of human chromosomes is
a. 43 a. asters

b. 44 b. centriole

c. 45 c. kinetochore

d. 46 d. chromatid

13) the longest stage of the cell cycle 16) how many cells are produced after mitosis?

a. mitosis a. one

b. interphase b. two

c. prophase c. three

d. telophase d. four

14) the stage of mitosis when chromosomes are aligned at the 17) in what stage of mitosis do sister chromatids separate from
equatorial plate each other?

a. prophase a. prophase

b. metaphase b. metaphase

c. anaphase c. anaphase

d. telophase d. telophase

15) the part of the chromosome that is attached to the spindle 18) which of the following disintegrate during prophase stage?
fiber
a. nucleus and lysosomes
b. lysosomes and ER

c. Golgi body and mitochondria

d. nucleolus and cell membrane

19) how many chromosomes per cell will a cell with a diploid
chromosome number of 30 have after undergoing mitosis?

a. 15

b. 20

c. 25

d. 30

20) the stage of interphase where the chromosomes are

replicated

a. G1

b. G2

c. S

d. telophase
References:

Campbell, N. and Reese, J. 2007. Essentials of Biology 7th ed.

Pearson Education.

E.V. Evangelista, L. T. Evangelista & L. V. Evangelista. (2013).

Worktext in General Zoology (Frog and Human Bodies
Compared). C&E Publishing Inc.

Hickman, C. et. al. 2006. Integrated Principles of Zoology 13 th

ed. McGraw – Hill.

Nega Assefa & Yosief Tsige.2003. Human Anatomy and

Physiology.

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