Algebraic and Geometric Multiplicity

Let A be an n × n square matrix. We learned how to compute the

eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A:
1. Compute the characteristic polynomial, det(A − tId), and find
its roots. These are the eigenvalues.
2. For each eigenvalue λ, compute Ker(A − λId). This is the
λ-eigenspace, the vectors in the λ-eigenspace are the
λ-eigenvectors.
Let A be an n × n square matrix. We learned how to compute the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A:
1. Compute the characteristic polynomial, det(A − tId), and find
its roots. These are the eigenvalues.
2. For each eigenvalue λ, compute Ker(A − λId). This is the
λ-eigenspace, the vectors in the λ-eigenspace are the
λ-eigenvectors.
We learned that it is particularly nice when A has an eigenbasis,
because then we can diagonalize A. An eigenbasis is a basis of
eigenvectors.
Let’s see what can happen when we carry out this algorithm.
The simplest case: The characteristic polynomial has n distinct roots

 
4 1
A=  
−2 1

 
4−t 1
det(A − tId) = det  =
−2 1−t
(4 − t)(1 − t) − (−2) = (t2 − 5t + 4) + 2 = t2 − 5t + 6 = (t − 2)(t − 3).
 4−21
  2 1

2-eigenspace: Ker (A − 2Id) = Ker −2 1−2 = Ker −2 −1 The
 1 

kernel is Span −2 .
 4−31
  1 1

3-eigenspace: Ker (A − 3Id) = Ker −2 1−3 = Ker −2 −2 The
 1 

kernel is Span −1 .
The simplest case: The characteristic polynomial has n distinct roots

 
4 1  1
  1

A=   λ1 = 2, ~v1 = −2 λ2 = 3, ~v2 = −1 .
−2 1

The vectors ~v1 and ~v2 form a basis. There are n of them, and λ1
and λ2 are distinct.
 The characteristic polynomial may not have roots

 
0 1
A=  
−2 0
 
−t 1
det(A − tId) = det   = t2 − (−2) = t2 + 2.
−2 −t

No eigenvalues!
Or, at least, not real ones. We’ll talk about complex numbers in
the next lecture.
 The characteristic polynomial can have repeated roots
Here are two examples:
   
3 0 3−t 0
A=   det(A. − tId) = det   = (3 − t)2 .
0 3 0 3−t
   
3 1 3−t 1
B=   det(B. − tId) = det   = (3 − t)2 .
0 3 0 3−t
 
0 0
Ker(A − 3Id) = Ker   = R2 .
0 0
   
0 1 1
Ker(B − 3Id) = Ker   = Span  .
0 0 0
    
3 0 3 1
A=   B=  .
0 3 0 3

A and B have the same characteristic polynomial: (3 − t)2 . But A

has an eigenbasis – any basis for R2 is an eigenbasis – and B
doesn’t.
We introduce two vocabulary words to describe what we have seen.
Let A be a square matrix and λ a scalar.
• The geometric multiplicity of λ is the dimension of the
λ-eigenspace. In other words, dim Ker (A − λId).
• The algebraic multiplicity of λ is the number of times (λ − t)
occurs as a factor of det(A − tId).
We introduce two vocabulary words to describe what we have seen.
Let A be a square matrix and λ a scalar.
• The geometric multiplicity of λ is the dimension of the
λ-eigenspace. In other words, dim Ker (A − λId).
• The algebraic multiplicity of λ is the number of times (λ − t)
occurs as a factor of det(A − tId).
For example, take B = [ 30 13 ]. Then Ker(B − 3Id) = Ker [ 00 10 ] is one
dimensional, so the geometric multiplicity is 1.
 3−t 1 
But det(B − tId) = det 0 3−t = (3 − t)2 , so the algebraic
multiplicity is 2.
By contrast, for the matrix A = [ 30 03 ], both the algebraic and
geometric multiplicity are 2.
Let A be an n × n square matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk .
Let ai be the algebraic multiplicity of λi . Let Vi be the
λi -eigenspace and let gi = dim Vi , the geometric multiplicity of λi .
P
Theorem 1: We have gi = n if and only if A has an eigenbasis.
So Theorem 1 gives us an answer to when we have an eigenbasis.
But it requires computing eigenspaces. What can we see from just
the characteristic polynomial?
Let A be an n × n square matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk .
Let ai be the algebraic multiplicity of λi . Let Vi be the
λi -eigenspace and let gi = dim Vi , the geometric multiplicity of λi .
P
Theorem 1: We have gi = n if and only if A has an eigenbasis.
So Theorem 1 gives us an answer to when we have an eigenbasis.
But it requires computing eigenspaces. What can we see from just
the characteristic polynomial?
Theorem 2: We have gi ≤ ai .
P P
So gi ≤ ai . But we can’t compute gi from ai : The matrices
[ 30 03 ] and [ 30 13 ] both have algebraic multiplicity 2, but one has
geometric multiplicity 2 and the other has geometric multiplicity 1.
Let A be an n × n square matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk .
Let ai be the algebraic multiplicity of λi . Let Vi be the
λi -eigenspace and let gi = dim Vi , the geometric multiplicity of λi .
P
Theorem 1: We have gi = n if and only if A has an eigenbasis.
So Theorem 1 gives us an answer to when we have an eigenbasis.
But it requires computing eigenspaces. What can we see from just
the characteristic polynomial?
Theorem 2: We have gi ≤ ai .
P P
So gi ≤ ai . But we can’t compute gi from ai : The matrices
[ 30 03 ] and [ 30 13 ] both have algebraic multiplicity 2, but one has
geometric multiplicity 2 and the other has geometric multiplicity 1.
P P
Theorem 3: We have ai ≤ n, and ai = n if and only if
det(A − tId) factors completely into linear terms.
Let A be an n × n square matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk .
Let ai be the algebraic multiplicity of λi . Let Vi be the
λi -eigenspace and let gi = dim Vi , the geometric multiplicity of λi .
P
Theorem 1: We have gi = n if and only if A has an eigenbasis.
So Theorem 1 gives us an answer to when we have an eigenbasis.
But it requires computing eigenspaces. What can we see from just
the characteristic polynomial?
Theorem 2: We have gi ≤ ai .
P P
So gi ≤ ai . But we can’t compute gi from ai : The matrices
[ 30 03 ] and [ 30 13 ] both have algebraic multiplicity 2, but one has
geometric multiplicity 2 and the other has geometric multiplicity 1.
P P
Theorem 3: We have ai ≤ n, and ai = n if and only if
det(A − tId) factors completely into linear terms.
So we have an eigenbasis if and only if gi = ai and det(A − tId)
factors completely into linear terms.
Let A be an n × n square matrix with eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk .
Let ai be the algebraic multiplicity of λi . Let Vi be the
λi -eigenspace and let gi = dim Vi , the geometric multiplicity of λi .
P
Theorem 1: We have gi = n if and only if A has an eigenbasis.
Theorem 2: We have gi ≤ ai .
P P
Theorem 3: We have ai ≤ n, and ai = n if and only if
det(A − tId) factors completely into linear terms.

. . . to be continued.